Backpropagation

In machine learning, backpropagation (backprop,[1] BP) is a widely used algorithm for training feedforward neural
networks. Generalizations of backpropagation exist for other artificial neural networks (ANNs), and for functions
generally. These classes of algorithms are all referred to generically as "backpropagation".[2] In fitting a neural
network, backpropagation computes the gradient of the loss function with respect to the weights of the network for
a single input–output example, and does so efficiently, unlike a naive direct computation of the gradient with respect
to each weight individually. This efficiency makes it feasible to use gradient methods for training multilayer networks,
updating weights to minimize loss; gradient descent, or variants such as stochastic gradient descent, are commonly
used. The backpropagation algorithm works by computing the gradient of the loss function with respect to each
weight by the chain rule, computing the gradient one layer at a time, iterating backward from the last layer to avoid
redundant calculations of intermediate terms in the chain rule; this is an example of dynamic programming.[3]
The term backpropagation strictly refers only to the algorithm for computing the gradient, not how the gradient is
used; however, the term is often used loosely to refer to the entire learning algorithm, including how the gradient is
used, such as by stochastic gradient descent.[4] Backpropagation generalizes the gradient computation in the delta
rule, which is the single-layer version of backpropagation, and is in turn generalized by automatic differentiation,
where backpropagation is a special case of reverse accumulation (or "reverse mode").[5] The term backpropagation
and its general use in neural networks was announced in Rumelhart, Hinton & Williams (1986a), then elaborated and
popularized in Rumelhart, Hinton & Williams (1986b), but the technique was independently rediscovered many times,
and had many predecessors dating to the 1960s; see § History.[6] A modern overview is given in the deep learning
textbook by Goodfellow, Bengio & Courville (2016).[7]

Overview

Backpropagation computes the gradient in weight space of a feedforward neural network, with respect to a loss
function. Denote:

: input (vector of features)

: target output
For classification, output will be a vector of class probabilities (e.g., , and target output is a
specific class, encoded by the one-hot/dummy variable (e.g., ).

: loss function or "cost function"[a]

For classification, this is usually cross entropy (XC, log loss), while for regression it is usually squared error loss
(SEL).

: the number of layers

 : the weights between layer and , where is the weight between the -th node in layer
[b]
and the -th node in layer

: activation functions at layer

For classification the last layer is usually the logistic function for binary classification, and softmax (softargmax)
for multi-class classification, while for the hidden layers this was traditionally a sigmoid function (logistic
function or others) on each node (coordinate), but today is more varied, with rectifier (ramp, ReLU) being
common.

In the derivation of backpropagation, other intermediate quantities are used; they are introduced as needed below.
Bias terms are not treated specially, as they correspond to a weight with a fixed input of 1. For the purpose of
backpropagation, the specific loss function and activation functions do not matter, as long as they and their
derivatives can be evaluated efficiently. Traditional activation functions include but are not limited to sigmoid, tanh,
and ReLU. Since, swish,[8] mish,[9] and other activation functions were proposed as well.

The overall network is a combination of function composition and matrix multiplication:

For a training set there will be a set of input–output pairs, . For each input–output pair in the
training set, the loss of the model on that pair is the cost of the difference between the predicted output and
the target output :

Note the distinction: during model evaluation, the weights are fixed, while the inputs vary (and the target output may
be unknown), and the network ends with the output layer (it does not include the loss function). During model
training, the input–output pair is fixed, while the weights vary, and the network ends with the loss function.
Backpropagation computes the gradient for a fixed input–output pair , where the weights can vary. Each
individual component of the gradient, can be computed by the chain rule; however, doing this separately
for each weight is inefficient. Backpropagation efficiently computes the gradient by avoiding duplicate calculations
and not computing unnecessary intermediate values, by computing the gradient of each layer – specifically, the
gradient of the weighted input of each layer, denoted by – from back to front.

