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1. Diarra Compaore – Sereme, et al, (2022). A review on dietary fiber: definitions, classification,
importance and advantages for human diet and guidelines to promote consumption. International
Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 16(6), 2916-2929.

2. Vikas Rana, et al, (2011). Dietary fibre and human health. International Journal of Food
Safety Nutrition and Public Health. 4(2/3/4), 101-118.

3. Devinder Dhingra, et al, (2012). Dietary fibre in foods: a review. Journal of Food Science and
Technology. 49(3). 255-266.

4. David Kritchevsky, et al, (1988). Dietary fiber. Annual Review of Nutrition. Vol 8. 301-328.

5. Ruth McPherson Kay, et al, (1982). Dietary fiber. Journal of Lipid Research. Vol 23. 221-242.

6. Filiz Yangilar, (2013). The application of dietary fibre in food industry: Structural features,
effects on health and definition, obtaining and analysis of dietary fibre: A review. Journal of
Food and Nutrition Research. 1(3). 13-23.

Contents
BEGINNING.................................................................................................................................................................2
1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................................2
2. CLASSIFICATION..................................................................................................................................................3
3. COMPOSITION.....................................................................................................................................................11
4. PROPERTIES.........................................................................................................................................................14
5. SOURCE OF DIETARY FIBER...........................................................................................................................17
6. APPLICATIONS.....................................................................................................................................................21
DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................................................................24
BEGINNING
The definitions of dietary fiber are based on scientific and regulatory purposes, mainly with
emphasis on its functional impact and benefits to the organism. The aim of this review was to
present dietary fiber classification, benefits and importance for human diet and recommendations
to promote its consumption. The methodology used in this review is a drawn perspective from
recently available classification and no attempt was made to make an exhaustive review of all
articles related to dietary fiber. In the results, the structure, characteristics, the content of various
food products on dietary fiber with a focus on cereal grains and benefits are presented; global
guidelines and recommendations are included in this review. The link between dietary fiber
intake and the prevention of various diseases such as cardio vascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
digestive diseases, and some cancers, is plausible pertaining to the literature. Dietary guidelines
in some countries recommend, on average, the consumption of 3 to 8 servings/day or 300 to 500
g/day of cereals and legumes in total (depending on age, gender or caloric needs) with at least
half of your grain products as whole grains each day to meet daily dietary fibre requirements and
reduce disease risk.

The beneficial effects of dietary fiber include lowering blood pressure, lowering blood lipids and
glucose, improving insulin resistance, as well as effects on the composition of the gut
microbiome (Franz and Sampson 2006; Ferruzzi et al., 2014).

It is important for food materials to be delicious as well as nutritious and natural. Rapidly
increasing of human population of world, environmental pollution caused by consistently
developing technology, insufficient education and problems caused by wrong nutrition are
making supplying of natural food is more difficult. Healthy nutrition refers to efficient and
balanced nutrition, that is, efficient intake of nutrient elements (lipids, carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins, minerals) for body cells to work smoothly. But, oil content present in the structure of
some food materials is a problematic situation for consumers. In order to solve this problem,
dietary fibre can be used, which can improve the textural and sensual qualities of products in
addition to being functional. An excessive interest has been observed over the last years in
fibrous nutrients in developed countries (e.g. USA and various parts of Europe). In the present
review, it has been conducted on the food products in which dietary fibres are used, changes
taking place in the structures of these nutrients, the importance of the use of dietary fibres.

Dietary supplements are typically marketed in the form of a capsule, pill, powder or gel and are
not presented for use as a conventional food, meal or diet. Dietary supplements contain one or
more dietary ingredients (e.g., vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbs or other botanicals) and are
intended to supplement the diet (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1994; van Kreijl et al.,
2006; Eussen et al., 2011).

1. INTRODUCTION
The term "dietary fiber" was used in reference to plant cell wall materials and has evolved to
describe a class of plant-based polysaccharides that cannot be digested and absorbed in the
human gastrointestinal tract (van der Kamp, 2004). Dietary fiber is defined as "the edible parts of
plants or carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine
with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine". This scientific definition from the
American Association of Cereal Chemists takes into account the origin, chemical and
physiological aspects of fibers (van der Kamp, 2004; Sultan et al., 2022).
According to the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC, 2000), DF is the edible part
of plant or analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and adsorption in the human
intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine. DF includes
polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin and associated plant substances. DF promotes
beneficial physiological effects, such as laxation, and or blood cholesterol attenuation (Anon.,
2001). Clinical studies consistently show that the intake of viscous DF decreases the low density
lipoprotein cholesterol and postprandial glucose levels, and induces short term satiety. Further,
few clinical trials have demonstrated that the intake of DF has a positive effect on the control of
diabetes and body weight (Anderson et al., 2009).

This definition links the chemical composition of fibre to its physiological effects. At the same
time it includes all non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) resistant to digestion in the small intestine
and is fermentable in the large intestine (cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, modified celluloses,
oligosaccharides, and polyfructans such as inulin, gums, and mucilages). It also includes
oligosaccharides and polysaccharide components bound to the plant cell wall (lignin, waxes,
cutin and suberin). Materials with analogous characteristics to DF are included in the new
definition under the term of analogous carbohydrates.

Dietary fibre has long history, its term originating with Hipsley (1953) who coined dietary fibre
as a nondigestable constituents making up the plant cell wall and further its definition has seen
several revisions. Botanists define fibre as a part of the plant organs, chemical analysts as a
group of chemical compounds, consumer as a substance with beneficial effects on human health
and for the dietetic and chemical industries dietary fibre is a subject of marketing. Later dietary
fibre was defined as a ubiquitous component of plant foods and includes materials of diverse
chemical and morphological structure, resistant to the action of human alimentary enzymes (Kay
1982). The most consistent definition that is now accepted is from Trowell et al. (1985): “Dietary
fibre consists of remnants of plant cells resistant to hydrolysis (digestion) by the alimentary
enzymes of man”, whose components are hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, oligosaccharides,
pectins, gums and waxes.

