DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A CORN AND RICE

THRESHER FOR SMALL-SCALE FARMING

A Research Proposal Presented to the

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mindanao State University

General Santos City

In Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for

MEC 198: Methods of Research for ME

By:

Rei Philippe A. Lloren

Emilio Bermudez IV

Mikko Lowell Lad Jr.

Prof. Irene Lara Abad

Adviser
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 1 - THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE...................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................2
1.2 Statement of the Problem.........................................................................................4
1.3 Objectives................................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Scopes and Limitations............................................................................................ 6
1.5 Significance of the Study......................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE............................................. 8
2.1 Corn..........................................................................................................................8
2.2 Rice.......................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Manual Threshing in Small-Scale Farming............................................................. 9
2.4 Existing Corn and Rice Threshing Technologies...................................................10
2.5 Design Features of Multi-Crop Threshers............................................................. 13
2.6 Drum and Concave Mechanisms for Crop Types.................................................. 16
2.7 Multi-Crop Threshers: Case Studies and Applications..........................................18
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND............................................................. 19
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Threshing Principles............................................................................................ 19
3.3 Mechanical Design Considerations......................................................................19
3.4 Threshing Drum Design and Calculation............................................................. 21
3.5 Material Selection................................................................................................ 22
3.6 Ergonomic and Safety Considerations.................................................................22
3.7 Operational Configuration and Figure..................................................................23
3.8 Figure and Diagram............................................................................................. 23
3.9 Summary..............................................................................................................24
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY......................................................................................25
4.1 Flow of the Study................................................................................................. 25
4.2.1 Main Components.............................................................................................26
4.2.2 Interchangeable Blade Mechanism...................................................................27
4.3 Fabrication and Assembly....................................................................................27
4.4 Testing Procedure................................................................................................ 28
4.5 Experimental Design............................................................................................28
4.5.1 Objectives of the Experiment............................................................................ 29
4.5.2 Sample Preparation.......................................................................................... 29
4.5.3 Test Procedure..................................................................................................30
4.5.4 Variables and Data Collected............................................................................30
4.5.5 Formulas Used..................................................................................................31
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................ 32

ii
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CHAPTER 1 - THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

1.1 Introduction

​ Agriculture remains a cornerstone of economies, particularly in rural areas where

small-scale farming is the primary livelihood. Among the crucial tasks in crop

production, threshing—the process of separating edible grain from stalks—remains one

of the most labor-intensive and time-consuming activities for smallholder farmers. While

mechanized threshers have been developed for large-scale operations, they are often

expensive, crop-specific, and unsuitable for small-scale farmers. The lack of affordable

and versatile threshing equipment has led many smallholder farmers to continue relying

on manual methods, which significantly reduce productivity and increase grain losses.

This study aims to address these challenges by designing and fabricating a multi-crop

thresher specifically for corn and rice, offering a cost-effective solution that enhances

efficiency, reduces labor, and empowers farmers to improve their livelihoods while

contributing to the overall sustainability of small-scale farming.

​ The corn and rice thresher for small-scale farming is designed to address the

pressing need for affordable, efficient, and versatile threshing equipment that smallholder

farmers can use. By combining the threshing capabilities for both corn and rice into one

machine, this 2-in-1 Thresher would significantly reduce the labor and time required for

threshing, provide a cost-effective solution, and help improve overall farming efficiency.

This introduction explores the context surrounding the study, presents a scenario on the

field, reviews the current and past technologies related to threshing, and highlights the

technological gaps this design aims to address.

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​ The chapter also aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the challenges

faced by small-scale farmers, particularly the costs and inefficiencies related to threshing

machines. By developing an affordable and user-friendly design, this project seeks to

empower farmers, improve their livelihoods, and contribute to the overall productivity

and sustainability of small-scale farming.

​ Small-scale farmers often work with limited resources and rely heavily on manual

labor to carry out various tasks, including threshing. Threshing, the separation of grain

from stalks, is traditionally performed by hand or with simple tools like sticks or wooden

boards. While these methods are inexpensive, they are also time-consuming and

physically demanding. In regions where rice and corn are staple crops, farmers often

grow both crops together or in rotation, which means they must thresh each crop

separately, further increasing the time and effort required.

​ For example, a farmer in a rural village might harvest a field of rice, which

involves cutting the stalks and manually separating the rice from the husks. This process

can take several days depending on the size of the farm. Similarly, once the rice is

threshed, the farmer must move on to threshing corn, which requires a different set of

tools or machines. This two-step threshing process not only increases labor costs but also

delays the marketing of the crop, affecting the farmer's income.

