Structure and general
characteristics of virus
Viruses are acellular infectious entitites which can replicate in a cellular
organization.
There are diverse of viral types infecting all the life forms that is plants,
animals, microbes that is bacteria, and fungi.
They are composed of nucleid acid (either DNA or RNA) held within a
protien coat called capsid.
Virions range in size from about 10 to 400 nm in diameter
The smallest viruses are a little larger than ribosomes
Largest viruses ((poxviruses -e.g., Variola virus) are about the size of the
smallest bacteria. poxviruses
Morphology
There are various morphological types – distinguished by
capsid symmetry and presence or absence of an
envelope, which is a lipid layer external to the
nucleocapsid
There are three types of capsid symmetry: helical,
icosahedral, and complex.
Virions having an envelope are called enveloped viruses ,
whereas those lacking an envelope are called naked
viruses
Capsids are large macro molecular structures and most of them
are formed by the self assembly of a single type of protein molecule.
Such repeating protein molecules are called protomers. For example
Tobacco Mosaic virus capsid coat is made of a single protomer
Some viruses use noncapsid proteins as scaffolds, upon which the
capsids are assembled
Helical Capsids
Helical capsids are shaped like hollow tubes
Self-assembly of protomers in a helical or spiral arrangement
Produces a long, rigid tube.
They are usually, 15 to 18 nm in diameter by 300 nm long.
Example: Tobacco mosaic virus (genome is RNA)
2. Influenza virus (genome is RNA)
Electron micrograph of the negatively
stained helical capsid (×400,000)
Icosahedral Capsids
The icosahedron is a regular polyhedron with 20 equilateral triangular
faces and 12 vertices.
The icosahedral capsid is the most efficient way to enclose a space.
few genes, sometimes only one, can code for proteins that self-
assemble to form the capsid.
Icosahedral capsids are constructed from ring- or knobshaped units
called capsomers , each usually made of fi ve or six Protomers
A regular icosahedron is constructed of 42 capsomers.
Largest Icosahedron is constructed of 252 capsomers e.g.,
adenoviruses
Depiction of a Icosahedral Capsids
Capsids of Complex Symmetry
some viruses do not fit into either helical, or icosahedron symmetry
Example : Pox viruses and bacteriophages.
Pox viruses: Example - Vaccinia virus
They possess an exceptionally complex internal structure with an
ovoid- to brick-shaped exterior.
Its has a double stranded DNA genome, which is associated with
proteins and contained in the nucleoid, a central structure , shaped
like a biconcave disk and surrounded by a membrane. Two lateral
bodies lie between the nucleoid and the virus’s outer envelope.
Poxviruses are the largest of the animal viruses (about 400 by 240 by
200 nm in size)
vaccinia virion
nucleoid (×200,000).
Capsids of Complex Symmetry : binal symmetry
binal symmetry because they have a head that resembles an
icosahedron and a tail that is helical.
Example Bacteriophages: T2, T4, and T6 phages
The icosahedral head is elongated by one or two rows of hexamers in
the middle and contains the DNA genome
The tail is composed of a collar joining it to the head,
a central hollow tube, a sheath surrounding the tube, and a complex
baseplate.
The sheath is made of 144 copies of a single protein (gp18) arranged in
24 rings, each containing six copies.
In T-even phages, the baseplate is hexagonal and has a pin and
a jointed tail fiber at each corner.
Viral Envelopes
Many animal viruses, some plant viruses, and at least one bacterial
virus are bounded by an outer membranous layer called an
Envelope
Animal virus envelopes usually arise from host cell plasma or
nuclear membranes.
Envelope lipids and carbohydrates are acquired from the host.
In contrast, envelope proteins are coded for by viral genes and may
even project from the envelope surface as spikes , which are also
called Peplomers
In many cases, these spikes are involved in virus attachment to the
host cell surface.
Because they differ among viruses, they also can be used to
identify some viruses.
Adenovirus, 252 capsomers
Computer-simulated
(×171,000).
model of adenovirus.
the envelopes of viruses such as the bullet-
shaped Rabies virus are firmly attached to the
underlying nucleocapsid and endow the virion
with a constant, characteristic shape
Influenza virus is a well-studied example of an enveloped virus.
Spikes project about 10 nm from the surface at 7 to 8 nm intervals.
Some spikes consist of the enzyme neuraminidase, which functions
in the release of mature virions from the host cell.
Other spikes are hemagglutinin proteins, so named because they
bind virions to red blood cells and cause the cells to clump
together—a process called hemagglutination.
Hemagglutinins participate in virion attachment to host cells.
Most of the infl uenza virus’s envelope proteins are glycoproteins—
proteins that have carbohydrate attached to them.