American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) in 2000 defined dietary fibre as the edible
parts of plant or analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the
human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine. Dietary fibre
includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin and associated plant substances. During the
year 2001, Australia New Zealand Food Authority (ANZFA) defined dietary fibre as that
fraction of the edible part of plants or their extracts, or analogous carbohydrates, that are resistant
to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine, usually with complete or partial
fermentation in the large intestine. The term includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and
lignins. The panel on the definition of dietary fibre constituted by National Academy of Science
during the year 2002 defined the dietary fibre complex to include dietary fibre consisting of non-
digestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants, functional fibres
consisting of isolated, non digestible carbohydrates which have beneficial physiological effects
in humans and total fibre as the sum of dietary fibre and functional fibre.

2. CLASSIFICATION
According to the regulations, dietary fiber in consumer foods can be classified into two
categories: endogenous dietary fibers and added dietary fibers.
-Endogenous fibers refers to intrinsic and intact fibers present in the original food matrix.
Endogenous dietary fiber is composed of non-digestible carbohydrates and lignin that are
intrinsic and intact in plants (USDHH and USDA, 2015).

- Added fiber refers to a group of fibers that are either extracted from natural sources or
synthetically produced and added to foods, beverages and supplements (USDHH and USDA,
2015). These are also called functional fibers (Institute of Medicine 2001). Added dietary fiber
consists of isolated, non-digestible carbohydrates that have physiological effects in humans
(Phillips and Cui, 2011).

A general classification of dietary fiber makes it possible to differentiate their components

according to their solubility and/or their fermentation capacity. Thus, dietary fiber have been
classified into two categories:

- non-hydrosoluble and less fermentable fibers which are plant polymers: cellulose, insoluble
hemicelluloses, lignin and resistant starch (RS). The latter represents 0 to 5% of the starch in
cereals and behaves like dietary fiber, and is presented in 5 distinct forms: RS1, RS2, RS3, RS4
et RS5 (Pierre 2002; Murphy et al., 2008; Maina et al., 2021);

- water-soluble and highly fermentable fibers: pectin, gums, inulin, galactomanans soluble
hemicelluloses (arabinoxylans or pentosans) and mucilages (Dhingra et al. 2012).

The classification of fibers according to their solubility, their source and the main effects and
related physiological mechanisms are presented in Table 1. Figure 1 provides an illustration of
the nature of the fibers in the wheat grain.
The cereal grain contains three main components: the bran, the germ and the endosperm. Fiber is
found in each component, although each component has a different composition of fiber types.
The bran is included in the flour when the flour is from whole grain, but it is more often used for
animal feed. The germ is usually separated during the refining process because of the presence of
fat that can oxidize. The endosperm is the source of white flour (McWilliams, 2008). The bran
and germ are rich in fiber and contain many micronutrients and phytochemicals, while the
endosperm is mainly of starch (De Munter et al., 2007). The proteins are mainly found in the
endosperm and the bran (McWilliams, 2008). The fibers found in these parts of the grain have
different physical and chemical characteristics (Bernstein et al., 2013). Table 2 shows the
classification of fibers according to the nature of the components.
DF can be separated into two basic types based on its properties and effects on the body. These
two types are insoluble and soluble fibre. Insoluble fibres, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin, do not dissolve in water. Insoluble fibres are found in foods such as wheat bran, whole
grains, and vegetables. Insoluble fibres absorb water and increase the intestinal bulk, which helps
the intestine function properly. Soluble fibres, such as gum and pectin, dissolve in water and are
found in beans, oats, barley, some fruits and vegetables. Soluble fibres may play a role in
lowering blood cholesterol and in regulating the body’s use of sugar.

Tungland and Meyer (2002) suggested several different classification systems to classify the
components of dietary fibre: based on their role in the plant, based on the type of polysaccharide,
based on their simulated gastrointestinal solubility, based on site of digestion and based on
products of digestion and physiological classification. However, none is entirely satisfactory, as
the limits cannot be absolutely defined. The most widely accepted classification for dietary fibre
has been to differentiate dietary components on their solubility in a buffer at a defined pH, and/or
their fermentability in an invitro system using an aqueous enzyme solution representative of
human alimentary enzymes. Thus most appropriately dietary fibre is classified into two
categories such as water- insoluble/less fermented fibres: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and the
watersoluble/ well fermented fibres: pectin, gums and mucilages (Anita and Abraham 1997). The
classification of dietary fibre components on the basis of water solubility and fermentability is
presented in Table 1.

Cellulose It is the major cell wall component in plants, an unbranched linear chain of several
thousand glucose units with β-1, 4 glucosidic linkages. Cellulose’s mechanical strength,
resistance to biological degradation, low aqueous solubility and resistance to acid hydrolysis
result from hydrogen bonding within the microfibrils. Aspinall (1970) studied that cellulose is
insoluble in strong alkali and there is portion (10–15%) of cellulose, referred to as “amorphous”,
that is more readily acid hydrolyzed. Cellulose is not digested to any extent by the enzymes of
the human gastrointestinal system.
Hemicellulose These are cell wall polysaccharides solubilized by aqueous alkali after removal of
water soluble and pectic polysaccharides. They contain backbones of glucose units with β-1, 4
glucosidic linkages, but differ from cellulose in that they are smaller in size, contain variety of
sugars and are usually branched (Kay 1982). They contain mostly xylose and some galactose,
mannose, arabinose and other sugars (Anita and Abraham 1997).

Lignin It is not a polysaccharide but a complex random polymer containing about 40 oxygenated
phenylpropane units including coniferyl, sinapyl and p-coumaryl alcohols that have undergone a
complex dehydrogenative polymerization (Braums 1952; Schubert 1956; Theander and Aman
1979). Lignins vary in molecular weight and methoxyl content. Due to strong intramolecular
bonding, which includes carbon to carbon linkages, lignin is very inert. Lignin demonstrates
greater resistance than any other naturally occurring polymer.

Pectin Pectic substances are a complex group of polysaccharides in which D-galacturonic acid is
a principal constituent. They are structural components of plant cell walls and also act as
intercellular cementing substances. Pectin is highly water-soluble and is almost completely
metabolized by colonic bacteria. Due to their gelling behaviour, these soluble polysaccharides
may decrease the rate of gastric emptying and influence small intestinal transit time. This
explains their hypoglycemic properties (Jenkins et al. 1978).