​ The situation is further exacerbated by the scarcity of affordable and suitable

threshing machines. Although mechanical threshers have become widely available, they

are often too large, complex, and expensive for small-scale farmers. In addition, many of

these machines are designed for large-scale commercial farming, where the volume of

crops justifies the investment in costly equipment. As a result, small farmers are forced to
 4

continue using traditional methods or invest in multiple machines to handle different

crops, which can further strain their already limited financial resources.

​ This study addresses this gap by offering a single machine capable of threshing

both corn and rice. This versatile, cost-effective solution aims to reduce labor and

processing time, allowing farmers to focus on other aspects of their operations, such as

planting and selling their crops.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

​ Small-scale farmers in developing countries, particularly in rural areas, often rely

on manual threshing methods due to limited access to affordable and efficient agricultural

machinery. These traditional practices are not only labor-intensive and time-consuming

but also contribute to significant post-harvest grain losses and damage. The high cost and

unsuitability of many machines for small-scale operations present significant barriers.

This underscores the need for affordable, appropriately scaled threshing solutions tailored

to the specific needs of small-scale operations.

While mechanized threshing solutions have been developed, they often cater to

large-scale operations and are designed for processing single crops. These machines are

typically expensive, complex, and not suited to the diverse needs of smallholder farmers

who cultivate multiple crops. The lack of affordable, versatile threshing equipment forces

small-scale farmers to either invest in multiple machines or continue relying on

inefficient manual methods . This situation highlights a critical gap in the availability of

appropriate post-harvest technologies for smallholder agriculture.

​ Research has also shown that manually threshed grains exhibit higher damage and

lower recovery rates, underscoring the importance of suitable mechanized solutions 1.

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Moreover, the lack of access to simple threshing tools forces farmers to depend on

manual labor, which is not only less efficient but also exposes crops to environmental

risks such as unexpected rainfall, leading to increased aflatoxin contamination 2. This

situation highlights the necessity for interventions that provide smallholder farmers with

the means to adopt mechanized threshing, thereby improving productivity and ensuring

better crop quality.​

​ Addressing these challenges requires the development of a cost-effective,

efficient, and versatile thresher specifically designed for small-scale farmers. Such an

innovation would aim to reduce labor intensity, minimize post-harvest losses, and

enhance the overall economic well-being of smallholder farming communities.

1.3 Objectives

​ This study aims to design and fabricate a cost-effective, efficient corn and rice

thresher suitable for small-scale farming operations.

​ Specifically. The objectives of this study are to:

1.​ Develop a dual-function threshing mechanism that can process both corn and rice

with minimal grain damages.

2.​ Design an adjustable threshing drum and separation system adaptable to the

physical properties of both crops.

3.​ Evaluate the machine's performance in terms of threshing efficiency, grain

recovery rate, and ease of use.

1.4 Scopes and Limitations

​ This study focuses on the design and fabrication of a versatile thresher machine

capable of processing both corn and rice by simply interchanging blades. The machine
 6

aims to improve threshing efficiency for small-scale farmers while offering flexibility to

switch between different crop types without needing multiple machines.

1.​ This research targets developing and building a corn and rice thresher that uses

interchangeable blades so users can alternate crops through a single device.

2.​ One limitation of this study is that the machine will have to be swapped with the

blades by hand and will be compatible with only dry crops, which may impair its

usage for wet or big-scale farm situations.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study demonstrates how multi-functional agricultural machinery can be

productive and flexible towards small-scale farming. An easy solution is offered to those

farmers who practice both corn and rice cultivation, with the interchangeable blade

system, reducing their machine requirement. The following groups will benefit from this

study:​

Small-Scale Farmers. This will take space thrashing both corn and rice on the same

machine, reducing need of equipment and making post-harvest process simpler.

Agricultural Communities. It encourages communal use and cooperative farming by

offering flexibility and easy adjustability to different crops, thus facilitating

resource-saving practices at the rural level.

Innovators. This project introduces a mechanical ingenuity that can inspire the

development of more modular farm equipment, possibly to other interchangeable tools

for crop processing.

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Entrepreneur. This project offers an opportunity for entrepreneurs in the farming sector

to conceptualize or produce a thresher machine that can thresh rice and corn, offering a

convenient way of utilization for farmers who grow different crop

Researchers and Students. The study can serve as a useful reference for agricultural

engineering, especially for those who are going to venture into exploring ways to make

farming equipment more flexible and efficient for application in small farms.
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CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Corn

​ Corn, or maize, is a staple crop cultivated extensively by smallholder farmers

worldwide, serving as a staple food, animal feed, and raw material for various industries.

