UPSC CSE

STUDY NOTES
ENVIRONMENT
 INDEX:
 Ecology, Ecosystems & its types,
 Ecotones
 Ecological Succession
 Ecosystem dynamics – Food Chain & Food web, Flow of energy , Tropic Levels
 Biogeochemical cycles

Key Definitions:

Ecology Study of interactions among organisms and with their biophysical environment.
 Individual: A single living being. The basic unit of life that can function
independently. Ex: One lion, one oak tree, or one bacteria
 Species: Group of individuals capable of exchanging genes or inter-breeding.
 Population: Group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at
the same time. Example: All lions in the Gir forest
 Community: Group of population of two or more different species. Example:
Lions, zebras, grass, and trees in a savanna
 Ecosystem: Community of organisms + physical environment. It Includes both
living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. Example: A forest with its
plants, animals, soil, water, and climate
o Main functions of Ecosystem: Energy flow (through chains & food webs),
nutrient cycling (Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycles, Sulphur Cycle discussed
later), Population control (Competition for resources & natural selection)
 Biome: Large geographic area with similar climate. Characterized by specific
plant and animal communities. Example: Tropical rainforest, tundra, desert
 Biosphere: All ecosystems on Earth combined. The zone of life on Earth.
Includes all living things and their environments.
Levels of o This area is formed by interaction of lithosphere, hydrosphere and
Organisation in atmosphere.
Ecology o Areas where biosphere is absent are known as Biological Desert. Eg.-
Extremes of North and south pole, highest mountains, deepest oceans
and dead
zones in
ocean.
 Is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. Eg. marshlands
Ecotone (between dry and wet ecosystems), mangrove forests (between terrestrial and
marine ecosystems).
A gradation from one ecosystem to another when there is no sharp boundary
Ecocline
between the two.
A plant or animal species that occupy a particular habitat which is adapted to local
Ecotype
environmental conditions. Eg. common grasses such as Agrostis tenuis
Is the unique functional role or place of a species in an ecosystem.
Ecological Niche
No two species can have same ecological niche within a habitat.
The smallest ecologically-distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and
classification system.
Ecotopes
They represent relatively homogeneous, spatially-explicit landscape functional
units.
Population which is characterised by the same genotype but different phenotype
Ecophene (individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color, blood type) in a particular
habitat.
It delineates large areas of the Earth’s surface within which organisms have been
evolving in relative isolation over long periods of time, separated from one another
Ecozones
by geographic features, such as oceans, broad deserts, or high mountain ranges,
that constitute barriers to migration
Habitat It is the type of natural environment in which a particular species of organism lives.
It is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a
Biotope
specific assemblage of plants and animals.
The area in which an animal lives and moves on a periodic basis. It is related to the
Home range
concept of an animal's territory which is the area that is actively defended.
It is an association of different organisms forming a closely integrated community
Biocoenosis Biotic community is also called as Biocoenosis, all interacting organisms living
together in a habitat.
 Species/Biotic interactions

Type of Interaction Sign Effects Examples

+/+ Both species benefit from Pollinator and Plants, Plants and
Mutualism interaction mycorrhizal fungi, clown fish and
anemone
+/0 one species benefit, one Sucker fish on shark, Beetles on
Commensalism
unaffected cow dung
-/0 one species is harmed, the other Large tree shades a small plant,
Amensalism
is unaffected retarding growth of small plant.
+/- one species benefit, one is Ticks on dog
Parasitism
disadvantaged
Competition -/- each species affected negatively Usually between same species
+/- one species benefit, one is Lion and Zebra
Predation
disadvantaged
0/0 no net benefit or harm to either
Nuetralism
species
 Ecosystem

Energy, Rainfall, Temperature,

Ecosystem
Abiotic Atmosphere, Substratum, Latitude
and altitude and Materials.
A structural and functional unit Components
Primary producers (Autotrophs),
of biosphere consisting of
Biotic Consumers (Heterotrophs),
community of living beings and
Saprotrophs (decomposers).
the physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging Terrestrial Forests, Grasslands, Deserts.
Classification
materials between them. Aquatic Fresh water, Coastal, Marine water.
 Provisioning Eg. Food, water, fuel, wood, fiber, biochemicals and
services genetic resources
Eg. Nutrient cycling, evolution, soil formation, primary
Supporting services
Ecosystem production
services Eg. Climate, flood, disease and water regulation, water
Regulating services
purification, pollination
Eg. Spiritual, religious recreation, ecotourism, cultural
Cultural services
heritage

Fresh water Lentic (standing bodies) Lakes, Ponds, Inland wetlands

Ecosystem Lotic (flowing bodies) Rivers and streams
Fresh water life Littoral Zone
zones
Limnetic Zone
Defined by their
depth and
distance from Benthic Zone
shore

Lakes Oligotrophic Newly formed, poorly nourished lake.

Lake
Eutrophic Lake Lake with large or excessive supply of nutrients.
Mesotrophic Fall somewhere between Oligo and Eutrophic lake.
Lake
Factors Limiting  Sunlight – photic and aphotic zones
the Productivity  Dissolved Oxygen
of Aquatic  Temperature
Habitats  Winterkill (An ice layer on the top of a water body can effectively cut off light,
Photosynthesis stops but respiration continues in such water body. If the water
body is shallow, the oxygen gets depleted, and the fish die)
Biological Zones Littoral Zone
of Marine (close to
Ecosystem shore)

Bathyal Zone

Abyssal Zone
Aquatic life forms Neuston These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water
interface such as floating plants, etc. E.g., beetles and back-
swimmers.
Periphyton Organisms which remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted
plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such as
sessile algae and their associated group of animals.
Plankton  “Plankton” term is used for all the organisms found in
marine as well as freshwater, which are non-motile and
cannot swim against the water current (drifted by water
currents)
 This group includes both microscopic plants like algae
(phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans and
protozoans (zooplankton)
 Vary widely in size, from 0.2 𝝁m to more than 20 cm. From
microscopic bacteria to large organisms such as jellyfish
 Account for 50% of total oxygen produced by
photosynthesis
 Large aquatic organisms are dependent on planktons and
feed on them
Nekton Contains animals which are swimmers.
Benthos Organisms found living in the bottom of the water mass.

Key Concepts

The sequence of organisms that feed on one another, form a food chain.
Food Chain
Each step in the food chain is called trophic level.

Grazing food chain - starts with green plants which are producers. Eg. Eg.
Grass – Grasshopper – Mouse –Snake - Hawk
Types of Food Chain
Detritus food chain - starts with dead organic matter. Eg. Litter –
Earthworm – Chicken – Hawk
 Natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation
Food Web
(usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community.

 Trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in food chain.

 It is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem
 Producers – Primary Consumers – Secondary Consumers – Tertiary
Consumers.
Trophic Levels  Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent
trophic levels is unidirectional.
 Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss
of energy in the form of heat at each trophic level.
 Tropic level interaction involves three concepts – Food Chain, Food Web,
Ecological Pyramid
Efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the
Ecological Efficiency
next.
Graphical representation of the relationship between different organisms
Ecological Pyramid
in an ecosystem.
Shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at
Pyramid of Energy
successive trophic levels. It is always upright.
Types of Ecological Shows the number of individual organisms at
Pyramid of
Pyramid successive trophic
Numbers
levels. It can be upright or inverted.
Pyramid of Shows the biomass at successive trophic levels. It
Biomass can be upright or inverted.
 Gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other
Bioaccumulation
chemicals in an organism.
Biomagnification Refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from
or Bioamplification one trophic level to the next.
An ecological phenomenon triggered by the addition or removal of top
Trophic Cascading predators and involving reciprocal changes in the relative populations of
predator and prey through a food chain.

Physiological - Based on body

Any physiological, behavioural
chemistry and metabolism.
or morphological attribute of an
Morphological – characteristics like
Ecological Adaptation organism that enables it to
appearance, body shapes.
survive and reproduce in its
Behavioral - adaptations that affect
respective habitat.
how an organism act.
Small changes that take place in the body of a single organism over
Acclimation short periods, to overcome small problems due to changes in the
surrounding.

Ecological Succession:
 The process of ecological succersion entails a sequence of changes, where each community
replaces the previous one until a stable and mature climax community is formed.
 Process: Pioneer community Seres (transitional stages) climax community (mature,
stable, and complex).
 Benefits: Ecological succession leads to increased productivity, nutrient redistribution,
enhanced organism diversity, and complexity of food webs.
 Sequences of Ecological Succession: Nudation (bare area without any life form) – Invasion –
Competition and Coactions – Reaction – Stabilisation (Climax).
Primary Succession
 It is led by pioneer species: microbes, lichens, and mosses.
 Primary succession occurs in areas where no cummunity has existed priviously Eg.- sites of
volcanic eruption, glacial retreats, exposed seabeds and exposed bare rocks etc.

Secondary Succession
 Secondary succession refers to the gradual formation of new biotic communities following
the complete or partial destruction of an existing community.
 First invaded by hardy species of grasses. It occurs in areas where a mature or intermediate
communities are destroyed by natural events like floods, droughts or anthropogenic activities
like deforestation etc.
 Difference between Primary and Secondary succession is that the latter is relatively faster
process as compard to former and the secondary succession starts on a well developed soil
already formed at the site.

Autogenic & Allogenic Succession:

 If the succession process is initiated by the living inhabitants of a community, it is known as
autogenic succession, whereas if it is initiated by external forces, it is referred to as allogenic
succession.
 Autogenic succession is mainly influenced by the biotic factors present in the ecosystem.
 Example of autogenic competition: Presence of deceased organic materials within the soil
alters both the nutrient makeup of the soil and the microorganisms that inhabit it.
 On the other hand, allogenic succession is mainly influenced by the abiotic factors such as
fire and flood that affect the ecosystem.
 Example of allogenic competition: ecosystem undergoes changes as a result of occurrences
such as floods, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, and global warming.
 Sere or Seral Community: It is an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an
ecosystem advancing towards its climax community.
 Serule: It is ecological succession for microorganisms like Bacteria, Fungai etc.