INFLUENZA VIRUS
HERPES VIRUS
Enzymes
In some instances, enzymes are associated with the
envelope or capsid (e.g., influenza neuraminidase).
Enzymes within the capsid are usually involved in nucleic
acid replication.
For example, the influenza virus has an RNA genome and
carries an enzyme that synthesizes RNA using an RNA
template.
Viral genome
Four possible types: single-stranded (ss) DNA, double-stranded (ds)
DNA, ssRNA,
and dsRNA. All four types are found in animal viruses. Most plant
viruses have ssRNA genomes, and most bacterial viruses contain
dsDNA
Genome size of viruses varies greatly
Very small genomes (e.g., those of the MS2 and Qβ viruses) are around
4,000 nucleotides.
These genomes are just large enough to code for three or four proteins.
MS2, Qβ, and some other viruses even save space by using overlapping
genes.
At the other extreme, T-even bacteriophages, herpesviruses, and Vaccinia virus
have
genomes of 1.0 to 2.0 × 10 ^5 nucleotides and may be able to direct the
synthesis of over 100 proteins.
RNA viruses can be either dsRNA or ssRNA.
dsRNA viruses are known to infect animals, plants, fungi, and at least
one bacterial species (e.g., ϕ6 and rotaviruses)
More common are viruses with ssRNA genomes.
Some ssRNA genomes have a base sequence that is identical to that of viral mRNA, in
which case the genomic RNA is called plus-strand or positive-strand
RNA. Polio, tobacco mosaic, SARS, and brome
mosaic viruses are all positive-strand RNA viruses.
The genomes of plus-strand RNA viruses can direct protein synthesis immediately
after entering the cell.
Some plus-strand viruses of eucaryotes have characteristic structures at each end of
their RNA genomes that trick the host into behaving as if the virus’s genome is the
host’s own mRNA.
Viral RNA genomes that are complementary rather than identical to viral mRNA are
called minus- or negative strand RNA . Rabies, mumps, measles, and infl uenza viruses
are examples of negative-strand RNA viruses.
Many RNA viruses have segmented genomes —genomes
that consist of more than one piece (segment) of RNA.
In many cases, each segment codes for one protein and there may be as
many as 10 to 12 segments.
Usually all segments are enclosed in the same capsid; however, this is not always
the case. For example, the genome of Brome mosaic virus, a virus that infects
certain grass species, is composed of three segments distributed among
three different virus particles.
Despite this complex and seemingly ineffi cient arrangement, the different brome
mosaic virions successfully manage to infect the same host.
Finally, retroviruses , such as h uman immunodefi ciency
v irus (HIV), differ from other ssRNA viruses in that their plusstrand
RNA genomes are converted to DNA rather than serving
as mRNA.
The result is the synthesis of a dsDNA copy of the ssRNA genome.
This DNA, called a provirus , is integrated into the host genome.
Viral Replication
1. step one : attachment of the virus (often called adsorption)
to a host
2. step two : entry of either the nucleocapsid (whole virus) or
the viral nucleic acid into the host cell
3. Step three : the synthesis stage
genes encoded by the viral genome are expressed. That is, the
viral genes are transcribed and translated.
4. Step four: virus to take control of the host cell’s biosynthetic
machinery so that the viral genome can be replicated and viral
proteins synthesized.
5. Step five: assembly stage,
new nucleocapsids are constructed by self assembly of coat
proteins with the nucleic acids.
6. Step six: release step, mature viruses escape the host.
Viral attachment to the host
occur through a random collision of the virion with a potential
host.
adsorption to the host is mediated by an interaction between
receptors on the surface of the host cell and molecules
(ligands) on the surface of the virion
some bacteriophages use cell wall lipopolysaccharides and
proteins as receptors, while others use teichoic acids, fl agella,
or pili
Receptor specificity also accounts for the observation that
viruses of eucaryotes infect specific organisms and in some
cases, only particular tissues
HIV uses CD4 and CXCR-4 (fusin) or the CCR5 (CC-CKR-5) receptor. Both of these
host molecules normally bind chemokines—signaling molecules produced by
the immune system
Eucaryotic cell membranes have microdomains called lipid rafts that seem to be
involved in both virion entrance and assembly
receptors for enveloped viruses such as HIV and Ebola are concentrated
in lipid rafts
Poliovirus receptors are found only in the human nasopharynx, gut, and anterior
horn cells of the spinal cord
Poliovirus infects these tissues, causing gastrointestinal disease in its milder
forms and paralytic disease in its more serious Forms.