Its adaptability to diverse climates and soils makes it suitable for small-scale farming

operations. Sweet corn, in particular, is well-suited for small-scale and part-time farming

due to its relatively low initial investment and the feasibility of custom-hiring many field

operations such as land preparation, planting, and harvesting 3. Equipment needs on

small-acreage farms are minimal, and most equipment can be used for other purposes.​

​ Despite its potential, small-scale corn production faces several challenges. The

number of small corn farms (with less than 500 acres) has declined, while large corn

farms have increased. Corn production has risen over time due to increased area and

higher yields, driven by improvements in technology, including seed varieties, fertilizers,

pesticides, and machinery, as well as enhanced production practices like reduced tillage,

irrigation, crop rotations, and pest management systems 4. However, smallholder farmers

often lack access to these advancements, limiting their productivity and competitiveness.​

​ In the Philippines, corn is a primary source of income for many smallholder

farmers. A study by Mayo and Villarta 5 identified several obstacles, including limited

access to financing, high input costs, and inadequate infrastructure. These factors

contribute to declining marketable corn yields and reduced profitability for small-scale

farmers. Efforts to support corn farmers have been initiated by various stakeholders. For
6
instance, the Department of Agriculture has highlighted concerns such as low

productivity, limited access to modern farming technologies, and insufficient post-harvest

 9

infrastructure. Addressing these issues is crucial for enhancing the competitiveness and

sustainability of the corn industry in the Philippines.

2.2 Rice

​ Rice is a staple food for more than half of the world's population and is

predominantly cultivated by smallholder farmers, especially in Asia and Africa. These

farmers often operate on fragmented, low-productivity, and high-risk value chains,

lacking assets, land tenure security, and market access 7. Despite these challenges, rice

farming remains central to their livelihoods, necessitating sustainable and efficient

cultivation practices.​

​ Climate change poses additional threats to rice cultivation. Increased frequency of

extreme weather events, such as typhoons and droughts, has led to substantial agricultural

losses. For example, El Niño-induced droughts have resulted in significant reductions in

rice cultivation acreage and production volumes 8. Empowering rice farmers through

improved access to markets, better pest management practices, and optimized fertilizer

use can lead to increased yields and profitability. A study focusing on rice farmers in

Nueva Ecija emphasized the importance of addressing issues such as market access and

input management to enhance the overall productivity of rice farming communities 9.

2.3 Manual Threshing in Small-Scale Farming

​ Manual threshing remains a common practice among small-scale farmers due to

its low cost and simplicity. However, this method poses several challenges, including

high labor demands, time consumption, and increased risk of grain damage and losses.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 10 notes that manual threshing can result in

grain losses ranging from 5% to 10%, depending on the crop and method used.
 10

​ Innovations such as pedal-powered threshers have been introduced to alleviate the

burden of manual threshing. These devices, which can be operated by foot or attached to

bicycles, offer a more efficient and less labor-intensive alternative. According to a report

by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)11, pedal-powered threshers can

significantly reduce the time and effort required for threshing, making them suitable for

small-scale farmers.

​ Despite these advancements, the widespread adoption of improved threshing

technologies among smallholder farmers remains limited. Barriers such as cost,

accessibility, and lack of awareness continue to impede the transition from manual to

mechanized threshing methods. Addressing these challenges through the development of

affordable, efficient, and user-friendly threshing solutions is essential to enhance

productivity and livelihoods in small-scale farming communities.

2.4 Existing Corn and Rice Threshing Technologies

The current state of corn and rice threshing technologies has experienced notable

improvements through various creative approaches aimed at boosting efficiency and

reducing crop damage. This summary of recent research sheds light on the continuous

advancements, especially in mechanization and technological enhancements tailored to

the specific needs of corn and rice threshing.

In corn threshing, Illustrates the effectiveness of a rotating concave screen

threshing device, which shows increased threshing rates and a marked decrease in kernel

damage, vital for preserving harvest quality12. Similarly, Li et al. outline multiple

low-damage corn threshing technologies, stressing that the design of threshing equipment

significantly influences loss and damage during harvesting operations13. Research

 11

conducted by Pastukhov and Bakharev further showcases the optimization of the

threshing process through enhanced device designs that match spatial orientations with

grain structure to reduce damage14. Evidence suggests that advancements in pneumatic

systems can facilitate adjustable force application during threshing, which is crucial for

accommodating various cob characteristics, thus safeguarding the kernels from excessive

damage15.