ECOLOGICAL CYCLES

Bio-Geo-Chemical Gaseous Cycles Hydrologic Cycle that involves the continuous

Cycle (Atmosphere or the cycle circulation of water in the Earth-
hydrosphere is the atmosphere system.
The ways in which an reservoir) Carbon cycle Carbon and its compounds are
element moves continuously exchanged between
between its several three spheres of the earth.
biotic and abiotic forms Nitrogen cycle Cycle by which nitrogen is
and locations in the converted into multiple chemical
biosphere. forms as it circulates among three
spheres of the earth.
NOTE: Energy flows Sedimentary Cycle Phosphorus Cycle that describes the
through an ecosystem (Earth’s crust is the cycle movement of phosphorus through
and is dissipated as reservoir) the litho, hydro, and biosphere.
heat, but chemical Sulphur cycle Is the collection of processes by
elements are recycled. which sulphur moves between
rocks, waterways and living
systems.

Nitrogen Cycle:
Processes involved:
 Nitrogen fixation - process of converting N2 into biologically available nitrogen.
 Nitrification - process that converts ammonia to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-).
 Assimilation – process by which plants and animals incorporate the NO3- and ammonia formed.
 Denitrification - process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas
 Nitrogen fixation done by microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae) or atmospheric
phenomenon (thunder and lightning) or industrial processes (fertilizer factories).
 N2 fixing bacteria Eg. – Rhizobia, Cyanobacteria, Azotobacter vinelandii, Nostoc, Clostridium spp,
Klebsiella pneumonia etc.
 Denitrifying bacteria Eg. – Pseudomonas.
Hydrologic cycle:
Process involved:
 Evaporation - conversion of water from liquid to gas stage.
 Transpiration - water vapour discharged from plant leaves.
 Condensation - the transformation of water vapour to liquid water droplets in the air,
forming fog and clouds.
 Precipitation - the condensed water vapour falling to the Earth surface.
 Percolation - water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the effect of gravity.
 Sublimation - process in which solid water such as snow or ice directly changes into water
vapour.
 Runoff - is a visible flow of water in rivers, creeks, and lakes.
 Snowmelt - the runoff created by melting snow.
 Reservoirs – Oceans (97.25), Ice caps and glaciers (2.05), Groundwater (0.68), Lakes
(0.01), Soil moisture, Atmosphere, Streams and Rivers.
Carbon cycle:
Processes involved:
 Photosynthesis - by land plants,
bacteria, and algae
converts carbon dioxide or
bicarbonate into organic
molecules.
 Respiration - animals and plants
add carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere through
cellular respiration.
 Combustion – when organic
material is burnt, it releases
carbon dioxide.
 Decomposition - After death, it
releases carbon into the air, soil
and water.
 Major reservoirs – Atmosphere,
Oceans, Terrestrial biosphere, Sediments.

Phosphorus cycle:
 Source - phosphate rocks, volcanic dust, sediments.
 Processes – Weathering, erosion, mining, decomposition.
 On land phosphorus is usually found in the form of phosphates.
 Slow process.
 No real gas phase (less role of Atmosphere).

Sulphur cycle:
 Reservoir - organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur
rock).
 Processes – Weathering, erosion, mining, decomposition.
  Two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) add a gaseous
component to its normal sedimentary cycle.

Ecological Productivity The rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem is called Productivity,

which is expressed in units of energy (eg: joules per meter² per day) or in
units of dry organic matter (eg: kg per meter² per year).
Primary Productivity Generation of biomass from autotrophic organisms
Gross Primary Productivity: All the organic matters produced by
autotrophs using solar energy.
Net Primary Productivity: NPP = GPP – Energy lost by respiration.
Secondary Productivity The accumulation of energy at the consumer’s level.
Terrestrial ecosystem: Tropical rain forests, Swamps, marshes >
Descending order of Temperate forest > Taiga > Savannah > Agricultural land > shrub land >
ecosystems based on Temperate grassland > Tundra > Desert
their productivity Aquatic ecosystem: Estuaries >Lakes and streams > Continental shelf >
Open ocean.
Decomposition Fragmentation It is the initial stage of decomposition. Fragmentation
means the breakdown of detritus into smaller pieces by
process by which organic the detritivores.
substances are broken Leaching By the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic
down into simpler organic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get
matter. precipitated as unavailable salts.
The term decomposition Catabolism Various fungal and bacterial enzymes convert the
means “to break down” detritus into simpler inorganic compounds. This
process is called as Catabolism.
Humification Process of formation of a dark colored layer of
amorphous substance on the soil called humus.
Mineralization Process of the degradation of the hummus to release
inorganic nutrients.

Essential Plant Nutrients

Non-mineral Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Primary macronutrients N, P, K
Secondary Ca, S, Mg
Minerals
macronutrients
Micronutrients Zn, Cl, B, Mo, Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni

Different Species/Organisms
Edge species Species which occur primarily or most abundantly in the ecotone or boundary
junction of two ecosystem. Eg. Birds in grassland
Keystone species A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative
to its abundance. Eg. Elephants, Wolf, Prairie dog, Bees, Jaguars, Sea otters etc.
Foundational A species that has a strong role in structuring a community. A foundation
species species can occupy any trophic level in a food web.
Flagship species A species chosen to raise support for biodiversity conservation in a given place
or social context. Eg. Tiger for campaign in India.
Umbrella species These species are very similar to keystone species, but they are usually
migratory and need a large habitat.
Pioneer species Hardy species which are the first to colonize barren environments or previously
biodiverse steady-state ecosystems that have been disrupted. Eg. Lichens, lyme
grass
Alien species Is a species introduced outside its normal distribution.
Invasive species A species which is able to spread beyond its introduction site and become
established in new locations.
Invasive alien Alien species whose establishment and spread modify ecosystems, habitats, or
species species. Eg. Lantana Camera, Prosopis juliflora in India etc
Exotic Species It means alien, non-indigenous, non-native species.
Ecological Organisms that occupy the same or similar ecological niches in different
Equivalents geographic regions.
Endemic species Species that exist only in one geographic region.
Plant species with same genetic stock and physically different. These are
Ecad
reversible.
Indicator species Any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment
and its problems. Eg. Mosses often indicate acid soil, Lichens indicate air
pollution (SO2).
Generalist species Species which able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and
can make use of a variety of different resources.
Specialist species Species which thrive only in a narrow range of environmental conditions or has
a limited diet. (narrow niche)
Euryphagic The species that have a wide range of tolerance for food.
Eurythermal The species that have a wide range of tolerance for temperature.
Euryhydric The species that have a wide range of tolerance for water.
Euryhaline The species that have a wide range of tolerance for salinity.
Stenothermal The species that have a narrow range of tolerance for temperature.
Endotherms They use internally generated heat to maintain body temperature. Their body
temperature tends to stay steady regardless of environment.Ex. Humans,
Polar Bear
Ectotherms They depend mainly on external heat sources, and their body temperature
changes with the temperature of the environment.
Homeotherms Animals that have a constant body temperature.
Hydrocoles Aquatic animals that need water like fish.
Mesocoles Terrestrial animals that need moderate amounts of water.
Xerocoles Terrestrial animals that can tolerate extremely dry conditions.
Ectotherms Animals that primarily gains heat through the environment.
Poikilotherms Animals whose body temperature adjusts depending on the environment.
Autotrophs Organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in
their surroundings using light (photosynthesis) or chemical energy
(chemosynthesis).
Heterotrophs Organisms that cannot synthesize their own food and rely on other organisms
— both plants and animals — for nutrition.
Extremophiles They are organisms that thrive in unlikely places under extreme conditions,
such as environments with intense heat, extremely low oxygen, complete
darkness, extreme pressures, and even the vacuum of space.
The extremophiles found attached to the Antarctic boulder are both sponge-
like as well as ‘stalked’ or having stalk-like filaments to which their bodies are
attached.

Contemporary Themes

Ecosystem A strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources
Approach that places human needs at its centre.
Ecosystem Ability of an ecosystem to maintain its normal patterns of nutrient cycling and
Resilience biomass production after being subjected to damage caused by
an ecological disturbance (also ecological robustness)
Ecosystem The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded,
Restoration damaged, or destroyed.
Ecosystem-based  Refers to the set of approaches that involve the management of ecosystems
adaptation (EbA) to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to climate change.
 The restoration of mangroves and coral reefs, for example, protects coastal
areas from the impacts of rising sea levels, while planting and restoring
vegetation on hillsides and mountains prevents erosion and landslides
during extreme rainfall.
 The EbA term was coined at the UNFCCC COP 14 in Poznan in 2008 and since
then has successfully been promoted into broader adaptation negotiations,
policies, strategies and action plans.
Critical Ecosystem  Founded in 2000, the CEPF is a global leader in enabling civil society to
Partnership Fund participate in and benefit from conserving some of the world’s most critical
(CEPF) ecosystems.
 CEPF provide grants for non-governmental and private sector organizations.
 The fund is a joint program of French Development Agency, Conservation
International, EU, the Global Environment Facility, Government of Japan
and World Bank.
Ecosystem  To address ecosystem degradation, IUCN promotes the sound management
Management of ecosystems through the wider application of the Ecosystem Approach
Programme (EMP) through this programme
 EMP works on five key programmatic areas - Red List of Ecosystems,
Ecosystem based Adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction, Drylands, Global
Island Partnership.
Red list of  IUCN Compiles information on the state of the world’s ecosystems at
Ecosystems different geographic scales.
 Its central objective is to assess the risk of ecosystem collapse.
 This will be measured by assessing losses in area, degradation or other
major changes such as land conversion.
  Assessments determine whether an ecosystem is not facing imminent risk
of collapse, or whether it is vulnerable, endangered, or critically
endangered.
Payment for  These are incentives offered to landowners or farmers in exchange for
Ecosystems managing their land to provide some sort of ecological service.
Services  It is an innovative approach to nature conservation by arranging payments
for the benefits provided by forests, fertile soils and other natural
ecosystems.
 This encourages the maintenance of natural ecosystems through
environmentally friendly practices that avoid damage for other users of the
natural resources. In addition to preserving natural resources, this method
improves rural areas and rural lifestyles.
Nutrient Challenge  Nitrogen and phosphorous are key to growing crops and thus play a major
role in the world’s food security challenge.
 To feed a growing world population, we have to intensify our crop
production and food security of two-thirds of world’s population depends
on fertiliser availability and use.
 However, in some parts of the world farmers do not have access to enough
nutrients to grow crops but in many other parts of the world there is an
‘excess’ of nutrients in the environment as a result of industrial and
agricultural activity and has profound impacts, from pollution of water
supplies to the undermining of important ecosystems and the services and
livelihoods they support. This is known as nutrient challenge.
 Nitrogen use if properly managed enhances soil fertility, and contributes to
food and nutrition security and sustainable agriculture.
 GPNM has been launched to address this challenge.
Global Partnership  Multi-stakeholder partnership mechanism comprised of diverse entities
on Nutrient along with UN agencies committed to promote effective nutrient
Management management to achieve the twin goals of food security through increased
(GPNM) productivity and conservation of natural resources and the environment.
 It is a response to the ‘nutrient challenge’ – how to reduce the amount of
excess nutrients in the global environment consistent with global
development.
 It reflects the need for strategic advocacy and co-operation at the global for
cost effective policy and investment interventions by countries.
Oxygen through  A few microbes are known to make oxygen without sunlight, but so far they
Nitrogen Cycle have only been discovered in very limited quantities and in very specific
b habitats.
 But the ocean living microbe Nitrosopumilus maritimus and its cousins,
called ammonia oxidising archaea play an important role in the nitrogen
cycle.
 For this, they need oxygen. So it has been a long-standing puzzle why they
are also very abundant in waters where there is no oxygen.
 The researchers found that these micro-organisms make their own oxygen.
 It was found that N. maritimus was using the oxygen present in water but
the oxygen levels started increasing again in water.
 They micro-organisms were able to make oxygen even in a dark
environment. Not sufficiently high to influence oxygen levels on Earth, but
enough to keep itself going.
 maritimus couples the oxygen production to the production of gaseous
nitrogen. By doing so they remove bioavailable nitrogen from the
environment.
 Topics: Biomes - Forest, Grassland, Mountains, Desert ecosystem, Tundra, Indian
Forest Types, Wetlands, Mangroves, Coral Reefs