In contrast, Measles virus receptors are present in most tissues and disease is
disseminated throughout the body, resulting in the widespread rash
characteristic of measles
Viral entry
Many bacteriophages inject their nucleic acid into the cytoplasm of
their host, leaving the capsid outside and attached to the cell wall
Entry by endocytosis—Naked viruses and some enveloped viruses
enter cells by endocytosis
the viral envelope fuses with the endosomal membrane, and the
nucleocapsid is released into the cytoplasm
Naked eucaryotic viruses : endosome vesicle acidification causes a
conformational change in the capsid. The altered capsid contacts
the vesicle membrane and either releases the viral nucleic acid into
the cytoplasm through a membrane pore (picornaviruses) or
ruptures the membrane to release the virion (adenovirus).
Synthesis Stage
genome of each virus dictates the events that occur.
For dsDNA viruses, the events are very similar to the typical flow of information
in cells.
depend solely on their host cells’ biosynthetic machinery to replicate their
genomes and synthesize their proteins
negative strand RNA viruses, retroviruses, and dsRNA viruses carry in their
nucleocapsids the enzymes needed to complete the synthesis stage.
Positive-strand viruses encode the enzymes they need for their replication
synthesis of viral proteins is tightly regulated.
Some proteins, often called early proteins, are synthesized early in the infection,
whereas other proteins are synthesized later.
Early proteins are most often involved in taking over the host cell.
Late proteins usually include capsid proteins and other proteins involved in self-
assembly and release.
Viral assembly
Several kinds of late proteins are involved in the
assembly
While bacteriophages are assembled in the host
cytoplasm, the site of morphogenesis varies with plant
and animal viruses. Large paracrystalline clusters of
either complete virions or procapsids are often seen at
the site of virus maturation .
Some plant and animal viruses are assembled in the
nucleus; others such as poxviruses are assembled in
the cytoplasm.
Virion Release
Many viruses, especially naked viruses, lyse their host cells at the end of the
intracellular phase
lysis of E. coli by T4 requires two specifi c proteins. One is lysozyme, an enzyme that
attacks peptidoglycan in the host’s cell wall.
Another T4 protein creates holes in the E. coli plasma membrane, enabling T4
lysozyme to move from the cytoplasm to the peptidoglycan.
Another common release mechanism is budding.
This is frequently observed in enveloped viruses—in fact, envelope formation and
virus release are usually concurrent processes.
All envelopes of eucaryotic viruses are derived from host cell membranes.
Budding mechanism ismultistep process-First, virus-encoded proteins are incorporated
into the membrane. Then this part of the membrane is blebed out enclosing the
nucleocapsid. The belebed out portion is finally released from the cell .
In several virus families, a matrix (M) protein attaches to the plasma membrane and
aids in budding.
Most envelopes arise from the plasma membrane. However, in herpesviruses, budding
and envelope formation usually involve the nuclear membrane. The endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and other internal membranes also can be used to form
envelopes.
Interestingly, it has been discovered that actin filaments can aid in the release of many
eucaryotic viruses. These viruses alter the actin microfi laments of the host cell
cytoskeleton.
For example, Vaccinia virus appears to form long actin tails and use them to move
intracellularly at speeds up to 2.8 μm per minute.
The actin filaments also propel vaccinia through the plasma membrane.
In this way, the virion escapes without destroying the host cell and infects adjacent
cells. This is similar to the mechanism of pathogenesis used by some intracellular
pathogenic bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes
virulent phage —one that has only one reproductive option: to
begin multiplying
immediately upon entering its host, followed by release from
the host by lysis.
temperate phages
that have two reproductive options: upon entry into the host,
they can reproduce like the virulent phages and lyse the host
cell, or they can remain within the host without destroying it
by integrating their genome into the host cell’s chromosome
The relationship between a temperate phage and its host is
called lysogeny . The form of the virus that remains within its
host is called a prophage , and the infected bacteria are called
lysogens or lysogenic bacteria .
Temperate phage reproduction
Viral Release by budding
Currently seven human cancers are known to be of viral origin.
Two herpesviruses, Human herpesvirus 8 and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), are linked to
cancer.
Human herpesvirus 8 is associated with the development of Kaposi’s sarcoma, which
has a high incidence in AIDS patients.
- EBV is the cause of two cancers. Burkitt’s lymphoma is a malignant tumor of the jaw
and abdomen found in children of central and western Africa. EBV also causes
nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Two viruses that cause hepatitis are associated with human cancers.
- Hepatitis B virus is linked with one form of liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma).
-Hepatitis C virus causes cirrhosis of the liver, which can lead to liver cancer.
- Some strains of human papillomaviruses (HPV) cause cervical cancer.
- The retrovirus human T-cell lymphotropic virus I (HTLV-1) is associated with adult T-
cell leukemia.
END
Virion: A single infective particle of virus is called as virion. It consists of nucleic
acid core surrounded by a protein coat or capsid.
Nucleocapsid: The capsid with enclosed nucleic acid is called nucleocapsid.