Gums and mucilages

These are the types of plant fibres that are not cell wall components but are formed in specialized
secretory plant cells (Van Denffer et al. 1976). These are reported to be highly branched
polysaccharides that form gels, bind water and other organic material. Gums are sticky
exudations formed in response to trauma (i.e. gum arabic). They mainly consist of guar gum and
gum arabic. Guar gum is a galactomannan isolated from the seed of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
(guar). Partial enzymatic hydrolysis results in a product that can be used as a soluble dietary
fibre. The physiological effects of this fibre source comply with what might be expected from a
soluble fibre. Gum arabic is exudated from the acacia tree, is a complex arabinogalactan
polysaccharide in admixture with a glycoprotein. Mucilages are secreted into the endosperm of
plant seeds where they act to prevent excessive dehydration

Polysaccharides
The two major classes of dietary fiber are polysaccharides and lignin. These include cellulose
and a diffuse group of substances collectively termed noncellulosic polysaccharides (NCP).
Cellulose, the most abundant molecule in nature, is the beta isomer of starch; it is a long (up to
10,000 sugar residues) linear polymer of 1,4&linked glucose units. Hydrogen bonding between
sugar residues in adjacent chains imparts a crystalline microfibril structure. Cellulose is insoluble
in strong alkali (9). Noncellulosic polysaccharides include a large number of heteroglycans
which contain a mixture of pentoses, hexoses, and uronic acids (Table 1). Among the more
important NCPs are hemicellulose and pectic substances (1 0).
Hemicelluloses are those cell wall polysaccharides solubilized by aqueous alkali after removal of
water soluble and pectic polysaccharides. They contain backbones of p- 1,4-1inked pyranoside
sugars, but differ from cellulose in that they are smaller in size (often less than 200 sugar
residues), contain a variety of sugars, and are usually branched (Table 1). The hemicelluloses are
subclassified on the basis of the principal monomeric sugar residue.
Acidic or neutral forms differ in the content of glucuronic and galacturonic acids (11). Uronic
acid formation involves the oxidation of the terminal -CH20H to -COOH and is of biological
importance since the sugar residues become available for methylation, amidation, and the
formation of cation complexes (12). Hemicelluloses, especially the hexose and uronic acid
components, are somewhat more accessible to bacterial enzymes than is cellulose (13).
Pectic substances are a complex group of polysaccharides in which D-galacturonic acid is a
principal constituent. They are structural components of plant cell walls and also act as
intercellular cementing substances. Included are a water-insoluble parent compound, protopectin,
as well as pectinic acids, pectic acids, and pectin. The backbone structure of pectin is an
unbranched chain of axial-axiala-( 1+4)-linked D-galacturonic acid units.
Long chains of galacturonan are interrupted by blocks of L-rhamnose-rich units that result in
bends in the molecule. Many pectins have neutral sugars covalently linked to them as side
chains, mainly arabinose and galactose, and to a lesser extent, xylose, rhamnose, and glucose. It
has also been shown that small quantities of glucuronic acid may be linked to pectin in a side
chain (14-16). The carboxyl groups of the galacturonic acids are partially methylated and the
secondary hydroxyls may be acetylated. Pectin is highly water-soluble and is almost completely
metabolized by colonic bacteria (17). Other NCPs including gums, mucilages, and algal
polysaccharides (1 8, 19) are described in Table 1. The major chemical features of the
polysaccharide fibers are illustrated in Fig. 1.
Lignin
Lignin is not a polysaccharide but a complex random polymer containing about 40 oxygenated
phenylpropane units including coniferyl, sinapyl, and p-coumaryl alcohols that have undergone a
complex dehydrogenative polymerization process (6, 7, 11). Lignins vary in molecular weight
and methoxyl content. The structure of an aspen wood lignin which has been shown to bind bile
acids in vitro and in vivo is illustrated in Fig. 2. Due to strong intramolecular bonding which
includes carbon to carbon linkages, lignin is very inert. Chemically, it is usually measured as
Klason lignin, the cell wall residue insoluble in 72% sulfuric acid (10). Lignin demonstrates
greater resistance to digestion than any other naturally occurring polymer.
Fiber-related materials
The human diet contains, in addition to polysaccharides and lignin, a number of plant-derived
materials that are similar to fiber in that they resist digestion in the upper intestine. Included are
cutin and suberin, polymeric esters of fatty acids. The former is a water-impermeable substance
secreted onto the plant surface, whereas suberin is deposited in the later stages of cell wall
development. These are enzyme- and acid-resistant materials recoverable in the lignin fraction
(10). Other dietary components which associate with the lignin residue are the products of the
Maillard reaction. These result from the formation of enzyme-resistant linkages between the
amino groups of proteins and the carbonyl groups of reducing sugars during heat treatment (10).
Certain fiber-rich foodstuffs contain significant amount of plant sterols. Also in close physical
and chemical association with fiber in the plant cell wall are proteins, inositol hexaphosphate,
silica, saponins and other glycosides, and polyhydroxyphenolic materials such as tannins. It is
often difficult to dissociate the physiological effects of these materials from those of true dietary
fiber components (10).
3. The Classified of Dietary Fibres Compunds
Dietary fibres are as soluble or insoluble, based on whether they form a solution when mixed
with water (soluble), or not (insoluble) (Periago, Ros, Lόpez, Martinez, & Rincόn, 1993; Ajila
and Prasada Rao; 2013). Fiber includes: insoluble fiber (lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses) and
soluble fiber (pectins, β-glucans, galactomanan gums, and a large range of nondigestible
oligosaccharides including inulin) (García Herrera et al., 2010; Rodríguez et al., 2006; Alvarez
and Peña-Valdivia, 2009; Ramirez-Santiago et al., 2010; La Course, 2008; Jalili ve ark., 2001;
Dülger and Sahan, 2011). Each category has different physiological effects (Schneeman, 1987;
Ajila and Prasada Rao; 2013). The insoluble part is related to both water absorption and
intestinal regulation, whereas the soluble fraction is associated with the reduction of cholesterol
in blood and the decrease of glucose absorption by the small intestine. Although soluble fibre is
less common in foods than insoluble fibre, it is believed to have important effects in the digestive
and absorptive processes (Dreher, 2001; Peressini and Sensidoni, 2009). It is well known that
dietary fibre fractions behave in a different way. Soluble dietary fibre presents a potential
prebiotic character (Gibson & Roberfroid, 1995; Fuller & Gibson, 1997). The varietes and
sources of dieteray fibres is given in Table 2 (Jalili ve ark., 2001; Dülger and Sahan, 2011).