Biomes (Biological Homes)

 Biome may be defined as a large natural eco-system wherein we study the total assemblage
of plant and animal communities.
 Though a biome includes both plant and animal communities but a biome is usually
identified and named on the basis of its dominant vegetation, which normally constitutes
the bulk of the biomass.
FOREST BIOME
Subtype Distribution Key Features
Tropical Between 10° N-S  Climate: Temp. 20-25°C, Avg. Rainfall of 200 cm, evenly
Rain Forest/ latitudes distributed.
Equatorial  Soil: Leached topsoil, poor in nutrients.
Forests  Highest primary ecological productivity.
 High biodiversity: 6 % of Earth’s surface but home to >50% of
the world’s species.
 Flora: Trees (ebony, mahagony, rosewood, palms), Creepers
(climbers) like herbaceous plant climber, lianas and epyphytes.
 Very shallow roots to get more nutrients and have buttressed
trunks to support.
 Well stratified forests with multi-layered continuous canopy.
 Fauna: Insects, bats, birds and mammals.
Tropical Between 10°-25°  Climate: Temp. 25-30°C, Avg. Rainfall of 100 cm, seasonal.
Deciduous N-S latitudes  Soil: Rich in nutrients
Forests  Flora: Sandalwood,Teak, Sal, Arjun, bamboo, shisham, hurra,
mahua, semul, kusum, etc.
 Shed their leaves to withstand the drought.
 Has largest number of domesticated animals, because of the
development of agriculture.
 Fauna: lions, tigers, elephants, rhinos, leopards, spotted deer,
sambhar, deer, Indian Gazelle, nilgiri antelope, wild boar, pig,
high variety of birds, lizards, snakes, tortoises etc
Temperate Eastern North  Climate: Temp. 20 to 30° C, Rainfall evenly distributed 75- 150
Forests America, N.E. Asia, cm, Well defined seasons and distinct winter.
Western and  Soil: Fertile, enriched with decaying litter.
Central Europe  Flora and Fauna: Moderately dense broad-leaved trees. With
less diversity of plant species. Oak, Beach, Maple etc. are
some common species. Squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, black
bears, mountain lions etc.
Taiga Or Stretches over  Climate: warm summers and long cold dry winter, Temp. -
Boreal Eurasia and North 400C to 250C, snowfall of 40 – 100 cm.
Forest America, parts of  Soil: Thin soil cover and poor in nutrients and acidic
Siberia, Alaska,  Flora: Cold-tolerant evergreen conifers like Pine, Fir, Spruce
Canada and and Larch. The roots are long to anchor trees.
Scandinavia. The needles are long, thin and waxy.
 Fauna: Caribou, moose, Blackfly, timber wolf, lynx, bears,
 wolverines, capercaillies, red squirrels, crossbill, pine marten,
mink, owl, beaver, woodpeckers, hawks, bears, deer, hares,
bats etc.
BIOME: GRASSLANDS
Subtype Distribution Key Features
Tropical Large areas of  Climate: Warm hot climates, Rainfall 50 – 125 cm
Savannah Africa, Australia,  Soil: Porous with thin layer of humus.
South America  Flora: Grasses with trees scattered
and India  Fauna: giraffes zebras, buffalos, leopards, hyenas, elephants,
mice, moles, snakes and worms etc.
Temperate Parts of Eurasia  Climate: Hot summers and cold winter. Rainfall 50 – 90 cm
Steppe and North  Soil: Thin flocculated soil, rich in bases
America  Flora: Grasses; occasional trees such as cottonwoods, oaks
and willows;
 Fauna: gazelles, zebras, rhinoceros, wild horses, lions,
varieties of birds, worms, snakes etc
BIOME: DESERTS
Subtype Distribution Key Features
Hot And Dry Sahara, Kalahari,  Climate: Rainfall is less than 25cm.
Desert Marusthali, Rub-  Soil: rich in nutrients with little or no organic matter.
el-Khali etc  Flora: Scanty vegetation, cactus
 Fauna: Camels, Rabbits, rats, antelopes and ground squirrels
Semi-Arid Sagebrush of etc.
Desert Utah, Montana
and Great Basin
Coastal Atacama of Chile
Desert
Cold Desert Greenland, Gobi
BIOME: TUNDRA
Subtype Distribution Key Features
Arctic Northern fringe  Climate: Permanently frozen 25-100cm, little precipitation.
Tundra of Canada, Alaska,  Short growing seasons and low biotic diversity.
European Russia,  Flora: Mosses, shrubs, sedges, lichens, and grasses.
Siberia and island  Fauna: Shrews, hares, rodents, wolves, arctic foxes, polar
group of Artic bears, lemmings, wolverine, reindeer, deer, harp seal,
Ocean. penguins of Antarctica etc.
Alpine Mountains (High
Tundra altitude) above th
e tree line and just
below the snow
line.
Factors Affecting Biomes
There are various factors which affects the size, location, and character of a biome. Important
factors are as follow:
 Length of day light and darkness. This is mainly responsible for duration of
photosynthesis.
 Mean temperature as well as difference in temperature. Differences (both diurnal and
annual) to find out extreme conditions.
 Length of growing season
 Precipitation which includes total amount, variations over time and intensity
 Wind flow that include speed, direction, duration and frequency
 Soil types
 Slope
 Drainage
 Other plant and animal species

Indian Forest Types

TYPE % Total Region Species

Forest Area
Tropical Wet 2.61  Annual rainfall >250 cm.  Lofty, very dense, multi-
Evergreen  Western slopes of Western layered forest with
Ghats, in the hills of north- mesophytic evergreen,
eastern states and in the numerous epiphytes, and
Andaman and Nicobar few climbers.
Islands.  rosewood, ebony,
mahogany, rubber,
cinchona, bamboo,
coconut, palms, canes,
lianas.
Tropical Semi 9.27  Annual rainfall 200 to 250  Intermixed deciduous and
Evergreen cm. evergreen species of trees
 Along the western coasts, and shrubs.
eastern Orissa and upper  White cedar, hollock, kail,
 Assam. etc. Orchids, ferns, some
grasses and several other
herbs are also common.
Tropical Moist 17.65  Annual Rainfall 150 to 200  Representative species of
Deciduous cm. the Monsoon climate.
 Wet western side of the  Teak, Sal, Sheesham,
Deccan plateau, i.e. Mumbai, Hurra, Mahua, Amla,
N-E Andhra, Gangetic plains, Semul, Kusum, Sandalwood
Orissa and in some Himalayan etc.
tracts extending from Punjab
in west to Assam valley in the
east.
Littoral & Swamp 0.73  Tidal deltas of Ganga,  sundari, bruguiera,
Forests Mahanadi, Godavari and sonneratia, agarm bhendi,
Krishna. keora, etc.
 Andaman and Nicobar and all
littoral states.
Tropical Dry 40.86  Rainfall 70 to 100 cm,  Forest trees are not dense,
Deciduous  Found throughout the 10 to 15 m in height, and
northern part of the country undergrowth is abundant.
except in the North-East.  Dominated by sal and teak
 It is also found in Madhya (in South). Tendu, palas,
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra amaltas, bel, kair,
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil axlewood, etc.
Nadu.
Tropical Thorn 2.72  Annual rainfall < 50 cm  Open stunted forest.
Forests  South-west Punjab,  Babool, ber, khejri, date
Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP and palm, khair, neem, palas,
UP. acacia etc.
Tropical Dry 0.12  Eastern part of Tamil Nadu.  Maba, Calotropis, Pabatta,
Evergreen Feronia, Canthium,
Forests Zizyphus, Randia etc.
Subtropical 4.26  Eastern Himalayas and the  Poonspar, cinnamon,
Broadleaved Hill Western Ghats, along the rhododendron and fragrant
Forests Silent Valley. grass are predominant.
 Oak, alder, chestnut, birch,
and cherry trees, orchids,
bamboo and creepers.
Subtropical Pine 2.36  Steep dry slopes of the  Chir, oak, rhododendron,
Forests Shivalik Hills, Western and and pine, sal, amla, and
Central Himalayas, Khasi, laburnum.
Naga, and Manipur Hills.