Moreover, performed an extensive review of corn threshing devices, highlighting

mechanical grain harvesting, particularly in the design and operation. In rice harvesting,

the emergence of solar-powered rice threshing machines signifies the integration of

sustainable energy solutions into agricultural practices. For instance, Irawati et al.

describe a prototype of a solar-powered rice thresher, signifying a move towards

sustainable practices while enhancing the operational efficiency of rice threshing tasks16 .

Furthermore, the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) approach, as elaborated by

Susilawati et al., represents a pertinent strategy for designing multifunctional rice

threshing machinery that prioritizes user needs to improve machine performance and

satisfaction17.

In addition, advancements in control systems, such as the microcontroller-based

devices created by Wandana and Hendri, highlight the shift towards automation and

precision in rice processing, which are vital for meeting contemporary agricultural needs.

These technologies collectively enhance productivity and ensure quality during the

crucial threshing phase of rice processing, significantly affecting overall agricultural

yield18.
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In recent times, significant progress has been made in threshing technologies for

corn and rice, particularly targeting smallholder farmers. However, the effectiveness of

these innovations is frequently accompanied by various challenges, including limits in

operational efficiency, economic feasibility, and accessibility for farmers.

Recent research outlines different threshing technologies used for rice,

incorporating both traditional techniques and more contemporary mechanized methods

such as combine harvesters and specialized threshers. For example, Ogwuike et al.

identify three common threshing methods—traditional, ASI, and combine—assessed for

their applicability to smallholder farmers19. Traditional approaches typically demand

substantial labor and time, while mechanized solutions can significantly enhance

efficiency but often come with high initial costs that may be too much for small-scale

farmers to bear. The importance of these technologies lies in their capacity to improve the

quality of harvested grains by minimizing mechanical injury during the threshing

process20.

Despite the advantages, these technologies come with their own set of challenges.

Some innovations remain unimplemented due to reasons like high costs, lack of

knowledge, and insufficient infrastructure. For instance, observed that many small-scale

farmers in Nigeria held mixed views on adopting rice post-harvest technologies, with

limited financial resources being a significant obstacle21. This viewpoint mirrors wider

issues where smallholder farmers confront hurdles not just in acquiring advanced

machinery but also in effectively incorporating these technologies into their farming

practices22. highlighted that the precision of yield evaluations utilizing these technologies
 13

largely depends on how effectively spikelets are separated during threshing, indicating a

technological gap in present practices23.

Moreover, the comparative advantages of mechanized threshers might lessen if

grain prices do not correspond to the quality enhancements, as indicated by, who examine

market dynamics that affect farmers output decisions24. The economic feasibility of

implementing mechanized threshing is significantly dependent on the existence of

suitable financing options, such as access to credit and cost-sharing arrangements, which

are frequently lacking in rural agricultural communities25. The domain of threshing

technology for corn and rice has witnessed considerable progress aimed at enhancing

efficiency, minimizing losses, and catering to the needs of small-scale farmers. Various

studies and reviews offer insights into the advantages and drawbacks of current threshing

machines, especially concerning their economic feasibility, technical performance, and

adaptability for users.

Focusing on rice threshing technologies, numerous prototypes have been created

aimed at overcoming challenges faced by rural farmers. For instance, a locally crafted

rice thresher in Nigeria proved efficient by utilizing readily available materials, which

helped lower costs related to machinery and boost production efficiency26. While

traditional mechanical systems often face limitations due to high expenses and

maintenance requirements, innovations like mobile threshers present a feasible answer by

enhancing mobility and reducing labor intensity through mechanization27.

2.5 Design Features of Multi-Crop Threshers

The design characteristics of multi-crop threshers, which are critical for

enhancing agricultural efficiency and sustainability, have garnered significant research

 14

interest. Multi-crop threshers are designed to handle the processing of various crops, each

having distinct physical and biological properties. This versatility addresses the needs of

farmers who may cultivate multiple crops throughout different seasons.

The evaluation of thresher performance is pivotal in understanding how design

modifications can lead to improved efficiencies. For instance, Wamalwa et al.

emphasized that variations in drum speed significantly influenced threshing efficiency, a

fundamental aspect when designing threshers aimed at multiple crop types28. These

performance metrics are crucial as they correlate directly with the machine's ability to

effectively process different grains, suggesting that design deviations, such as adjustable

drum speeds, can enhance functionality across crop varieties.