3. SOURCE OF DIETARY FIBER

Plant foods are the only source of dietary fibre. The best sources of fibre are whole grain breads
and cereals, fruits and vegetables, and dried beans and peas. These foods provide both soluble
and insoluble fibres (Table 2).
Insoluble fibers are found in wheat, whole grain foods such as whole wheat bread, whole wheat
couscous, parboiled rice, vegetables, carrots, cucumbers and tomatoes.

Commonly consumed grains include rice, wheat, corn, barley, rye, oats, millet and sorghum; of
these grains barley and rye contain the most fiber per gram of edible portion while rice and millet
contain the least (Vincent et al., 2020). Generally, cereals are considered a good source of
insoluble fiber.

The soluble fiber content is relatively low in cereals, representing about 25% of total fiber, with
the exception of oats which are a good source of soluble fiber and contain about 50%. Pulses are
an important source of both types of fiber. Fruits and legumes contain less fiber than grains and
legumes.

The composition and content of dietary fiber vary from one food to another. Fiber-rich foods
contain different amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. The dietary fiber content of various
foods is shown in Table 3. From this table , the dietary fiber content varies from 0.5-17.7 g / 100
g respectively for watermelon and raw white beans.
BENEFITS AND IMPORTANCE OF DIETARY FIBER IN THE DIET

Physiological effects attributable to dietary fiber include: lowering of blood glucose and
cholesterol levels, lowering of blood pressure, laxative effects and colonic motility, increased
absorption of minerals in the intestinal tract, satiety and better control of eating (Vodouhe et al.,
2013; Agbankpe et al., 2015; Nirmala Prasadi and Joye, 2020). Soluble fibers help lower glucose
and serum cholesterol levels because they are soluble in water while insoluble fibers facilitate
intestinal transit and thus contribute to reduce the risks of constipation because they are not
soluble in water (Dhingra et al., 2012). Low dietary fiber intake is associated with an increased
risk of cardiovascular disease. The relationship between whole grains and cardiovascular risk
reduction has been well studied (Rimm et al., 1996; Mozaffarian et al., 2003). The
cardiovascular benefits of fibers and, in particular, cereal fibers, have been well documented:
cereal fibers are strongly associated with a reduced risk of myocardial infarctus, total and
ischemic stroke, cardiovascular disease, and death from heart disease (Mozaffarian et al., 2003).
These benefits are likely achieved through multiple metabolic pathways by reducing weight and
waist circumference, body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage and waist fat percentage;
improving glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity; and decreasing the risk of metabolic
syndrome and diabetes ( Raninen et al., 2011; Satija and Hu, 2012). Fibers in millet have been
shown to help reduce the risk of gallstones. Food rich in insoluble fibers canspeed up the transit
of undigested food through the colon and also reduce the secretion of bile acids which prevents
the formation of gall stones (Njeze 2013; Mounika and Sireesha, 2021)

The term whole grain may be used for a food if the weight of that food contains more than 30%
whole grain or bran (Ross et al.,2017). Consuming whole grains in addition to the benefits of
grain fibers confers a wide range of other so-called protective compounds, including vitamins,
minerals, antioxidants (some of which are related to fiber), phytosterols, unsaturated fatty acids
and lignins (Slavin, 2003) . The content of Table 4 presents the main dietary fiber from cereal
grains that have been shown to have beneficial effects on cardiovascular health.

β-Glucan is a non-starch polysaccharide composed of linear glucose chains, found in cereals,

such as oats and barley, which contain it in similar concentrations (Talati et al., 2009). Studies
have examined the relationship between β-glucan and cardiovascular health. Results showed that
2-10 g/day of soluble fiber from oats (primarily β-glucan) resulted in a small but significant
decrease in total cholesterol (Talati et al., 2009). Consumption of 3 g per day of soluble fiber
from three bowls (28 g each) of oatmeal could reduce total cholesterol by about 2% and at the
population level, such a reduction could reduce the incidence of coronary heart disease by about
4%. People with particularly high total cholesterol levels (≥ 229 mg/dL) may benefit from this
cholesterol reduction (Ripsin et al., 2015).

Arabinoxylan is a polysaccharide fiber with a xylose backbone and arabinose side chains that
constitutes nearly 70% of the non-starch polysaccharide in wheat bran and 90% in wheat
endosperm (Lu et al., 2000). Its consumption has been associated with better blood sugar control.

Starch, which is found in abundance in the endosperm of cereal grains, is composed of amylose,
a linear polymer of glucose, and amylopectin, a branched polymer of glucose. In many foods, a
small proportion of the starch is resistant to the normal digestive process (typically 0-5% of the
starch in grain products), although for some foods, such as legumes, this percentage is higher e.g.
10-20% for some beans (Englyst et al., 2007). This resistant starch behaves like a dietary fiber.
Five main subtypes of resistant starch have been identified according to their structure or source:

- starch that is physically inaccessible to digestive enzymes, which is called type 1 resistant
starch (RS1) and is found in whole or partially milled grains and whole grains foods;

- starch resistant to digestion due to the nature of the starch granules which is called type 2
resistant starch (RS2) and is found in raw potatoes, unripe bananas, some legumes and high
amylose corn;

- starch that forms from amylose and amylopectin retrograded during food processing is called
resistant starch type 3 (RS3) and is found in cooked and cooled foods such as potatoes, bread and
cornflakes;

- resistant starch type 4 (RS4) is produced by chemical modification. Because each type has its
own physical and chemical properties that influence the rate and site of fermentation in the
human gut, the properties associated with one type cannot necessarily be extrapolated to other
types (Englyst et al., 2007).

- Resistant starch type 5 (RS5) is a starch capable of forming complexes between amylose, long
branched chains of amylopectin and lipids (Cione et al., 2021; Maina et al., 2021).

In view of their involvement and role in the diet and well-being of the population, strategies are
developed and actions are undertaken to encourage dietary fiber consumption.