Subtropical Dry 0.02  Shivalik Hills and foothills of  Pomegranate, olive, and
evergreen the Himalayas up to a height oleander etc.
Forests of 1000 meters.
Montane Wet 2.66  Eastern Himalayas, between  Oak, poplar, elm, laurel,
Temperate 1800-2700m altitude. maple, birch, magnolina.
Forests  Nilgiris, Anamalai and the
Palani hills above 1500m
altitude.
Himalayan Moist 3.35  In the western Himalayas,  Deodar, spruce, maple,
Temperate between 1500-3000m walnut, poplar, cedar,
Forests altitude. chestnut, birch, oak, etc.
Himalayan Dry 0.73  Inner dry ranges of western  Coniferous forest with
Temperate Himalayas where xerophytic shrubs are
Forests precipitation is below 10cm. predominant.
 Chilgoza, deodar, oak,
maple, ash, celtis, olives,
etc.
Sub Alpine 1.96  Above 2700m in eastern  Dense scruby forest of
Forests Himalayas and above 3000m silver firs, junipers, pine,
in western Himalayas and birch and rhododendrons.
extends upto the snowline.
Moist Alpine 0.13  All along the Himalayas and  Low scrub, dense
Scrub on the higher hills near the evergreen forest,
Myanmar border consisting mainly of
rhododendron and birch.
 Mosses and ferns cover the
ground in patches.
Dry Alpine Scrub 0.38  At altitudes of about 3000  Dwarf plants predominate,
metres to about 4900 metres. mainly the black juniper,
the drooping juniper,
honeysuckle, and willow.
Shola Forests  Sholas are patches of stunted evergreen tropical and sub tropical moist broad
leaf forest found in valleys separated by grassland in the higher mountain
regions of South India.
 The shola-forest and grassland complex has been described as a climatic climax
vegetation.
 Some of the other trees of this forest of economic significance include
magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
 They are home to a host of endemic and endangered plants and animals.
 They are also vitally important in keeping water cycles alive. They retain most of
the rain they get over the monsoons, and release it slowly through the year via
a network of streams and rivers that eventually serve the needs of a huge
number of human settlements across south India.
 In the recent years exotic species that were planted a few years ago had
invaded marshes, shola forests and grasslands.
 Wetlands
 Wetlands are land areas that are saturated or flooded with water either permanently or
seasonally.
 Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and
the associated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the
surface of the land, or where the land is covered by water.
 They are: "lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the
water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water"

Types  Coastal Wetlands - shorelines, beaches, mangroves and coral reefs.

 Shallow lakes and ponds - areas of permanent or semi-permanent
water with little flow.
 Marshes - periodically saturated, flooded, or ponded with water and
 characterized by herbaceous (non-woody) vegetation. It can be tidal
marshes and non-tidal marshes.
 Swamps - fed primarily by surface water inputs and are dominated by
trees and shrubs.
 Bogs - waterlogged peatlands in old lake basins or depressions in the
landscape. Almost all water in bogs comes from rainfall.
 Estuaries - area where rivers meet the sea. These wetlands
include deltas, tidal mudflats and salt marshes.
 Fish ponds, rice paddies, and saltpans are human-made wetlands.
Functions  Provide various ecosystem services like freshwater supply, food and
building materials, biodiversity flood control, groundwater recharge,
and climate change mitigation.
 Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, numerous species of native and
migratory birds.
 Important resource for sustainable tourism.
 Help in nutrients recycling, ground water recharging and stabilization
of local climate.
 Important role in flood mitigation by controlling rate of runoff.
 Act as riparian buffer to shorelines against erosion and pollutants.
 They act as genetic reservoir for various species of plants.
 Water purification, filtration of sediments and nutrients.
Threats Urbanization, Agriculture, Pollution, Climate Change, Dredging, Draining,
Introduced Species, Salinization

Measures Taken for conservation of Wetlands:

Ramsar  Formally known as Convention on Wetlands of International Importance.

Convention  Signed on 2 February (World Wetland Day) 1971 at Ramsar in Iran.
 Twin objectives - Conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands;
(50th and stop the encroachment and loss of wetlands.
 The inclusion of a wetland in the List embodies the government’s
anniversary in
commitment to take the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological
2021)
character is maintained. The Convention includes various measures to
respond to threats to the ecological character of Sites
 Not a legal binding treaty and not a part of UN & UNESCO conventions.
 Amended twice in 1982 and 1987.
 Number of Contracting Parties: 171
 Number of Wetlands of International Importance: 2,400+. They cover over
2.5 million square kilometres, an area larger than Mexico.
 The Contracting Parties approved the Fourth Strategic Plan for 2016-2024
at COP12.
 India has 85 Ramsar Sites (Wetlands of International importance)
 It releases Global Wetland Outlook
Montreux  Montreux Record under the Ramsar Convention is a register of wetland
Record sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in
ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as
a result of technological developments, pollution or other human
interference.
 Montreux Record is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
 Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record : Keoladeo
National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
National Plan  NPCA is a single conservation programme for both wetlands and lakes.
for  It is a centrally sponsored scheme by GoI
Conservation  It was formulated in 2015 by merging of the National Lake Conservation
of Aquatic Plan and the National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NCWP).
Ecosystems  115 wetlands have been identified for conservation under the NWCP.
(NPCA)  NPCA seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative
functions. Plan includes Wetland mapping, Wetland Health Cards,
Wetland Mitras.
Wetlands  Wetlands are defined as an area of marsh, fen, peatland or water.
(Conservation  The rules apply to:
and o Wetlands under the Ramsar Convention.
Management) o Wetlands as notified by the central and state governments and UT
administration.
Rules, 2017
 The new riles have done away with the earlier Central Wetlands
Regulatory Authority (CWRA) entirely.
 CWRA has been replaced by the National Wetland Committee, which has
a merely advisory role. These include –
o Advising the central government on proposals received from
states/UTs for “omission of the prohibited activities”.
o Prescribing norms and guidelines for integrated management of
wetlands based on wise-use principle.
o Recommending trans-boundary wetlands for notification.
o Reviewing progress of integrated management of Ramsar sites.
 Restrictions - As per the new rules, encroachments on wetlands have
been banned.
 It also prohibits solid waste dumping, discharge of untreated waste and
effluents from industries and human settlements.
 It says that conservation and management would be based on the
principle of ‘wise use’, which is to be determined by the Wetlands
Authority.
 Mangroves
 It is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is
also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species.
 Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes
25° N and 25° S.
 Underground tissue of any plant needs oxygen for respiration. But in a mangrove
environment, the oxygen in soil is limited or nil.
o Hence the mangrove root system absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere.
o Mangroves have special roots for this purpose called breathing roots or
pneumatophores.
o These roots have numerous pores through which oxygen enters the
underground tissues.
 Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in
harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root
system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action.
 Mangroves, like desert plants, store fresh water in thick succulent leaves. A waxy
coating on the leaves seals in water and minimises evaporation.
 Viviparous: Their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once
germinated, the seedling grows into a propagule.
 They cannot withstand freezing temperatures.
 Mangroves can be found in over 118 countries and territories in the tropical and
subtropical regions of the world.
 The largest percentage of mangroves is found between the 5° N and 5° S latitudes.
Approximately 75% of world’s mangroves are found in just 15 countries.
o Asia has the largest amount (42%) of the world’s mangroves, followed by Africa
(21%), North/Central America (15%), Oceania (12%) and South America (11%)
  West Bengal has the highest mangrove cover in India, followed by Gujarat.
 The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges River
delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal.
o It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o The forest is home to the Royal Bengal tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine
crocodiles.
o Sundarban was the first mangrove forest in the world which was brought under
scientific management as early as in 1892.
o The second largest mangrove forest in India is Bhitarkanika in Odisha created
by the two river deltas of River Brahmani and Baitarani.
 Indonesia contains the largest area of mangrove forest in the world.

Mangrove Cover in India (2023 Assessment)

India's total mangrove cover stands at 4,991.68 km2, making up 0.15% of the country's total
geographical area as per India State of Forest Report 2023 ((ISFR-2023). West Bengal has
the highest mangrove coverage, accounting for 42.45%, followed by Gujarat at 23.66% and
the Andaman & Nicobar Islands at 12.39%.
Ecological Importance:

 Mangrove forests stabilize the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges, currents,
waves, tides and acts as buffer Zone between the land and sea.
 Play an invaluable role as nature’s shield against cyclones, ecological disasters and as
protector of shorelines.
 Breeding and nursery grounds for a variety of marine animals. Harbor a variety of life
forms like invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and even mammals like tigers.
 Mangrove forests move carbon dioxide “from the atmosphere into long-term storage”
in greater quantities than other forests, making them “among the planet’s best carbon
scrubbers”.
o Mangroves make up less than 2% of marine environments but account for 10-
15% of carbon burial.
 Mangroves are the significant absorbents of salinity of sea waters, hence help to limit
the soil salinization and maintain the salinity of the oceanic water.
 Good source of timber, fuel and fodder.
 Purify the water by absorbing impurities and harmful heavy metals and help us to
breathe a clean air by absorbing pollutants in the air.
o Mangroves improve the water quality by absorbing nutrients from runoff that
might otherwise cause harmful algal blooms offshore.
 A potential source for recreation and tourism.
 It supports Phytoplankton, molluscous, marsh grass and much different vegetation.
Threats
 Increased salinity of water: Mangroves grow in freshwaters. However, due to silting,
change in global temperature and various reasons that enhance the salinity of water
there is scarce of freshwater that affects mangrove forests leading to their rampant
deforestation and pollution.
 Conversion into shrimp farms alone causes 25% of the destruction of mangroves.
 Mushrooming of industries: Anthropogenic activities are increasingly threatening the
mangroves. The discharge of polluted waters affects the mangroves significantly and
recent studies have shown that mangroves are unable to absorb carbon dioxide
properly.
 Rising Sea level: Recent IPCC report has warned about the rising sea level that would
have drastic changes in near future. One of the affected regions would be coastal
regions and no doubt mangroves would be at risk because of high salinity and fewer
freshwater sources.
 Deforestation
 Unsustainable Tourism
 Marine pollution like oil spills and increased mechanization of ships and cargo release
unwanted chemicals.
 A fluctuation of ten degrees in a short period of time is enough stress to damage the
plant and freezing temperatures for even a few hours can kill some mangrove species.