Informally, the key point is that since the only way a weight in affects the loss is through its effect on the next
layer, and it does so linearly, are the only data you need to compute the gradients of the weights at layer , and then
you can compute the previous layer and repeat recursively. This avoids inefficiency in two ways. Firstly, it avoids
duplication because when computing the gradient at layer , you do not need to recompute all the derivatives on later
layers each time. Secondly, it avoids unnecessary intermediate calculations because at each stage
it directly computes the gradient of the weights with respect to the ultimate output (the loss), rather than
unnecessarily computing the derivatives of the values of hidden layers with respect to changes in weights
.

Backpropagation can be expressed for simple feedforward networks in terms of matrix multiplication, or more
generally in terms of the adjoint graph.

Matrix multiplication

For the basic case of a feedforward network, where nodes in each layer are connected only to nodes in the
immediate next layer (without skipping any layers), and there is a loss function that computes a scalar loss for the
final output, backpropagation can be understood simply by matrix multiplication.[c] Essentially, backpropagation
evaluates the expression for the derivative of the cost function as a product of derivatives between each layer from
right to left – "backwards" – with the gradient of the weights between each layer being a simple modification of the
partial products (the "backwards propagated error").

Given an input–output pair , the loss is:

To compute this, one starts with the input and works forward; denote the weighted input of each layer as and
the output of layer as the activation . For backpropagation, the activation as well as the derivatives
(evaluated at ) must be cached for use during the backwards pass.

The derivative of the loss in terms of the inputs is given by the chain rule; note that each term is a total derivative,
evaluated at the value of the network (at each node) on the input :

where is a Hadamard product, that is an element-wise product.

These terms are: the derivative of the loss function;[d] the derivatives of the activation functions;[e] and the matrices
of weights:[f]

The gradient is the transpose of the derivative of the output in terms of the input, so the matrices are transposed
and the order of multiplication is reversed, but the entries are the same:
Backpropagation then consists essentially of evaluating this expression from right to left (equivalently, multiplying
the previous expression for the derivative from left to right), computing the gradient at each layer on the way; there is
an added step, because the gradient of the weights isn't just a subexpression: there's an extra multiplication.

Introducing the auxiliary quantity for the partial products (multiplying from right to left), interpreted as the "error at
level " and defined as the gradient of the input values at level :

Note that is a vector, of length equal to the number of nodes in level ; each component is interpreted as the "cost
attributable to (the value of) that node".

The gradient of the weights in layer is then:

The factor of is because the weights between level and affect level proportionally to the inputs
(activations): the inputs are fixed, the weights vary.

The can easily be computed recursively, going from right to left, as:

The gradients of the weights can thus be computed using a few matrix multiplications for each level; this is
backpropagation.

Compared with naively computing forwards (using the for illustration):

there are two key differences with backpropagation:

1. Computing in terms of avoids the obvious duplicate multiplication of layers and beyond.

2. Multiplying starting from – propagating the error backwards – means that each step simply multiplies a
vector ( ) by the matrices of weights and derivatives of activations . By contrast, multiplying
forwards, starting from the changes at an earlier layer, means that each multiplication multiplies a matrix by a
matrix. This is much more expensive, and corresponds to tracking every possible path of a change in one layer
forward to changes in the layer (for multiplying by , with additional multiplications for the
derivatives of the activations), which unnecessarily computes the intermediate quantities of how weight
changes affect the values of hidden nodes.

Adjoint graph

For more general graphs, and other advanced variations, backpropagation can be understood in terms of automatic
differentiation, where backpropagation is a special case of reverse accumulation (or "reverse mode").[5]

Intuition

Motivation
The goal of any supervised learning algorithm is to find a function that best maps a set of inputs to their correct
output. The motivation for backpropagation is to train a multi-layered neural network such that it can learn the
appropriate internal representations to allow it to learn any arbitrary mapping of input to output.[10]

Learning as an optimization problem

To understand the mathematical derivation of the backpropagation algorithm, it helps to first develop some intuition
about the relationship between the actual output of a neuron and the correct output for a particular training example.
Consider a simple neural network with two input units, one output unit and no hidden units, and in which each neuron
uses a linear output (unlike most work on neural networks, in which mapping from inputs to outputs is non-linear)[g]
that is the weighted sum of its input.
A simple neural network with two input units (each with a single input) and one output unit (with two inputs)

Initially, before training, the weights will be set randomly. Then the neuron learns from training examples, which in
this case consist of a set of tuples where and are the inputs to the network and t is the correct
output (the output the network should produce given those inputs, when it has been trained). The initial network,
given and , will compute an output y that likely differs from t (given random weights). A loss function
is used for measuring the discrepancy between the target output t and the computed output y. For regression
analysis problems the squared error can be used as a loss function, for classification the categorical crossentropy
can be used.