4. COMPOSITION
DF includes primarily polysaccharides, but also oligosaccharides and substances from plant cell
walls associated with the NSP. The common characteristics are that these escape digestion in the
small intestine and reaches the large intestine, where a proportion undergo fermentation; hence
the intrinsic effect on metabolism and disease risk are likely to be mediated through their
properties as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. The majority of DF constituents are
represented by carbohydrates: poly and oligosaccharides (Robertson et al., 2000). Similar to
oligosaccharides, polysaccharide molecules are composed of glycosil units in linear or branched
arrangements. The degree of polymerisation (DP) varies from less than 100 (only a few of them)
to 10,000–15,000 (cellulose) with the majority of DF having a DP ranging between 200 and
3,000. Each type of polysaccharide is characterised by its monosaccharide unit and the nature of
linkages between them.

Chemical composition of fiber

Fig. 1. Major polysaccharide components of dietary fiber. Cellulose is a linear chain of from one
to four linked glucose units. Pectic substances contain D-galacturonic acid as the major
component; the extent of methylation of carboxyl groups is variable. Hemicelluloses are a
heterogeneous group of polysaccharides which are usually branched. The major component
sugars of the backbone and sidechains are illustrated.

Structural Features of Dietary Fibres

Dietary fibre as a class of compounds includes a mixture of plant carbohydrate polymers

(Thebaudin, Harrington, & Bourgeois, 1997; Rodríguez et al., 2006; Mongeau, 2003; García
Herrera et al., 2010), both oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, e.g., cellulose, hemicelluloses,
pectic substances, gums, resistant starch, inulin, that may be associated with lignin and other
non-carbohydrate components (e.g., polyphenols, waxes, saponins, cutin, phytates, and resistant
protein). Dietary fibre is composed of nondigestible carbohydrate, lignin and other associated
substances of plant origin, fibres of animal sources and modified or synthetic nondigestible
carbohydrate polymers. Cereals are the principal source of cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses,
whereas fruits and vegetables are the primary sources of pectin, gums and mucilage (Normand,
Ory, & Mod, 1987; Elleuch et al., 2011). Each polysaccharide is characterised by its sugar
residues and by the nature of the bond between them (Table 1) (Elleuch et al., 2011). Resistant
starch and resistant protein withstand digestion in the small intestine. Resistant starch is
composed of four groups (RS1: physical inaccessible starch, RS2: ungelatinised starch granules,
RS3: retrograded starch and RS4: chemically modified starch) (Fuentes- Zaragoza, Riquelme-
Navarrete, Sánchez-Zapata, & Pérez-Álvarez, 2010).
The chemical nature of fibres is complex; dietary fibres are constituted of a mixture of chemical
entities. The choice of analytic method to investigate fibres depends on the composition of each
particular fibre (Elleuch et al., 2011). Larrauri (1999) described the “perfect fibre” as having the
following characteristics:
• It must not contain any components that are nutritionally offensive.
• To maximise its use, it must be of high concentrate in a small quantity.
• It should have no taste and no negative odour, colour or texture effects.
• It should contain a balance between soluble and insoluble fibre with an acceptable presence of
bioactive compounds.
• Its addition must not affect the food it is being added to, but it must also have a long shelf life.
• It should work harmoniously with food processing.
• It should have a positive consumer image.
• It should contain the expected physiological effects.
• It should be in an adequate price (Kunzek, Müller, Vetter, & Godeck, 2002; Larrauri, 1999;
O'Shea et al., 2012; Pomeranz 1991; Saura-Calixto and Larrauri 1996).

5. PROPERTIES
The physical properties of polysaccharides are dominated by their conformation (sometimes
described as ordered or disordered ‘random coil’ chain geometry) and the way they interact with
one another. The chemical structures and chain conformations of DFs dictate their physical
characteristics, which may have profound effects on their physiological role as constituents of
digest, and may induce both local and systemic responses. Some of the most important physical
characteristics of DF include: hydration properties, solubility/dispersability in water, rheological
properties, bulk due to non-digestibility, the ability to adsorb bile acids, fermentability by gut
microflora and surface area characteristics.

Physico-chemical properties of dietary fibre

Dietary fibre is a complex mixture of polysaccharides with many different functions and
activities as it passes through the gastrointestinal tract. Many of these functions and activities
depend on their physico-chemical properties. Some of these properties of dietary fibre are
discussed below:

Particle size and bulk volume

Particle size plays an important role in controlling a number of events occurring in the digestive
tract i.e. transit time, fermentation, fecal excretion. The range of particle size depends on the type
of cell walls present in the foods, and on their degree of processing. Particle size of fibre may
vary during transit in the digestive tract as a result of chewing, grinding and bacterial degradation
in the large intestine. Raghavendra et al. (2006) evaluated the grinding characteristics of coconut
residue and observed that the reduction in the particle size from 1,127–550 μm resulted in
increased hydration properties, which may be due to increase in surface area and total pore
volume as well as structural modification. Beyond 550 μm, the hydration properties were found
to decrease with decrease in particle size during grinding. The fat absorption capacity was also
reported to increase with decrease in particle size.

Surface area characteristics

Porosity and available surface can influence the fermentation of dietary fibre (availability to
microbial degradation in the colon) while the regiochemistry of the surface layer may play a role
in some physiochemical properties (adsorption or binding of some molecules) accounting for
some physiological effects of dietary fibre. The porosity and surface available for bacteria or
molecular probes such as enzymes will depend on the architecture of the fibre, which is related
to its origin and processing history (Guillon et al. 1998).

Hydration properties

The hydration properties partly determine the fate of dietary fibre in the digestive tract (induction
of fermentation) and account for some of their physiological effects (fecal bulking of minimally
fermented dietary fibre). Swelling and water retention capacity provide a general view of fibre
hydration and will provide information useful for fibre supplemented foods. Water absorption
provides more information on the fibre, in particular its substrate pore volume. It helps our
understanding of the behaviour of fibre in foods or during gut transit. Processes, such as
grinding, drying, heating or extrusion cooking for example, modifies the physical properties of
the fibre matrix and also affect the hydration properties (Thibault et al. 1992). The environmental
conditions such as temperature, pH, ionic strength, dielectric constant of the surrounding solution
and nature of the ions can also influence the hydration characteristics of fibre containing poly-
electrolytes (charged groups such as carboxyl in fibres rich in pectin, carboxyl and sulfate groups
in fibres from algae) (Fleury and Lahaye 1991; Renard et al. 1994).