Conservation of Mangroves:
 The inclusion of mangroves in Biosphere Reserves, World Heritage sites and UNESCO
Global Geoparks contributes to improving the knowledge, management and
conservation of mangrove ecosystems throughout the world.
 The organizations like the Global Mangrove Watch are working tirelessly towards
mangrove conservation. It is providing mangrove extent at multiple points of time from
the mid-1990s to the present day.
 Many Mangroves sites are protected under the Ramsar convention at the global level.
The IUCN and The Nature Conservancy have laid down a global scientific map for the
purpose of mangrove restoration.
 In 1976, the National Mangrove Committee was set up under the Environment
Ministry. In 1979 it recommended focus on areas like mapping of mangroves using
remote sensing, land surveys, etc., to determine degradation rate, assessing sites for
establishing reserve forests, conservation program, afforestation, R&D etc.
 Several legislations like Environment (Protection) Act, Indian Forest Act, Wildlife
Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, etc. are sources of protection (though
mangroves are not specifically mentioned in all of these).
  In 2018, the High Court called the destruction of mangroves an offence to the
fundamental rights of the citizens under article 21 of the Constitution
 The organization Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) is supporting the target of increasing
mangrove coverage by 20 percent over current extent by 2030.
o Launched at the World Ocean Summit in 2018, GMA is a collaboration that seeks
to bring together NGOs, governments, scientists, industry, local communities,
and funders towards a common goal of conserving and restoring mangrove
ecosystems.
 Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is an initiative co-chaired by IUCN and the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2006 (backdrop of 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami). The goal is to promote an integrated ocean-wide approach to coastal
management and to building the resilience of ecosystem-dependent coastal
communities.
o Member countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Maldives,
Myanmar, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam
 International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem (ISME) is a non-governmental
organization established in 1990 (HQ in Okinawa, Japan). The Society collects, evaluates
and disseminates information on mangrove ecosystems for the conservation, rational
management and sustainable utilization of mangroves.
 International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem: UNESCO
celebrates this day on July 26 with the aim of raising awareness about mangrove
ecosystems and to promote their sustainable management and conservation.

Avicennia marina: Salt-secreting Mangrove Species

In news: For the first time a reference-grade whole genome sequence of a highly salt-tolerant and salt-
secreting true-mangrove species, Avicennia marina, was reported in India recently.
About Avicennia marina
 Avicennia marina is one of the most prominent mangroves species found in all mangrove
formations in India.
 It is a salt-secreting and extraordinarily salt-tolerant mangrove species that grows optimally in
75% seawater and tolerates >250% seawater.
 It is among the rare plant species, which can excrete 40% of the salt through the salt glands in
the leaves, besides its extraordinary capacity to exclude salt entry to the roots.
What is the significance of the study?
 This study assumes significance as agriculture productivity globally is affected due to abiotic
stress factors such as limited water availability and salinization of soil and water.
 Availability of water is a significant challenge to crop production in dryland areas.
 Salinity is prevalent in ~900 million hectares globally and it is estimated to cause an annual loss
of 27 billion USD.
 The genomic resources generated in the study will pave the way for researchers to study the
potential of the identified genes for developing drought and salinity tolerant varieties of
important crop species of the coastal region that is significant for India.
Kelp Forests:
 Kelp Forests are underwater ecosystems formed in shallow water by the dense growth
of several different species known as kelps.
 Kelps are actually extremely large brown algae, although they look like plants.
 They thrive in cold, nutrient-rich waters.
 Kelp attaches to the seafloor and eventually grows to the water’s surface and relies on
sunlight to generate food and energy.
 Kelps live further from the tropics than coral reefs, mangrove forests, and warm-water
seagrass beds, so kelp forests do not overlap with those systems.
 They even grow under sea ice.
 Kelp forests have been observed throughout the Arctic and Canadian Arctic alone
represents 10 percent of the world’s coastlines.

Ecological Role:
 Kelp serves as an ecosystem foundation: feeding and sheltering diverse ocean species.
Many fish species use kelp forests as nurseries for their young.
 Seabirds and marine mammals like sea lions, sea otters and even grey whales use them
as shelter from predators and storms.
 Kelp forests also reduce coastal erosion and serve as a buffer against strong storm-born
waves.
 Since climate change will likely heighten the severity of weather events like storms, kelp
forests provides protection to coastal communities
Threats:
 Destructive fishing practices, coastal pollution and accidental damage caused by boat
entanglement are known to negatively affect kelp forests.
 Climate change could lead to declines of underwater kelp forests through impacts on
their micro biome.
 It was predicted that ocean warming and acidification can change microbes on the kelp
surface, leading to disease and potentially putting fisheries at risk.

Corals:
 Corals exhibit characteristics of plants, but are marine animals that are related to
jellyfish and anemones.
 They are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps, which are tiny, soft-
bodied organisms.
 The corals have a symbiotic relationship with algae called the zooxanthellae.
 These algae live inside the coral polyp’s body and provide the coral with food. The
polyps, in turn, provide a home and carbon dioxide for the algae.
 These algae are responsible for the variety of colours of corals.
 There are 2 types of corals:
o Stony, shallow-water corals—the kind that build reefs.
o Soft corals and deep water corals that live in dark cold waters

Coral Reefs:
 They are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of colonial marine
invertebrates called coral.
 Corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to create a hard, durable exoskeleton
that protects their soft, sac-like bodies.
 These exoskeleton remains of millions of corals pile up with time to form coral reefs.
 In India, they are under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972.
 Coral reefs cover less than 1% of the ocean floor but they are among the most
productive and diverse ecosystems on Earth.
 They are referred to as “the rainforests of the sea” for their biodiversity,
 Coral reefs also act as ‘wave breaks’ between the sea and the coastline and minimise
the impact of sea erosion
 When corals become stressed due to any changes, including pollution or global
warming, they can expel algae and get bleached, meaning the ‘death’ of the coral reef.
 Dead coral reefs support cryptic organisms like hidden sea creatures, including fishes,
snails, tiny crabs and worms, who hide under its rubble to save themselves from
predation
Importance of Coral Reefs:
 Protect coastal homes from storms
 Source of food and new medicines
 Provide a home for millions of aquatic species.
 They assist in carbon and nitrogen-fixing.
 The internal skeleton polished with colours is used in jewellery.
 Sea grasses that provide food for dugongs and dolphins are harboured by coral reefs.
 Coral blocks are used for buildings and road construction.
 The lime supplied by corals is used in cement industries.
 They bring in billions of dollars to our economy through tourism (The Great Barrier Reef
in Australis generates more than 1.5 billion dollars annually for the Australian
economy from fishing and tourism.)
 Coral reefs are also key indicators of global ecosystem health. They serve as an early
warning sign of what may happen to other less sensitive systems, such as river deltas if
climate change is not urgently addressed.

Growth conditions for Coral Reefs:

 The temperature of the water should not be below 20°C. The most favourable
temperature for the growth of the coral reefs is between 23°C to 25°C. The temperature
should not exceed 35°C.
 Corals can survive only under saline conditions with an average salinity between 27% to
40%.
 Coral reefs grow better in shallow water having a depth less than 50 m. The depth of
the water should not exceed 200m.
 The semi-hard or hard surface is a precondition for compaction, cementation and
solidification of the coral polyps skeletons.
 Clear water: The beautiful coral polyps perish in areas filled with sediment-filled waters.
Moreover, they cease to exist in opaque waters. This is because the presence of
sediments and opaque water limits the passage of sunlight to the algae that sustains
their life.
 Coral reefs flourish in sea waters because ocean waves support the constant supply of
rich nutrients. Coral polyps multiply faster when supplied with nutrients.
The three main types of coral reefs are fringing, barrier, and atoll.
 Fringing Reefs: Most common type of reefs, this type of reef grows seaward directly
from the shore. They form borders along the shoreline and surrounding islands
 Barrier Reef: Barrier Reefs are considered as the largest, highest and widest reefs
among the three coral reefs. Barrier reefs are similar to fringing reefs in that they also
border a shoreline; however, instead of growing directly out from the shore, they are
separated from land by an expanse of water. This creates a lagoon of open, often deep
water between the reef and the shore.
 Atoll: When a fringing reef continues to grow upward from a volcanic island that has
sunk entirely below sea level, an atoll is formed. Atolls are usually circular or oval in
shape, with an open lagoon in the center.

Coral Reefs in India:

 It is due to the subtropical climatic conditions, there are a very few coral reefs in India.
 The major coral reefs in India includes the Palk Bay, the Gulf of Mannar, the Gulf of
Kutch, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands.
 Among all these coral reefs, the Lakshadweep reef is an example of atoll while the rest
are all fringing reefs.
Coral Triangle:
 The Coral Triangle (CT) is a roughly triangular area in the tropical waters around
Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands and
Timor-Leste.
 This area contains at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ecoregion.
 The Coral Triangle is located between the Pacific and Indian oceans and encompasses
portions of two biogeographic regions: the Indonesian-Philippines Region, and the Far
Southwestern Pacific Region.
 As one of eight major coral reef zones in the world, the Coral Triangle is recognized as a
global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation.
 Its biological resources make it a global hotspot of marine biodiversity.
 Known as the “Amazon of the seas” (by analogy to the Amazon rainforest in South
America), it covers almost 6 million square kilometres of ocean waters.