Moreover, innovative design methodologies, such as the Taguchi technique, have

also been employed to optimize the performance of multi-crop threshers. Abdeen et al.

demonstrated that the optimization of drum speed can lead to significant improvements in

thresher efficiency, which may also be applicable to other crops beyond rice29. The

iterative design and evaluation process highlights the importance of field-level

experimentation, which allows for the assessment of different management strategies in

real agricultural conditions, providing a framework that can inform thresher design30.

Abroader examination of agroecosystem management, as outlined by reflects the

interconnectedness of crop management and machinery design. Multi-cropping systems

aim to utilize synergies between varying crops, enhancing overall field productivity. This

biological aspect underscores the necessity for threshers designed to cater to these

multi-crop systems, emphasizing characteristics that allow adaptability to diverse crop

attributes such as size, moisture content, and mechanical resilience during harvesting31.
 15

It is also pertinent to recognize how multi-crop threshing contributes to

sustainability in agriculture. Gaba et al. present evidence suggesting that diversified

cropping systems can drive multiple ecosystem services and enhance overall agricultural

sustainability32. The ability of threshers to efficiently process a variety of crops aligns

with this concept by promoting more resilient cropping systems that are less reliant on

single-crop methodologies.

The design characteristics of multi-crop threshers are crucial for optimizing their

functionality and effectiveness across varying agricultural contexts. Key adaptations like

adjustable drum speed and interchangeable components offer significant advantages in

the mechanical performance of these threshers. This literature review synthesizes

findings from several relevant studies that illustrate the importance of these attributes.

Adjustable drum speeds are pivotal in enhancing threshing efficiency. Studies

have shown that increasing drum speed directly correlates with improved threshing

performance. Wamalwa et al. reported that an increase in drum speed resulted in a

significant enhancement in threshing efficiency of a portable common bean thresher28.

Similarly, Abdeen et al. found that in their longitudinal axial flow rice thresher,

optimized drum speeds maximized overall efficiency, confirming that higher speeds are

crucial for effective threshing across different crop types33. Moreover, Osueke's study

indicates that increasing cylinder speed influences the thresher's capacity and that speed

adjustments can be tailored to optimize performance depending on the specific crop and

moisture content34.

In addition to adjustable drum speeds, the design of interchangeable components

allows for greater versatility in multi-crop threshers. For instance, the introduction
 16

of"comb threshing teeth in a redesigned indigenous rice thresher led to a substantial

reduction in grain losses while maintaining productivity levels comparable to the original

unit35. This adaptive design illustrates how interchangeable parts can be engineered to

meet the unique requirements of different crops, thereby enhancing the thresher's utility

across a broader range of agricultural scenarios.

Furthermore, the use of randomized complete block design experiments, as

detailed in studies by Afolabi et al., supports the need for evaluating multiple operational

parameters, such as varying feed rates and moisture content in conjunction with drum

speed adjustments36. These evaluations can inform the development of more adaptable

threshers that accommodate farm-specific conditions and varying crop characteristics.

In summary, both adjustable drum speeds and interchangeable components

represent critical design characteristics that enhance the functionality of multi-crop

threshers. Research consistently shows that these mechanical adaptations not only

improve efficiency but also allow for better operational flexibility, meeting the diverse

needs of modern agriculture

2.6 Drum and Concave Mechanisms for Crop Types

The threshing drum and concave mechanism are among the most critical

components in any threshing machine, as they directly affect the separation efficiency,

grain quality, and total throughput of the machine. The proper design and tuning of these

parts ensure maximum threshing effectiveness while minimizing losses and mechanical

damage to grains.

Several studies have evaluated the effects of different drum designs on threshing

performance. Spike-toothed drums and rasp bar drums are the most commonly utilized
 17

types in agricultural machinery. Spike-toothed drums are generally considered more

aggressive due to the direct impact they exert on the crop material. According to a study

published on ResearchGate by Hailemesikel et al. (2024)37, spike-toothed threshers

demonstrated significantly better performance compared to rasp bars in rice threshing.

The spike-toothed design allowed for higher rotational speeds and greater impact force,

which translated into improved threshing efficiency and grain separation rates.

Moreover, the threshing quality is influenced not only by the drum design but also

by the operational parameters of the machine. Studies have shown that the drum speed,

concave clearance, tooth configuration, and feeding rate must be optimized based on the

specific crop variety and its moisture content. Improper adjustments may lead to issues

such as increased grain breakage, higher unthreshed grain content, and damage to the

straw. Singh et al. (2008)38 observed that finer control of wire loop spacing and tip height

in the drum could drastically affect the detachment force applied to grain heads,

especially in manually operated paddy threshers. These findings suggest that a

crop-specific approach to design, which allows modification of drum and concave

parameters, is vital for the development of effective multi-crop threshers.