Camire and Flint (1991) compared the effects of extrusioncooking and baking on the dietary
fibre composition and hydration capacity of corn meal, oat meal and potato peels. They observed
an increase in total non-starch polysaccharides in oat meal and potato peels with both processes,
but the ratio of soluble to insoluble non-starch polysaccharides was higher in the extruded
samples. The process of extrusion also reported to increase the hydration capacity of corn meal
and oat meal but the hydration capacity of processed potato peels was observed to be lower than
raw peels.

Nassar et al. (2008) analyzed that orange peel and pulp had high amount of dietary fibre (78.87
and 70.64%) with more proportion of insoluble dietary fibre, high level of water and oil holding
capacity. Incorporation of orange peel and pulp in biscuit formulation showed an increase in
water absorption, dough development time and stability, while mixing tolerance was decreased.

Solubility and viscosity

Solubility has profound effects on fibre functionality. It is also well established that soluble
viscous polysaccharides can impede the digestion and absorption of nutrients from the gut. If the
polysaccharide structure is such that molecules fit together in a crystalline array, the polymer is
likely to be energetically more stable in the solid state than in solution (Guillon and Champ
2000). More branching (like gum acacia), the presence of ionic groups (e.g. pectin
methoxylation) and the potential for inter unit positional bonding (like β-glucans with mixed β-1-
3 and β-1-4 linkages) increases the solubility. Alterations of the monosaccharide units or their
molecular form (α- or β- form) further increases solubility (for example, gum acacia,
arabinogalactan and xanthan gum). Aravantinos-Zafiris et al. (1994) proposed orange peel
residues to be good source of dietary fibre. After pectin extraction of orange peels by nitric acid,
orange peel residue was extracted once with ethanol and five times with water at 30 °C for 30
min. The fibre fraction (ff) obtained contained 213 g/kg soluble and 626 g/kg of insoluble dietary
fibre on a dry basis. It was observed that fibre fraction had comparable water and oil absorption
capacities with commercial fibre products.

Fuentes-Alventosa et al. (2009) prepared high dietary fibre powders from asparagus by-products
and analyzed its chemical composition and functional characteristics. Factors such as extraction
treatment (intense, 90 min at 60 °C or gentle 1 min at room temperature), solvent extraction
(water or 96% ethanol) and drying system (freeze drying or oven treatment at 60 °C for 16 h)
were studied for extraction. Intense treatment in water was found to contain highest dietary fibre
content and lowest was found in fibres gently extracted in ethanol. The drying system employed
also affected fibre surfaces. Solubility and oil holding capacity of freeze-dried fibre was
observed to be higher than oven-dried fibres.

The viscosity of the fluid can be roughly described as its resistance to flow. Generally, as the
molecular weight or chain length of fibre increases, the viscosity of fibre in solution increases.
However, the concentration of the fibre in solution, the temperature, pH, shear conditions of
processing and ionic strength all substantially depend on the fibre used. Primarily, long chain
polymers, such as the gums (guar gum, tragacanth gum) bind significant water and exhibit high
solution viscosity. However, in general, highly soluble fibres, that are highly branched or are
relatively short chain polymers such as gum arabic have low viscosities.

The effect of wheat bran (natural and toasted) and flavour (pineapple and pina colada) on yogurt
quality was studied by Aportela-Palacios et al. (2005). It was observed that the pH increased and
syneresis decreased with increasing fibre (1.5, 3.0 and 4.5% by weight). Natural bran had a
greater effect on consistency than the toasted bran and the yogurt flavoured with pina colada had
higher viscosity than yogurt flavoured with pineapple. Garcia-Perez et al. (2005) reported that
yogurt containing 1% orange fibre had a lighter, more red and yellow colour and showed lower
syneresis than the control and yogurt containing 0.6% and 0.8% orange fibre. Addition of 0.5%
barley β- glucan or inulin and guar gum (>2%) were effective in improving serum retention and
viscoelastic properties of low-fat yogurt (Brennan and Tudorica 2008).

Incorporation of fibre obtained from asparagus shoots increased yogurt consistency and imparted
a yellowishgreenish colour to the yogurt (Sanz et al. 2008).

Adsorption/binding of ions and organic molecules

Fibre has been suspected of impairing mineral absorption because charged polysaccharide (such
as pectins through their carboxyl groups) and associated substances such as phytates in cereal
fibres have been shown invitro to bind metal ions. Charged polysaccharides do not have effect on
mineral and trace element absorption while associated substances such as phytates can have a
negative effect. The ability of various

fibres to sequester and even chemically bind bile acids has been suggested as a potential
mechanism by which certain dietary fibres rich in uronic acids and phenolic compounds may
have a hypocholesterolemic action. The environmental conditions (duration of exposure, pH) the
physical and chemical forms of fibres and nature of bile acids may influence the adsorption
capacity of fibre (Dongowski and Ehwald 1998; Thibault et al. 1992).