As an example consider a regression problem using the square error as a loss:

where E is the discrepancy or error.

Consider the network on a single training case: . Thus, the input and are 1 and 1 respectively and the
correct output, t is 0. Now if the relation is plotted between the network's output y on the horizontal axis and the error
E on the vertical axis, the result is a parabola. The minimum of the parabola corresponds to the output y which
minimizes the error E. For a single training case, the minimum also touches the horizontal axis, which means the
error will be zero and the network can produce an output y that exactly matches the target output t. Therefore, the
problem of mapping inputs to outputs can be reduced to an optimization problem of finding a function that will
produce the minimal error.
Error surface of a linear neuron for a single training case

However, the output of a neuron depends on the weighted sum of all its inputs:

where and are the weights on the connection from the input units to the output unit. Therefore, the error also
depends on the incoming weights to the neuron, which is ultimately what needs to be changed in the network to
enable learning.

In this example, upon injecting the training data , the loss function becomes

Then, the loss function takes the form of a parabolic cylinder with its base directed along . Since all
sets of weights that satisfy minimize the loss function, in this case additional constraints are required to
converge to a unique solution. Additional constraints could either be generated by setting specific conditions to the
weights, or by injecting additional training data.

One commonly used algorithm to find the set of weights that minimizes the error is gradient descent. By
backpropagation, the steepest descent direction is calculated of the loss function versus the present synaptic
weights. Then, the weights can be modified along the steepest descent direction, and the error is minimized in an
efficient way.

Derivation

The gradient descent method involves calculating the derivative of the loss function with respect to the weights of
the network. This is normally done using backpropagation. Assuming one output neuron,[h] the squared error
function is

where

is the loss for the output and target value ,

is the target output for a training sample, and
is the actual output of the output neuron.

For each neuron , its output is defined as

where the activation function is non-linear and differentiable (even if the ReLU is not in one point). A historically
used activation function is the logistic function:

which has a convenient derivative of:

The input to a neuron is the weighted sum of outputs of previous neurons. If the neuron is in the first layer
after the input layer, the of the input layer are simply the inputs to the network. The number of input units to
the neuron is . The variable denotes the weight between neuron of the previous layer and neuron of the
current layer.

Finding the derivative of the error

Diagram of an artificial neural network to illustrate the notation used here

Calculating the partial derivative of the error with respect to a weight is done using the chain rule twice:

(Eq. 1)

In the last factor of the right-hand side of the above, only one term in the sum depends on , so that

(Eq. 2)

If the neuron is in the first layer after the input layer, is just .

The derivative of the output of neuron with respect to its input is simply the partial derivative of the activation
function:

(Eq. 3)

which for the logistic activation function case is:

This is the reason why backpropagation requires the activation function to be differentiable. (Nevertheless, the ReLU
activation function, which is non-differentiable at 0, has become quite popular, e.g. in AlexNet)
The first factor is straightforward to evaluate if the neuron is in the output layer, because then and

(Eq. 4)

If half of the square error is used as loss function we can rewrite it as

However, if is in an arbitrary inner layer of the network, finding the derivative with respect to is less obvious.

Considering as a function with the inputs being all neurons receiving input from neuron ,

and taking the total derivative with respect to , a recursive expression for the derivative is obtained:

(Eq. 5)

Therefore, the derivative with respect to can be calculated if all the derivatives with respect to the outputs of
the next layer – the ones closer to the output neuron – are known. [Note, if any of the neurons in set were not
connected to neuron , they would be independent of and the corresponding partial derivative under the
summation would vanish to 0.]