Black Corals:
 Three species of black coral have been
discovered on the seabed of the
northern Pacific Ocean, an area where
several countries have contracts to
explore for metals including cobalt and
nickel as they race to find new supplies
of the key battery elements.
 The corals were discovered on deep
seamounts and ridges in the mineral-
rich Prime Crust Zone, which stretches
from the Mariana Trench to the
Hawaiian islands.
  They’re not only slow-growing and long-lived but also provide important habitat for
many other species. Mining their habitat could potentially wipe them out before we
know their true value.
 China, Japan, Russia, and South Korea all hold exploration contracts in the Prime Crust
Zone, according to the International Seabed Authority, a UN body in charge of
regulating the ocean floors.
 The new black coral species are so named because of their black skeletons, but they
can appear pink, white, or various other colours because of the living tissues growing
over the skeleton.
 Previous studies have found a black coral species more than 4,250 years old.

Coral Translocation:
o The translocation of corals is at a nascent stage along the Indian coastline. It is difficult
and has not been very successful in India.
o Transplanted corals are more susceptible to storm surges and bleaching from warming
ocean waters.
o Experts are of the view that for a high survival rate, it is important to translocate corals
in a place with similar environmental characteristics such as depth, current flow,
amount of light, and pressure.
Biorock Technology:
 Biorock, also known as Seacrete or Seament, refers to the substance formed by
electro-accumulation of minerals dissolved in seawater.
 The technology is contemplated in the wake of failure of translocation.
 The technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current through structures
(steel) lowered in sea.
 Due to electric current flowing between them, calcium ions and carbonate ions in sea
combine to form calcium carbonate and adhere to the structures
 The formed material is similar to coral structures
 Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly
 Biorock projects can be powered by a wide range of electrical sources including
renewable energy like windmills, photovoltaic solar panels and tidal current generators
 The calcification (conversion into calcium carbonate) has started in Gulf of Kachchh but
real success will come when attached and new organisms (corals) start to grow faster.

Threats to Corals:
Most coral reefs occur in shallow water near shore. As a result, they are particularly vulnerable
to the effects of human activities, both through direct exploitation of reef resources, and
through indirect impacts from adjacent human activities on land and in the coastal zone.
 Coral reefs face many threats from local sources, including:
  Physical damage or destruction from coastal development, dredging, quarrying,
destructive fishing practices and gear, boat anchors and groundings, and recreational
misuse (touching or removing corals).
 Pollution that originates on land but finds its way into coastal waters.
 Overfishing can alter food-web structure and cause cascading effects, such as reducing
the numbers of grazing fish that keep corals clean of algal overgrowth. Blast fishing (i.e.,
using explosives to kill fish) can cause physical damage to corals as well.
 Coral harvesting for the aquarium trade, jewelry, and curios can lead to over-harvesting
of specific species, destruction of reef habitat, and reduced biodiversity.
 As atmospheric temperatures rise, so do seawater temperatures. This warming causes
corals to lose the microscopic algae that produce food that corals need, placing stress
on the corals. Severe or prolonged bleaching can kill coral colonies or leave them more
vulnerable to other threats such as infectious disease.
 Ocean Acidification: Increases in ocean acidity (measured by lower pH values) reduce
the availability of dissolved salts and ions needed by corals to form the calcium
carbonate structure. Consequently, coral growth and reef growth can be slowed, and if
acidity becomes severe it can dissolve coral skeletons.
o On a local level, nutrient enrichment due to run-off from human activities on
land can also cause increased acidity in coastal waters, exacerbating the effects
of ocean acidification.
 Other climate impacts, such as sea level rise, increased frequency and intensity of
tropical storms, and altered ocean circulation patterns, can also affect coral reefs.
 Coral reefs are also affected by coral diseases such as black band and white band due
infectious microorganisms introduced by the human population that live on the coastal
regions.
 Sedimentation is on the rise due to degradation of estuaries, salt marshes and
mangrove forests. It reaches the marine ecosystem, including coral reefs, and causes
suffocation to coral reefs.
 Coral polyps have in-built UV rays protection. However, now that the radiation is
increasing due to ozone depletion, the corals in shallow waters can get damaged and
destroyed.

Conservation Efforts:
 20% of the world’s coral reefs have already been destroyed. Therefore, much has to be
done in the future for the conservation of coral reefs.
 Coral reefs are unique and the most diverse marine ecosystems on Earth. They are
believed to have existed for about 200 million years. It is estimated that it took corals
about 50 million years to reach their present level of diversity.
 All marine resources are protected under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) of 1991. It
provides protection to all coral reefs under the CRZ1 category of the law.
  The State Wildlife department takes care of the corals if the coral reef region comes
under a protected area.
Way Ahead:
 An integrated coastal management plan is the need of the hour for effective
management of coral reefs. An act to protect them from man-made activities has to be
brought in.
 Over-exploitation of the coral reefs should be brought under control. Fishing by using
dynamite, cyanide and explosives in the areas where coral reefs are found should be
banned.
 Pollution caused by domestic sewage, industrial wastes, chemicals and fertilisers should
be restricted. Anchoring of boats in the areas where coral reef areas are present should
be banned.
 Destruction of mangrove forest in the reef areas should be prohibited. Planting of
mangrove species in reef areas can be undertaken with the involvement and support of
the local community.
 Collection of scheduled marine animals from the coral reef regions should be strictly
prohibited.
 The authorities concerned should create awareness about the importance of the coral
reefs among the fishermen and other local public.
 The important ecological values and other benefits of the coral reefs should be taught
among school and college students.
Topics: Biodiversity Basics, Hotspots, Protected Area Network (National Parks, Wildlife)
Sanctuaries, Tiger reserves & Biosphere reserves) Ecologically Sensitive Areas

Biodiversity Basics

Total number of genetic

Biodiversity Genetic diversity characteristics in the genetic
makeup of a species.
The variability It refers to the variety of living
Species diversity
among living Levels of organisms.
organisms from Biodiversity Variations in ecosystems within a
all sources, Ecosystem/ geographical location and its overall
including Community diversity impact on human existence and the
terrestrial, environment.
marine and other Measurement Number of different
aquatic of Species Richness species represented in an ecological
ecosystems and Biodiversity community, landscape or region.
the ecological Measures the proportion of species
Species Evenness
complexes of at a given site.
which they are a Biodiversity Hotspots Criteria
part; this includes A biogeographic region with significant 1. It must contain at least 0.5% or
diversity within levels of biodiversity that is threatened 1,500 species of vascular plants
species, between by human habitation. as endemics, and
species and of 2. It has to have lost at least 70% of
ecosystems. its primary vegetation

Importance of Biodiversity:
 Protection of water resources
Ecosystem services  Soils formation and protection
 Nutrient storage and recycling
  Pollution breakdown and absorption
 Contribution to climate stability
 Maintenance of ecosystems
 Recovery from unpredictable events
 Food
 Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
 Wood products
Biological resources  Ornamental plants
 Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
 Future resources
 Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
 Research, education and monitoring
Social benefits  Recreation and tourism
 Cultural values

Threats to Biodiversity:
 Natural Causes: continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth's tilt, and comets and
meteorites.
 Man-Made causes: Habitat destruction, Uncontrolled commercial exploitation, Hunting &
poaching, Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for development, Extension of agriculture,
Pollution etc.
 Habitat loss and fragmentation, Over-exploitation, Alien species invasions and Co-extinction are
known as ‘The Evil Quartet’.

Mode of Conservation:
Conservation of species within their natural habitat.
In-situ E.g. National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, Sacred
Groves, Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas etc.
Involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species in artificial
Ex-situ
ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.
 Indian Biodiversity
India one of the 17 mega-  With only 2.5% of the land area, India accounts for 7.8% of
diverse countries. the recorded species of the world.
 India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species even
while supporting almost 18% of human population.
 In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals,
ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles.
Biogeographic Realms  Biogeographically, India is situated at the tri-junction of the
Afro-tropical, the Indo-Malayan and the Palearctic realms.

Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically recognized,

corresponding roughly to continents (Australasian,
Afrotropical, Nearctic, Oceanic, Antarctic, Indo-Malayan,
Neotropical, Palearctic)
Biodiversity in India 45,500 species of plants and 91,200 species of animals are found
in India. India is an acknowledged centre of rich crop diversity.
India is considered to be the home of 167 important cultivated
plant species and 320 species of their wild relatives.

It hosts 4 Biodiversity Hotspots

 The Eastern Himalayas
 The Western Ghats and Srilanka
 The Indo-Burma region
 The Sundaland (Includes Nicobar group of Islands).
 Protected Area Network
Type of Protected Area Features
National Parks &  Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park both are protected natural
Wildlife Sanctuaries habitats. They are created to protect the nature and wildlife by
conserving the ecosystem under Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
 National parks are protected natural areas owned and maintained by
the national government. They are created to protect the entire
ecosystem, e.g. flora, fauna, landscape etc.
 A national park is a highly restricted area.
 India's first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National
Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand
 Wildlife Sanctuary is a natural protected habitat created to conserve
or protect the wildlife including the rare and endangered species of
birds and animals like Black Buck, Indian Wild Ass
Differences:
 Wildlife sanctuaries are established to protect particular species of
animals, whereas national parks preserve the landscape.
 National parks are given a greater degree of protection, with human
activity greatly restricted. In wildlife sanctuaries, on the other hand,
some human activity may be permitted, such as livestock grazing.
 National parks have clearly marked boundaries while sanctuaries do
not have marked boundaries.

National parks can be declared both by the Central Government and

State governments. No alteration of the boundaries of a national park
shall be made except on a resolution passed by the State Legislature.
Conservation Reserve  Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms
& denoting protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones
Community Reserve to or connectors and migration corridors between established
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected
forests of India.
  Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are
uninhabited and completely owned by the Government of India but
used for subsistence by communities and community areas if parts
of the lands are privately owned.
 These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife
(Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 − the amendment to the
Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
 These categories were added because of reduced protection in and
around existing or proposed protected areas due to private
ownership of land, and land use.
Biosphere Reserve  Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose protected
areas with boundaries circumscribed by legislation.
 Biosphere reserves are notified areas that may cover multiple
National Parks, Sanctuaries, and reserves.