Therefore, modern engineering practices are now focused on developing flexible

threshing systems that incorporate adjustable concaves, interchangeable drum elements,

and variable speed drives. Such innovations allow a single machine to handle different

crops like rice, wheat, maize, and millet with minimal adjustment time, contributing to

cost-efficiency and ease of use for small- and medium-scale farmers.

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2.7 Multi-Crop Threshers: Case Studies and Applications

The demand for multi-crop threshers is especially seen in areas where smallholder

producers produce a range of crops across seasons. The capacity to utilize one machine

for different types of crops enhances the utilization of machinery and drastically

minimizes labor dependency, particularly in post-harvesting.

In Nigeria, Yisa et al. (1998)39 had come up with a mobile, motorized multi-crop

thresher aimed at surpassing the disadvantages of traditional single-purpose machines.

The equipment incorporated a spiked cylinder and a netted concave along with a

mechanical separator, providing the ability to thresh a variety of grains with few

adjustments in the setup. Laboratory tests proved the thresher's efficiency in handling

maize, sorghum, millet, and rice. Farmers described increased throughput, enhanced grain

quality, and a significant decrease in the labor required for hand-thrashing operations.

Similarly, in Nepal, Sunar et al. (2022)40 carried out a study in Banganga

Municipality, Kapilvastu, where a large percentage of the farming community had

adopted mechanized post-harvesting practices, including multi-crop threshers. The study

highlighted that greater access to such machinery resulted in decreased harvesting losses,

quicker post-harvest processing, and enhanced crop marketability. In addition, multi-crop

threshers' adoption was closely correlated with local governments' and NGOs' efforts in

promoting farm mechanization, particularly in isolated and underserved locations. The

findings from these case studies prove that multi-crop threshers are not only

technologically feasible but also economically and socially advantageous.

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CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the theoretical concepts that lead to the design and

construction of a multi-crop thresher that can thresh both rice and corn. The machine is

for small-scale farming and has modular sub-assemblies that enable the two crops to be

switched. Discussed are threshing theory, mechanical design aspects, selection of

materials, and power transmissions. Emphasis is placed on the versatility of the machine

for use with each type of crop.

3.2 Threshing Principles

Separation of grain from stalk, husk, or cob constitutes threshing. In a multi-crop

thresher, the fundamental threshing mechanisms imitate three natural movements:

●​ Impact Action: Typical of corn threshing, where grains are disengaged from the

cob by force of striking.

●​ Rubbing Action: Required in rice, since grains are delicately rubbed apart to

disjoin them from husks.

●​ Combing Action: Employed in both uses to aid in the final separation and

cleaning.

​ The thresher utilizes crop-specific screen setting and drums to maximize each

activity based on whether it is threshing rice or corn.

3.3 Mechanical Design Considerations

​ The multi-crop thresher has the following:

Threshing Drums (Interchangeable):

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●​ Peg-Tooth Drum for rice, with fine combing and rubbing.

●​ Spike-Tooth Drum for corn, with higher impact and detaching force.

Concave System (Adjustable or Interchangeable):

●​ Fine spacing for rice.

●​ Wide spacing for corn.

Hopper (Common Component): It is designed to feed grains to the drum system

effectively.

Cleaning System: Comprises blower fans and sieves. Sieve sizes vary according to the

grain.

Outlets:

●​ Grain Outlet: Receives threshed grains.

●​ Excess Outlet: Expels husks, cobs, and other waste.

​ Mechanical power from the motor or engine is transmitted to the drum through a

belt and pulley system. The speed and torque can be adjusted based on the crop.

●​ Power Transmission Formula:

(𝑃 = 2\𝑝𝑖 𝑁𝑇)/(60)​

Where:​

P = Power (Watts)​

N = Drum speed (RPM)​

T = Torque (Nm)

●​ Speed Ratio Formula:

𝑁2/​𝑁1​​ = 𝐷1​/𝐷2​​
 21

Where:​

D = Pulley diameter

Note: A lower RPM is recommended for corn due to higher torque needs, while rice

benefits from higher RPM and lower torque.

3.4 Threshing Drum Design and Calculation

●​ Peripheral Speed (drum surface speed):​

v=πDN​

Where:​

D = Diameter of the drum​

N = Drum speed (RPM)

Drum Setup per Crop:

Crop Drum Type Diameter Optimal RPM Drum Action

Rice Peg Tooth Smaller Higher Rubbing/Com

(~900–1200 bing

RPM)

Corn Spike Tooth Larger Lower Impact

(~400–600

RPM
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Drums are interchangeable, and proper mounting ensures secure and aligned operation.