Substituting Eq. 2, Eq. 3 Eq.4 and Eq. 5 in Eq. 1 we obtain:

with

if is the logistic function, and the error is the square error:

To update the weight using gradient descent, one must choose a learning rate, . The change in weight

needs to reflect the impact on of an increase or decrease in . If , an increase in increases ;

conversely, if , an increase in decreases . The new is added to the old weight, and the

product of the learning rate and the gradient, multiplied by guarantees that changes in a way that always

decreases . In other words, in the equation immediately below, always changes in such a way that

is decreased:
Second-order gradient descent

Using a Hessian matrix of second-order derivatives of the error function, the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm often
converges faster than first-order gradient descent, especially when the topology of the error function is
complicated.[11][12] It may also find solutions in smaller node counts for which other methods might not converge.[12]
The Hessian can be approximated by the Fisher information matrix.[13]

Loss function

The loss function is a function that maps values of one or more variables onto a real number intuitively representing
some "cost" associated with those values. For backpropagation, the loss function calculates the difference between
the network output and its expected output, after a training example has propagated through the network.

Assumptions

The mathematical expression of the loss function must fulfill two conditions in order for it to be possibly used in
backpropagation.[14] The first is that it can be written as an average over error functions , for
individual training examples, . The reason for this assumption is that the backpropagation algorithm calculates the
gradient of the error function for a single training example, which needs to be generalized to the overall error
function. The second assumption is that it can be written as a function of the outputs from the neural network.

Example loss function

Let be vectors in .
Select an error function measuring the difference between two outputs. The standard choice is the square
of the Euclidean distance between the vectors and :

The error function over training examples can then be written as an average of losses over individual examples:

Limitations

Gradient descent may find a local minimum instead of the global minimum.

Gradient descent with backpropagation is not guaranteed to find the global minimum of the error function, but only
a local minimum; also, it has trouble crossing plateaus in the error function landscape. This issue, caused by the
 non-convexity of error functions in neural networks, was long thought to be a major drawback, but Yann LeCun et
al. argue that in many practical problems, it is not.[15]

Backpropagation learning does not require normalization of input vectors; however, normalization could improve
performance.[16]

Backpropagation requires the derivatives of activation functions to be known at network design time.

History

The term backpropagation and its general use in neural networks was announced in Rumelhart, Hinton & Williams
(1986a), then elaborated and popularized in Rumelhart, Hinton & Williams (1986b), but the technique was
independently rediscovered many times, and had many predecessors dating to the 1960s.[6][17]

The basics of continuous backpropagation were derived in the context of control theory by Henry J. Kelley in 1960,[18]
and by Arthur E. Bryson in 1961.[19][20][21][22][23] They used principles of dynamic programming. In 1962, Stuart
Dreyfus published a simpler derivation based only on the chain rule.[24] Bryson and Ho described it as a multi-stage
dynamic system optimization method in 1969.[25][26] Backpropagation was derived by multiple researchers in the
early 60's[22] and implemented to run on computers as early as 1970 by Seppo Linnainmaa.[27][28][29] Paul Werbos
was first in the US to propose that it could be used for neural nets after analyzing it in depth in his 1974
dissertation.[30] While not applied to neural networks, in 1970 Linnainmaa published the general method for
automatic differentiation (AD).[28][29] Although very controversial, some scientists believe this was actually the first
step toward developing a back-propagation algorithm.[22][23][27][31] In 1973 Dreyfus adapts parameters of controllers
in proportion to error gradients.[32] In 1974 Werbos mentioned the possibility of applying this principle to artificial
neural networks,[30] and in 1982 he applied Linnainmaa's AD method to non-linear functions.[23][33]
Later the Werbos method was rediscovered and described in 1985 by Parker,[34][35] and in 1986 by Rumelhart, Hinton
and Williams.[17][35][36] Rumelhart, Hinton and Williams showed experimentally that this method can generate useful
internal representations of incoming data in hidden layers of neural networks.[10][37][38] Yann LeCun proposed the
modern form of the back-propagation learning algorithm for neural networks in his PhD thesis in 1987. In 1993, Eric
Wan won an international pattern recognition contest through backpropagation.[22][39]

During the 2000s it fell out of favour, but returned in the 2010s, benefitting from cheap, powerful GPU-based
computing systems. This has been especially so in speech recognition, machine vision, natural language processing,
and language structure learning research (in which it has been used to explain a variety of phenomena related to
first[40] and second language learning.[41]).