Important Bird Areas  The IBA programme of Birdlife International aims to identify,
(IBAs) monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for conservation of the
world's birds and associated biodiversity.
 The IBAs serve as conservation areas for protection of birds at the
global, regional or sub-regional level.
Key Biodiversity Areas  Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) is an umbrella term commonly used to
(KBAs) include areas that contribute to the global persistence of
biodiversity, including vital habitat for threatened plant and animal
species in terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems.
 The criteria for designating a site as KBA have been described in the
document "The Global Standard for the Identification of Key
Biodiversity Areas (2016)" by International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN).
Tiger Reserve  The ‘Project Tiger’ is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) of the
And Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, providing
funding support to tiger range States for in-situ conservation of
National Tiger tigers in designated tiger reserves,
 The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has been
Conservation Authority
constituted under section 38 L (1) of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
(NTCA)  The authority consists of the Minister in charge of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests ( as Chairperson), Minister of State in the
Ministry of Environment and Forests (as Vice-Chairperson), three
members of Parliament, Secretary, Ministry of Environment and
Forests and other members.
The objectives of NTCA are:
 Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of
its directives become legal.
 Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger
Reserves, by providing a basis for MoU with States within our federal
structure.
 Providing for an oversight by Parliament.
 Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding
Tiger Reserves.

Powers and Functions of NTCA (from Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972)

 To approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State
Government under section 38 O (1) (a) of this Act
 evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and
disallow any ecologically unsustainable land use such as, mining,
industry and other projects within the tiger reserves
 lay down normative standards for tourism activities and guidelines
for project tiger
 ensure critical support including scientific, information technology
and legal support for better implementation of the tiger
conservation plan
 facilitate ongoing capacity building programme for skill development
of officers and staff of tiger reserve
 The NTCA / Project Tiger also conducts the country level assessment
of the status of tiger, co-predators, prey and habitat once in 4 years

Due to concerted efforts under Project Tiger, at present India has the
distinction of having the maximum number of tigers in the world at
2,967 (SE range 2,603 to 3,346) as per 2018 assessment, when
compared to other tiger range countries.
 Tigers were observed to be increasing at a rate of 6%/annum in India
 India has achieved the target of doubling the tiger count four years
ahead of the deadline of 2022.
 India’s five tiger landscapes are: Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains,
Central Indian Landscape and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North-
East Hills and Brahmaputra Plains, and the Sundarbans.
 Top Performers: Madhya Pradesh saw the highest number of tigers
(526) followed by Karnataka (524) and Uttarakhand (442).
 Increase in Tiger population: Madhya Pradesh (71%) > Maharashtra
(64%) > Karnataka (29%).
 Chhattisgarh is the only state out of the 20 tiger-bearing states
where the 2018- census counted 19 tigers, significantly fewer than
the 46 of 2014.
 Decline in Tiger numbers in Chhattisgarh can be attributed to the law
and order problem as large parts of the state are hit by the Maoist
insurgency.

Global Tiger Day, on July 29th, was observed for the first time in 2010 at
the St. Petersburg Tiger Summit in Russia when all 13 tiger range
countries came together for the first time with the commitment of
doubling the number of wild tigers by 2022.
Project Elephant  The Indian elephant Elephas maximus occurs in the central and
southern Western Ghats, North-east India, eastern India and
northern India and in some parts of southern peninsular India.
 It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972 and in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).
 It occurs in 16 of the 28 states in the country
 PROJECT ELEPHANT was launched by the Government of India in the
year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with following
objectives:
o To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
o To address issues of man-animal conflict
o Welfare of captive elephants
 The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides
the financial and technical support to major elephant range states in
the country through Project Elephant.

 Elephant census, is conducted once in 5 years under the aegis of

Project elephant. Methods employed: direct counting and dung
decay formula.
 Campaign Haathi Mere Saathi came into existence by the Ministry
of Environment and Forests in partnership with Wildlife Trust of
India. The aim of this campaign is to increase public awareness and
develop friendships between elephants and the local population.
 The Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme is
an international collaboration that measures the levels, trends and
causes of elephant mortality, thereby providing an information base
to support international decision-making related to conservation of
elephants in Asia and Africa.
 The MIKE Programme was established by the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) by Resolution 10.10 adopted at the tenth Conference of the
Parties in 1997.
 Lemru Elephant Reserve: Chhattisgarh
 In News: In July 2021, the Chhattisgarh government has proposed to reduce the area of Lemru
Elephant Reserve from 1,995 sq km to 450 sq km.
 The Centre gave its approval in 2007 for the creation of the 450 sq km Lemru Elephant
Reserve and in 2019, the state government decided to increase the area to 1,995 sq km.
 The reserve is aiming at reducing human-animal conflict and destruction of property in addition
to providing a permanent habitat to the elephants.
 Earlier, the state government notified the reserve (Conservation Reserve) in October 2020
under Section 36A of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 (WLPA).
 Reason for reducing size: The area proposed under the reserve is part of the Hasdeo Aranya
forests, a very diverse biozone that is also rich in coal deposits.
 The biggest challenge in increasing the reserve area was that several coal mines would become
unusable.
 North Chhattisgarh alone is home to over 240 elephants. More than 150 elephants have died
in the state over the last 20 years, including 16 between June and October 2020.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

 IUCN is a membership union uniquely composed of both government and civil society
organisations.
 Created in 1948, it is the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures
needed to safeguard it.
 It is headquartered in Switzerland.
 The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, is the world’s most comprehensive inventory of the
global conservation status of plant and animal species.
 It uses a set of quantitative criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of species. These criteria
are relevant to most species and all regions of the world.
 The IUCN Red List Categories define the extinction risk of species assessed. Nine
categories extend from NE (Not Evaluated) to EX (Extinct). Critically Endangered (CR),
 Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) species are considered to be threatened with
extinction.
 It is recognized as the most authoritative guide to the status of biological diversity.
 It is also a key indicator for the SDGs and Aichi Targets

Protected Areas in India:

Protected Areas of North India

Elephant Sanctuaries in
State/UTs National Parks Tiger Reserves
Reserves news
Jammu  City Forest (Salim - -  Changthang
&Kashmir Ali)  Nandini
 Dachigam
 Hemis
 Kishtwar
Himachal  Great Himalayan - -  Bandli
Pradesh  Inderkilla  Chandrataal
 Khirganga  Renuka
 Pin Valley
 Simbalbara
Uttarakhand  Corbett  Corbett  Shivalik  Govind
 Gangotri  Rajaji  Askot
 Govind
 Nanda Devi
 Rajaji
 Valley of Flowers
Uttar Pradesh  Dudhwa  Dudhwa  Uttar
 Pilibhit Pradesh ER
Bihar  Valmiki  Valmiki -  Vikramshila
Gangetic
Dolphin

Protected Areas of North West India

Elephant
State/UTs National Parks Tiger Reserves Sanctuaries in news
Reserves
Punjab - - -  Abohar
Haryana  Kalesar - - -
 Sultanpur
Rajasthan  Desert  Ranthambore - -
 Keoladeo Ghana  Sariska
 Mukundra Hills  Mukandra
 Ranthambhore Hills
 Sariska
Gujarat  Vansda - -  Girnar
 Velavadar  Khijadiya
 Gir  Nal Sarovar
 Gulf of Kachchh  Wild Ass
 Protected Areas of Central and Eastern India
Sanctuaries in
State National Parks Tiger Reserves Elephant Reserves
news
Madhya  Bandhavgarh  Kanha -  Palpur Kino
Pradesh  Dinosaur Fossils  Pench  Nauradehi
 Fossil  Bandhavgarh  Ratapani
 Pench  Panna
 Kanha  Satpura
 Madhav  Sanjay-Dubri
 Panna
 Sanjay
 Satpura
 Van Vihar
Chhattisgarh  Guru Ghasidas  Udanti-  Lemru  Udanti
(Sanjay) Sitanadi  Badalkhol-  Pamed
 Indravati  Achanakmar Tamorpingla  Sitanadi
 Kanger Valley  Indravati  Bhairamgarh
Odisha  Bhitarkanika  Similipal  Mayurbhanj  Balukhand-
 Simlipal  Satkosia  Mahanadi Konark
 Sambalpur  Kuldhia
 Baitami
 South Orissa
Jharkhand  Betla  Palamau  Singhbhum  Dalma
West Bengal  Buxa  Sunderbans  Mayurjharna  Lothian
 Gorumara  Buxa  Eastern Dooars Island
 Jaldapara  Raiganj
 Neora Valley  Sajnakhali
 Sunderban  Senchal
 Singalila

Protected Areas of South India

Elephant Sanctuaries in
State/UTs National Parks Tiger Reserves
Reserves news
Karnataka  Anshi  Bandipur Mysore  Bukkapatna
 Bandipur  Bhadra  M M Hills
 Bannerghatta  Dandeli-Anshi  Kabini
 Kudremukh  Nagarahole  Daroji
Nagarahole (Rajiv  Biligiri  Ranganathittu
Gandhi) Ranganatha Temple  Someshwara
Mookambika
Maharashtr  Chandoli  Melghat -  Yawal
a  Gugamal  Tadoba-Andhari  Tipeshwar
 Nawegaon  Pench  Lonar
 Pench  Bor
  Sanjay Gandhi  Sahyadri
(Borivilli)  Nawegaon-
 Tadoba Nagzira
 Kuno (2018)
Goa  Mollem - -  Bondla
 Cotigaon
 Madei
Telangana  Kasu  Kawal -  Pranahita
Brahmananda  Amrabad
Reddy
 Mahaveer
Harina
Vanasthali
 Mrugavani
Andhra  Papikonda  Nagarjunsagar  Rayala  Rollapadu
Pradesh  Rajiv Gandhi Srisailam  Koundinya
(Rameswaram  Coringa
)  Manjeera
 Sri
Venkateswara
Kerala  Anamudi Shola  Periyar  Periyar  Wayanad
 Eravikulam  Parambikulam  Anamudi  Bhavani
 Mathikettan   Nilambur  Neyyar
Shola  Wayanad  Peppara
 Pambadum  Chinnar
Shola
 Periyar
 Silent Valley
Tamil Nadu  Guindy  Anamalai  Srivilliputhur  Meghamalai
 Gulf of  Mudumalai  Anamalai  Karikili
Mannar  Sathyamangala  Coimbatore  Vedanthangal
 Annamalai m
 Mudumalai  Kalakad-  Nilgiri  Vettangudi
 Mukurthi Mundanthurai
 Srivilliputhur
Meghamalai
(2021)
Andaman  Campbell Bay - - -
and Nicobar  Galathea Bay
 Mahatama
Gandhi
Marine
 Middle Button
Island
 Mount
Harriett
 North Button
Island
 Rani Jhansi
Marine
  Saddle Peak
 South Button
Island