3.5 Material Selection

Component Material Justification

Threshing Drums Mild Steel Durable, resistant to wear

Concave Galvanized Iron Corrosion-resistant

Frame Mild Steel Bars Strong structural support

Hopper Aluminum Sheet Lightweight and

corrosion-proof

Sieves Perforated Steel Replaceable and durable

3.6 Ergonomic and Safety Considerations

Ergonomics:

●​ Correct feeding height

●​ Angled hopper to ensure smooth flow of input

●​ Handles and wheels for ease of mobility

Safety Features:

●​ Safety guards around moving pulleys and belts

●​ Emergency stop switch

●​ Insulated housing for motor

●​ Grounded electrical system (in case electric)

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3.7 Operational Configuration and Figure

To Operate for Rice:

●​ Employ Peg Tooth Drum

●​ Fit fine-mesh sieve

●​ Adjust concave spacing to be narrower

●​ Set fan speed to low-medium

●​ Set drum RPM to ~1000

To Operate for Corn:

●​ Utilize Spike Tooth Drum

●​ Utilize large sieve holes

●​ Set concave spacing to wide

●​ Increase the fan speed

●​ Decrease the drum RPM to ~500

Figure 1 below depicts the entire multi-crop thresher configuration with all major

components and how they're set up.

3.8 Figure and Diagram

Figure 3.1 Layout of both machine

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Figure 3.2 3d model of multi thresher machine

3.9 Summary

The multi-crop thresher takes advantage of interchangeable and adjustable

mechanical assemblies to efficiently thresh rice and corn. The above chapter has

documented the engineering aspects, power transfer systems, materials selection, and

design adaptability necessary for bi-functionality. Correct drum choices, speed controls,

and screen replacements are all critical for ensuring optimal performance for each crop

crop. Such an understanding forms the basis for proper fabrication and implementation of

the above proposed thresher for small farm use.

 25

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses how the design and fabrication of our corn and rice

thresher for small-scale farming was carried out. The study adopted an experimental

research design, which involved the creation, testing, and performance evaluation of a

fabricated prototype under controlled conditions. This approach allowed for the

collection of quantitative data to assess threshing efficiency, grain loss, throughput

capacity, and operational performance, ensuring that the equipment meets the specific

needs of smallholder farmers.

4.1 Flow of the Study

The study followed a logical sequence to ensure each stage was properly planned

and executed. The process included:

 26

Figure 4.1 Flow of the Study

Each step was essential in making sure that the machine works efficiently and

meets the needs of small-scale farmers.

The corn and rice thresher is designed with the needs of small farmers in mind,

incorporating a low-cost, manually powered, and multi-purpose machine that can

effectively thresh two kinds of grains with some minimal adjustments. The machine's

main innovation is its drum-switching system, which makes it possible for one to

interchange between two drum configurations based on the crop being threshed. This

minimizes the requirement of several machines and saves a lot of equipment cost, storage

space, and maintenance.

The design as a whole is aimed at simplicity, ease of operation, ruggedness, and

versatility. Locally available materials and readily accessible components were given

importance so that rural farmers can make or fix the machine using simple tools and

widely available parts.

4.2.1 Main Components

Here are the primary parts of the machine:

●​ Hopper – Where the harvested crop is fed into the machine.

●​ Threshing Drum – Contains the rotating blades that remove the grain from the

husk.

●​ Concave Screen – Filters and separates the grains from chaff and stalks.

●​ Drum Mount and Shaft Assembly – Supports and drives the interchangeable

threshing drums depending on the crop.

●​ Grain Outlet – Where the clean grains come out.

 27

●​ Chaff Outlet – Where the remaining stalks and husks are discharged.

●​ Frame – The supporting structure of the entire machine.

●​ Power Transmission System – Uses belts and pulleys connected to a motor or

engine.

4.2.2 Interchangeable Drum Mechanism

This is our most crucial component. It enables the user to switch the entire drum

assembly based on the crop to thresh:

●​ Peg-Tooth Drum (for Rice) – This drum has closely spaced pegs that delicately

rub and comb off grains from the panicle. It is equipped to reduce grain breakage

because of the delicate nature of rice.

●​ Spike-Tooth Drum (for Corn) – It has stiffer, longer spikes that are more apart.

It is meant to apply higher impact force in a bid to properly remove kernels from

hard cobs of corn.