Error backpropagation has been suggested to explain human brain ERP components like the N400 and P600.[42]

See also

Artificial neural network

Biological neural network

Catastrophic interference

Ensemble learning

AdaBoost

Overfitting

Neural backpropagation

Backpropagation through time

Notes

a. Use for the loss function to allow to be used for the number of layers

b. This follows Nielsen (2015), and means (left) multiplication by the matrix corresponds to converting output values of layer
to input values of layer : columns correspond to input coordinates, rows correspond to output coordinates.

c. This section largely follows and summarizes Nielsen (2015).

d. The derivative of the loss function is a covector, since the loss function is a scalar-valued function of several variables.

e. The activation function is applied to each node separately, so the derivative is just the diagonal matrix of the derivative on each
node. This is often represented as the Hadamard product with the vector of derivatives, denoted by , which is
mathematically identical but better matches the internal representation of the derivatives as a vector, rather than a diagonal
matrix.

f. Since matrix multiplication is linear, the derivative of multiplying by a matrix is just the matrix: .

g. One may notice that multi-layer neural networks use non-linear activation functions, so an example with linear neurons seems
obscure. However, even though the error surface of multi-layer networks are much more complicated, locally they can be
approximated by a paraboloid. Therefore, linear neurons are used for simplicity and easier understanding.

h. There can be multiple output neurons, in which case the error is the squared norm of the difference vector.

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40. Chang, Franklin; Dell, Gary S.; Bock, Kathryn (2006). "Becoming syntactic". Psychological Review. 113 (2): 234–272.
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Psychology. 111: 15–52. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.03.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cogpsych.2019.03.002) .
hdl:21.11116/0000-0003-474D-8 (https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0003-474D-8) . PMID 30921626 (https://pubmed.n
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Further reading

Goodfellow, Ian; Bengio, Yoshua; Courville, Aaron (2016). "6.5 Back-Propagation and Other Differentiation
Algorithms" (https://www.deeplearningbook.org/contents/mlp.html#pf25) . Deep Learning (http://www.deeplearn
ingbook.org) . MIT Press. pp. 200–220. ISBN 9780262035613.

Nielsen, Michael A. (2015). "How the backpropagation algorithm works" (http://neuralnetworksanddeeplearning.co

m/chap2.html) . Neural Networks and Deep Learning (http://neuralnetworksanddeeplearning.com) .
Determination Press.

McCaffrey, James (October 2012). "Neural Network Back-Propagation for Programmers" (https://docs.microsoft.c
om/en-us/archive/msdn-magazine/2012/october/test-run-neural-network-back-propagation-for-programmers) .
MSDN Magazine.

Rojas, Raúl (1996). "The Backpropagation Algorithm" (https://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/chapter/K7.pdf)

(PDF). Neural Networks : A Systematic Introduction. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-60505-3.

External links

Backpropagation neural network tutorial at the Wikiversity

Bernacki, Mariusz; Włodarczyk, Przemysław (2004). "Principles of training multi-layer neural network using
backpropagation" (http://galaxy.agh.edu.pl/~vlsi/AI/backp_t_en/backprop.html) .

Karpathy, Andrej (2016). "Lecture 4: Backpropagation, Neural Networks 1" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i94

OvYb6noo&list=PLkt2uSq6rBVctENoVBg1TpCC7OQi31AlC&index=4) . CS231n. Stanford University. Archived (http
s://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/i94OvYb6noo) from the original on 2021-12-12 – via YouTube.
 "What is Backpropagation Really Doing?" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ilg3gGewQ5U&list=PLZHQObOWTQ
DNU6R1_67000Dx_ZCJB-3pi&index=3) . 3Blue1Brown. November 3, 2017. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/varc
hive/youtube/20211212/Ilg3gGewQ5U) from the original on 2021-12-12 – via YouTube.

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