6. APPLICATIONS
Application of dietary fibre in functional foods
Fibre in foods can change their consistency, texture, rheological behavior and sensory
characteristic of the end products, the emergence of novel sources of fibres, have been offering
new opportunities in their use in food industry (Guillon and Champ 2000). Fibre can even be
produced from sources that might otherwise be considered waste products. For example, wheat
straw, soy hulls, oat hulls, peanut and almond skins, corn stalks and cobs, spent brewer’s grain
and waste portions of fruits and vegetables processed in large quantities can be converted into
fibre ingredients, which may be highly functional in certain food applications (Katz 1996).
Dietary fibre holds all the characteristics required to be considered as an important ingredient in
the formulation of functional foods, due to its beneficial health effects.
Among foods enriched in fibre, the most known and consumed are breakfast cereals and bakery
products such as integral breads and cookies (Cho and Prosky 1999; Nelson 2001), as well as
milk and meat derived products. Tudoric et al. (2002) observed that the addition of soluble and
insoluble dietary fibre ingredients influenced the overall quality (biochemical composition,
cooking properties and textural characteristics) of both raw and cooked pasta. 262 J
Glucose release is also significantly reduced by the addition of soluble dietary fibre. For pastas,
the anti sticking characteristics of certain fibres of oats, barley, soy, rice bran etc. help to
facilitate the extrusion process and may also contribute to dough strength or improves steam
table life of the cooked pasta. Addition of gums to certain Asian noodle products make the
noodles firmer and easier to rehydrate upon cooking or soaking (Hou and Kruk 1998). In bread
making, the incorporation of fibre ingredients reported to increase the water hydration values of
flour. Toma et al. (1979) studied that the bread with potato peel instead of wheat bran was
superior in the contents of certain minerals, in total dietary fibre, in water-holding capacity, in its
lower quantity of starchy components and its lack of phytate. Cakes prepared from 25% apple
pomace and wheat flour blend had high acceptable quality. Addition of apple pomace also avoids
the use of any other flavouring ingredients as it had already a pleasant fruity flavour (Sudha et al.
2007). Nassar et al. (2008) suggested that 15% of orange peel and pulp could be incorporated as
an ingredient in making biscuits, as they are a suitable source of dietary fibre with associated
bioactive compounds (flavonoids, carotenoids etc.). The addition of dietary fibre to bakery
products also improves their nutritional quality since it makes ossible to decrease the fat content,
by using dietary fibre as substitutive of fat without loss of quality (Byrne 1997; Martin 1999).
Sharif et al. (2009) concluded that replacement of wheat flour with defatted rice bran could be
used without adversely affecting physical and sensory characteristics of cookies. Rice bran
supplementation significantly improved the dietary fibre, mineral and protein content of the
cookies and moreover, cost of production was also reduced with proportionate increase of
supplementation. Ice creams and frozen yogurts have higher fat levels, which have its particular
functionalities. Addition of fibre ingredients such as alginates, guar gums and cellulose gels not
only replaces fat but also serves to provide viscosity, improve emulsion, foam, freeze/thaw
stability, control melting properties, reduce syneresis, promotes formation of smaller ice crystals
and facilitate extrusion (Alexander 1997). Guar gum, pectins and inulin are also added during
cheese processing to decrease its% fat without losing its organoleptic characteristics, such as
texture and flavour.
In case of beverages and drinks, the addition of dietary fibre increases their viscosity and
stability, soluble fibre being the most used because it is more dispersible in water than insoluble
fibre. Some examples of soluble fibres are those from fractions of grains and multi-fruits
(Bollinger 2001), pectins (Bjerrum 1996), β-glucans, cellulose beet-root fibre (Nelson 2001). Oat
fibre can be incorporated into milk shakes, instant type-breakfast drinks, fruit and vegetable
juices, ice tea, sports drinks, cappuccino and wine. Other beverages that can benefit from the
addition of fibre include liquid diet beverages- both those created for people with special dietary
needs as well as weight loss or mealreplacement beverages (Hegenbart 1995). Larrauri et al.
(1995) described the manufacture of powdered drink containing dietary fibre from pineapple
peel. The product, called FIBRALAX, contained 25% dietary fibre and 66.2% digestible
carbohydrates, and provided a mild laxative effect.
Some types of soluble fibres, such as pectins, inulin, guar gum and carboxymethyl-cellulose, are
utilized as functional ingredients in the milk products (Nelson 2001). Fermented milk enriched
with citrus fibre (orange and lemon) had good acceptability (Sendra et al. 2008). Staffolo et al.
(2004) observed the yogurt fortified with 1.3% wheat, bamboo, inulin and apple fibres appeared
to be promising avenue for increased fibre intake, with higher consumer acceptability. Hashim et
al. (2009) studied the effect of fortification with date fibre, a by-product of date syrup
production, on fresh yogurt. Control yogurt (without fibre), yogurt fortified with 1.5, 3.0 and
4.5% date fibre and yogurt with 1.5% wheat bran were prepared. Yogurt fortified with 3% date
fibre resulted with similar sourness, sweetness, firmness, smoothness and overall acceptability as
the control yogurt. As both fibre and yogurt are well known for their beneficial health effects,
together will constitute a functional food with commercial applications.
Dietary fibres based on pectins, cellulose, soy, wheat, maize or rice isolates and beet fibre can be
used for improving the texture of meat products, such as sausages, salami and at the same time,
are adequate to prepare low-fat products, such as ‘Dietetic hamburgers’. Also, since they have
the ability of increasing the water retention capacity, their inclusion in the meat matrix
contributes to maintain its juiciness (Chevance et al. 2000; Mansour and Khalil 1999).
In the production of synthetic meats (meat analogs from plant protein), addition of psyllium
mucilloid aids in modifying the texture to impart a meat- like chewiness (Chan and Wypyszyk
1988). Oat bran or oat fibre appears to be suitable fat replacement in ground beef and pork
sausage products due to its ability to retain water and emulate particle definition in ground meat
in terms of both colour and texture (Verma and Banerjee 2010). In an attempt to develop low
salt, low fat and high fibre functional chicken nuggets, Verma et al. (2009) incorporated various
fibre sources like, pea hull flour, gram hull flour, apple pulp and bottle gourd in different
combinations at 10% level.
. Utilization of Dietary Fibres in Food Industry