Every drum has a common shaft fitted to it via a bolt-on locking system. The

operator simply takes out one drum and replaces the other when changing from one crop

to another without changing the shaft or frame. We also made the concave clearance and

screen mesh adjustable to allow for optimal threshing performance and minimal losses

for each crop type.

4.3 Fabrication and Assembly

Here's what we did to construct the machine:

1.​ Frame Construction – We employed angle bars and welded them together in a

sturdy, rectangular frame.

 28

2.​ Drum and Shaft Fabrication – The drum was machined and balanced. Blade

mounting points were fitted on the shaft.

3.​ Drum Installation System – The drums were developed to be interchangeable

and removable by means of a bolt-on system so the user could change the drums

with ease based on the crop.

4.​ Concave and Screen – A mesh screen which is removable was placed under the

drum. The concave and gap of the drum are adjustable.

5.​ Hopper and Outlets – Metal sheets were used to make these and mount them to

the frame.

6.​ Power System – A motor was mounted and powered using a pulley and belt

system.

4.4 Testing Procedure

We tested the equipment for both crops to ensure everything runs smoothly.

●​ Efficiency Test – We took a measurement of how much of the input grain was

threshed successfully.

●​ Loss Test – We verified how much grain remained unthreshed or damaged.

●​ Drum Change Time: Timed the duration to switch drums between the Peg-Tooth

Drum (rice) and Spike-Tooth Drum (corn) configurations.

●​ Performance Test - We measured the output rate per hour to test capacity.

●​ Vibration and Stability - We noted whether the machine remained steady while

in operation.

4.5 Experimental Design

 29

The experimental design of this research was designed to analyze the

performance, efficiency, and operational ability of the corn and rice thresher under actual

conditions. The experiments were designed to determine the threshing efficiency of the

machine, grain loss, throughput, and the time it takes to interchange drums between corn

and rice processing modes. All the variables were chosen so that the machine is at

practical agricultural levels, particularly for small farmers in rural areas who use both

crops extensively.

4.5.1 Objectives of the Experiment

The prime objective of the experimental design is to::

●​ Calculate the threshing efficiency of the machine in threshing rice and corn with

the respective drums (Peg-Tooth Drum for rice and Spike-Tooth Drum for corn)..

●​ Determine the level of grain loss, including unthreshed and broken grains..

●​ Determine the throughput capacity in terms of per hour output in kilograms.

●​ Assess the time required to interchange drums between corn and rice modes.

●​ Check for any vibration or mechanical instability during use.

These parameters give a clear idea of the machine's functionality, multi-crop nature,

operation

4.5.2 Sample Preparation

●​ For all trials, 10 kilograms of air-dried corn and 10 kilograms of air-dried rice

were utilized.

●​ Every batch was visually inspected to ensure uniformity in grain quality and

moisture content.
 30

●​ The corn samples were ears shelled, and the rice samples were panicles harvested

and pre-dried.

Using this standardized input ensures that results can be compared on a fair basis

among different test runs and that the thresher performance is tested under uniform

conditions.​

4.5.3 Test Procedure

This test was carried out with the following controlled steps:

1.​ The machine was reset and cleaned prior to every test run.

2.​ The correct drum (Peg-Tooth Drum for rice or Spike-Tooth Drum for corn) and

concave screen were installed..

3.​ The feed grain (corn or rice) was fed into the hopper at a gradual rate in order to

mimic practical operation.

4.​ Grain output was gathered, weighed, and sorted into:

●​ Threshed grain (clean output)

●​ Unthreshed grain (still clinging to cob or panicle)

●​ Damaged/broken grain (as a result of impact by blade)

5.​ Measurements were also done for subsequent calculations and analysis.

6.​ Both crops were tested using their respective drums.

7.​ Drum changing time was timed three times with a stopwatch, and the average

time taken.

4.5.4 Variables and Data Collected

The following data points were measured and recorded during the experiment:

1.​ Threshing Time (minutes)

 31

2.​ Grain Output Weight (kg)

3.​ Unthreshed Grain Weight (kg)

4.​ Damaged Grain Weight (kg)

5.​ Drum changeover time (minutes)

6.​ Observational Notes (vibration, jamming, uneven feed, etc.)

4.5.5 Formulas Used

To analyze the data gathered during testing, the following formulas were used:

●​ Threshing Efficiency (%)

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡/𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑​) × 100

●​ Grain Loss (%)

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 / ​𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) × 100

●​ Throughput (kg/hour)

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 / 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑟)​

●​ Drum Change Time (minutes)

Measured directly with a stopwatch from removal of one drum to full installation of the

other.
 32

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