To be acceptable, a dietary fibre added to a food product must perform in a satisfactory manner
as a food ingredient (Jaime et al., 2002; Figuerola et al., 2005). From a functionality perspective,
citrus fibre can play a number of roles: (i) it may be used as a tool for improving texture, (ii) as a
bulking agent in reduced-sugar applications, (iii) to manage moisture in the replacement of fat,
(iv) to add colour, and (v) as natural antioxidant (Viuda-Martos et al., 2010; Ramirez-Santiago et
a., 2010). Dietary fibres can provide a multitude of functional properties when they are
incorporated in food systems. Thus, fibres addition contributes to the modification and
improvement of the texture, sensory characteristics and shelf-life of foods due to their
waterbinding capacity, gel-forming ability, fat mimetic, antisticking, anticlumping, texturising
and thickening effects (Dello Staffolo, Bertola, Martino, & Bevukaqcua, 2004; Gelroth &
Ranhotra, 2001; Thebaudin et al., 1997). The literature contains many reports about additions of
dietary fibre to food products such as baked goods, beverages, confectionery, dairy, frozen dairy,
meat, pasta and soups. Most commonly, dietary fibres are incorporated into bakery products to
prolong freshness, thanks to their capacity to retain water, thereby reducing economic losses.
Fibres can modify bread loaf volume, its springiness, the softness of the bread crumb and the
firmness of the loaf (Sangnark & Noomhorm, 2004; Wang, Rosell, & Barber, 2002). In addition,
introduction of dietary fibre in meat products has been shown to improve cooking yield, water
binding, fat binding, and texture (Cofrades et al., 2000). In the case of beverages and drinks, the
addition of dietary fibre increases their viscosity and stability, soluble fiber being the most used
because it is more dispersible in water than insoluble fiber. Some examples of these soluble
fibers are those from fractions of grains and multi-fruits (Bollinger, 2001; Rodríguez et al.,
2006), pectins (Bjerrum, 1996; Rodríguez et al., 2006), ß-glucans, cellulose beet-root fibre
(Nelson, 2001), polidextrose (Mitchell, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2006), etc. Dietary fibre and soy
protein preparations due to their functional properties are extensively used in many branches of
the food industry, including the meat sector (Bilska, Krysztofiak, Sęķ & Uchman, 2002;
Hoogenkamp, 2007; Jiménez-Colmenero, Ayo and Carballo, 2005; Makała & Olkiewicz, 2004;
Pietrasik & Duda, 2000; Waszkowiak, Górecka, & Janitz, 2001; Waszkowiak and Szymandera-
Buszka 2008). Dietary fibres from different sources have been used to replace wheat flour in the
preparation of bakery products. Pomeranz, Shogren, Finney, and Bechtel (1977) used cellulose,
wheat bran and oat bran in bread making. Potato peel, a by-product from potato industry, rich in
dietary fibre, was used as a source of dietary fibre in bread making (Toma, Orr, D’Appolonia,
Dintzis, & Tabekhia, 1979; Sudha et al., 2007). Among foods enriched in fibre, the most known
and consumed are breakfast cereal and bakery products such as integral breads and cookies (Cho
& Prosky, 1999; Nelson, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2006), as well as milk and meat derived
products.

18 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research

Enrichment of bakery products has traditionally consisted of the addition of unrefined cereals;
however it is starting to use other DF sources, mainly fruits, which present beter nutritional
quality, higher amounts of total and soluble fibre, less caloric content, stronger antioxidant
capacity and greater grade of fermentability and water retention (Grigelmo-Miguel & Martı´n-
Belloso, 1999b; Larrauri et al., 1996; Saura-Calixto, 1998; Rodríguez et al., 2006). The addition
of DF to bakery products also improves their nutritional quality since it makes possible to
decrease the fat content, by using DF as substitutive of fat without loss of quality (Byrne, 1997;
Martin, 1999; Rodríguez et al., 2006). Isolated fibre components such as resistant starch and ß-
glucans are also used for increasing fibre content in pastries, breakfast cereal, etc. (Knuckles,
Hudson, Chiu, & Sayre, 1997; Rodríguez et al., 2006). The use of fibres in dairy products is also
widespread: e.g., inulin introduces numerous improvements into dairy products. It improves
body and mouthfeel in cheese analogues or ice cream, and reduces synaeresis in yoghurt and
other fermented milk products (Blecker et al., 2001). For the elaboration of jams and
marmalades, the most common added-fibres are those consisting of pectins with different degree
of esterification, which mainly comes from fruits and are a factor in keeping the stability of the
final product. (Grigelmo-Miguel & Martı´n-Belloso, 1999b; 2000; Rodríguez et al., 2006). In the
case of low-calorie chocolates and derivatives, fibre compounds such as inuline and
oligofructose are used as sugar substitutes (Gonze & Van der Schueren, 1997; Rodríguez et al.,
2006). Citrus fibre may be incorporated into a broad range of products. For example meat
products (Alesón-Carbonell, Fernandez-Lopez, Perez-Alvarez, & Kuri, 2005; Fernández-López
et al., 2007), fish (Sanchez-Zapata et al., 2008; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010) and dairy product
(Sendra et al., 2008; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010). Although citrus fibre itself may be invisible in
the food products, it is fast becoming one of the most appreciated ingredients in today’s market
place.

The contents of dietary fiber in some foods are given Table 5 (Jalili et al., 2001; Ekici and
Ercoskun, 2007). Servings of commonly consumed grains, fruits, and vegetables contain only 1–
3 g of dietary fiber (Marlett & Cheung, 1997). Legumes and high-fiber bread and cereal products
supply more dietary fiber, but are not commonly consumed (Slavin, 2003).

DISCUSSION

Recommended daily requirement of fibre intake.

Fibre as a food ingredient can offer physiological functionalities for each technological property,
as shown in Table 3 (Elleuch et al., 2011).
Recommended adult intakes for total fibre in countries which have developed guidelines range
from 21 to 40 g/day, and World Health Organization has recommended that total fibre intake be
25 g/day (WHO/FAO, 2003; Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, 2001). However,
estimates of actual total dietary fibre consumption range from 14 to 29 g/day, with only a few
countries reporting fibre consumption at or above the WHO recommendation, and with most
reported values below either national or WHO recommendations (Gray, 2006). Although
numerous health organisations suggest increasing the consumption of DF, with spesific
recommendations of 30±45 g per day (Bonfeld, 1985; Spiller, 1986; Eastwood, 1987; Schweizer
& Würsch, 1991; Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999a), daily intake for total fibre for adults has been
set at 38 g for men and 25 g for women (Trumbo, Schlicker, Yates, & Poos, 2002; Soukoulis et
al., 2006; Duxbury, 2004; Schofield, 2004; Ramirez-Santiago et al., 2010), people in developed
countries currently only eat about 11±12 g per day (Saura-Calixto, 1993; Grigelmo-Miguel et al.,
1999a). Recommended intakes for fiber are also included for children and teenagers (Table 4).
Over the years, dietary fibre has received much positive attention with regard to its potential as a
pharmafood, due to its ability to reduce cholesterol, diabetes and coronary heart disease and ease
constipation (Telrandhe et al., 2012; O'Shea et al., 2012). In addition, using of too much fiber can
prevent as iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium the absorption of minerals by the body exactly.
Using of high fiber in a short time may occur gas, bloating, and abdominal cramps. Therefore,
gradually increasing used fiber in nutrition will protect us from these side effects. (Anonymous,
2013).