Protected Areas of North East India

Elephant Sanctuaries in
State National Parks Tiger Reserves
Reserves News
Assam  Manas  Manas  Chirang-  Pobitora
 Orang  Orang Ripu  Sonai Rupai
 Khaziranga  Khaziranga  Sonitpur  Amchang
 Nameri  Nameri  Dihing-  Bornadi
 Dibru Saikhowa Patkai
 Dihing Patkai  Kaziranga-
(2020) Karbi
Anglong
 Dhansiri-
Lungding
Arunachal  Mouling  Pakhui/Pakke  Kameng  Tale Valley
Pradesh  Namdapha  Namdapha  South  Pakke
 Kamlang Arunachal (Pakhui)
Nagaland  Intanki -  Intanki  Fakim
 Singhpan  Rangapahar
Manipur  Keibul Lamjao - -  yangoupokpi-
 Sirohi lokchao
Mizoram  Murlen  Dampa -  Tawi
 Phawngpui Blue
Mountain
Tripura  Bison (Rajbari) - -  Sipahijala
 Clouded Leopard  Trishna
Meghalaya  Nokrek -  Garo Hills  Nongkhyllem
 Balphakram  Khasi-hills  Baghmara
Pitcher Plant
Sikkim  Khangchendzonga - -  Fambong Lho

List of Biosphere Reserves in India

No Biosphere Reserves Year / MAB Entry Location
1 Nilgiri 1986 / 2000 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and
Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani
hills in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
2 Nanda Devi 1988 / 2004 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora districts
in Uttarakhand.
3 Nokrek 1988 / 2009 Part of East, West and South Garo Hill districts in
Meghalaya.
4 Great Nicobar 1989 / 2001 Southernmost island of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. It incorporates two national parks
Campbell Bay National Park and Galathea
National Park.
5 Gulf of Mannar 1989 / 2001 India part of Gulf of Mannar extending from
Rameswaram island in the North to Kanyakumari
in the South of Tamil Nadu.
6 Sundarbans 1989/ 2001 Part of delta of Ganges & Brahamaputra river
system in West Bengal.
7 Simlipal 1994 / 2009 Part of Mayurbhanj district in Orissa.
8 Pachmarhi 1999 / 2009 Satpura Hills runs across it. Covers three
protected areas – Satpura National Park, Bori and
Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary.
9 Achanakamar 2005 / 2012 Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of
- Amarkantak M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of
Chhattishgarh State.
10 Agasthyamalai 2001 / 2016 Covers Peppara and Shendurney wildlife
sanctuaries and parts of the Neyyar sanctuary in
Kerala and the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger
Reserve of Tamil Nadu.
11 Khangchendzonga 2000 / 2018 Part of North and West districts in Sikkim.
12 Manas 1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari,
Kamprup and Darang districts in Assam.
13 Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts in Assam.
14 Dehang-Dibang 1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang and Dibang Valley
districts in Arunachal Pradesh.
15 Kachchh 2008 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Patan
districts in Gujarat.
16 Cold Desert 2009 Pin Valley National Park and surroundings;
Chandratal & Sarchu; and Kibber Wildlife
sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17 Seshachalam Hills 2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghats.
18 Panna 2011 / 2020 Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in
Madhya Pradesh.
 UNESCO Natural Heritage Sites
No. Natural & Mixed Sites State Year
1 Kaziranga National Park Assam 1985
2 Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan 1985
3 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Assam 1985
4 Sunderbans National Park West Bengal 1987
5 Nanda Devi National Park and Valley of Flowers Uttarakhand 1988, 2005
6 Western Ghats South India 2012
7 Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh 2014
8 Khangchendzonga National Park (Only Mixed) Sikkim 2016

STATE ANIMAL, BIRD, TREE and FLOWER

State/UT Animal Bird Tree Flower
Andhra Pradesh Blackbuck Indian Roller Neem Jasmine
Arunachal Lady Slipper
Mithun Great Hornbill Hollong
Pradesh Orchid
One-horned White-winged
Assam Hollong Kopau Phul
Rhinoceros wood duck
Guar/ Indian Bodhi Tree/
Bihar House Sparrow Kachnar
Bison Sacred fig/Peepul
Chhattisgarh Wild Buffalo Bastar hill Myna Sal -
Gaur/ Indian Flame-throated
Goa Coconut Red Jasmine
Bison Bulbul
Gujarat Asiatic Lion Greater Flamingo Banyan African Marigold
Haryana Blackbuck Black Francolin Peepul Lotus
Himachal Western Deodar/ Pink
Snow Leopard
Pradesh Tragopan Himalayan Ceder Rhododendron
Jharkhand Elephant Koel Sal Palash
Karnataka Elephant Indian Roller Sandalwood Lotus
Golden Shower
Kerala Elephant Great Hornbill Coconut
Tree
Barasingha Asian Paradise
Madhya Pradesh Banyan Lilium candidum
(Swamp Deer) Flycatcher
Indian giant Yellow-footed
Maharashtra Mango Tamhan/Jarul
Squirrel green pigeon
Mrs. Hume's
Manipur Sangai Toona Siroi Llily
pheasant
Lady Slipper
Meghalaya Clouded Leopard Hill Myna White Teak
Orchid
Mrs. Hume's
Mizoram Himalayan Serow Iron wood Red Vanda
pheasant
Nagaland Mithun Blyth’s Tragopan Alder Rhododendron
Odisha Sambar Indian Roller Goolar Fig Ashoka
Punjab Blackbuck Northern Indian Rosewood -
Goshawk
Rajasthan Dromedary Great Indian Khejri Rohira
Camel Bustard
Sikkim Red Panda Blood Pheasant Rhododendron Noble Orchid
Tamil Nadu Nilgiri Tahr Emerald Dove Palmyra Palm Senkanthal/
Flame lily
Telangana Spotted Deer Indian Roller Jammi Ranawara
Tripura Phayre's langur Green Imperial Agar Nag Kesar
Pigeon
Uttarakhand Alpine Muskdeer Himalayan Monal Burans Brahm Kamal
Uttar Pradesh Swamp Deer Sarus crane Ashoka Palash
West Bengal Fishing Cat White Throated Alstonia Night flowering
Kingfisher Jasmine
Andaman & Dugong Andaman Wood Andaman -
Nicobar Islands Pigeon Redwood
Chandigarh Indian Grey Indian Grey Mango Tree -
Mangoose Hornbill
Delhi Nilgai House Sparrow - -
Jammu & Hangul/ Kashmir Black Necked Common
Chinar
Kashmir Stag Crane rhododendron
Black Necked
Ladakh Domestic Yak - -
Crane
Lakshadweep Butterfly Fish Sooty Tern Bread Fruit -
Puducherry Indian Palm Asian Koel Bael Fruit Tree Cannonball tree’s
Squirrel flower

State State Butterfly Species

Maharashtra Blue Mormon
Uttarakhand Common peacock
Karnataka Southern bird wings
Kerala Malabar banded peacock
Tamil Nadu Tamil Yeoman (Cirrochroa thais)
Arunachal Pradesh Kaiser-i-Hind
 Species Conservation
IUCN Red Data Book

Criteria for Threatened species (CR, EN and VU)

Criteria CR EN VU
Population reduction % in years 90% in 10 years 70% in 10 years 50% in 10 years
Population size Less than 50 Less than 250 Less than 10000
Probability of extinction in the wild 50% in 10 years 20% in 20 years 10% in 100
years
Risk of extinction in the wild Extremely high Very high High

Schedules under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

Schedule I Get absolute protection - offences under these are
prescribed the highest penalties.
 Species under this Schedule are prohibited to be hunted
throughout India, except under threat to human life.
 Absolute protection is accorded to species on this list.
 The Trade of these animals is prohibited.
 Examples: tiger, blackbuck, Himalayan Brown Bear,
Brow-Antlered Deer, Blue whale, Common Dolphin,
Cheetah, Clouded Leopard, hornbills, Indian Gazelle, etc.
Schedule II  Animals under this list are also accorded high
protection.
 Their trade is prohibited.
 Cannot be hunted except under threat to human life.
 Examples: Kohinoor (insect), Assamese Macaque,
Bengal Hanuman langur, Large Indian Civet, Indian Fox,
Larger Kashmir Flying Squirrel, Kashmir Fox, etc.
Schedule III and Schedule IV This list is for species that are not endangered
Are also protected, but the penalties are much lower.
Schedule V Animals which may be hunted. Examples: mice, rat,
common crow, fruit bats, etc.
Schedule VI The plants in this are prohibited from cultivation and
planting.
Examples: pitcher plant, blue vanda, red vanda, kuth, etc

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species on Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
o In the mid-20th century, governments were beginning to recognize that trade in some
wild animals and plants had a devastating impact on those species. These species were
being driven toward extinction through unsustainable use for food, fuel, medicine, and
other purposes.
 o In 1973, 21 countries addressed this issue by signing the CITES agreement.
o It is a global agreement among governments to regulate or ban international trade in
species under threat.
o There are 183 member Parties and trade is regulated in more than 35,000 species.
o CITES brings together law enforcement officers from wildlife authorities, national parks,
customs, and police agencies to collaborate on efforts to combat wildlife crime targeted
at animals such as elephants and rhinos.
o Representatives of CITES nations meet every two to three years at a Conference of the
Parties to review progress and adjust the lists of protected species, which is grouped into
three categories with different levels of protection:
Appendix I Species in danger of extinction. Prohibits commercial trade except in extraordinary
situations for scientific or educational reasons.
Appendix II Species not threatened with extinction but that might suffer a serious decline if
trade is not restricted. Their trade is regulated by permit
Appendix III Species protected in at least one-member country and that has petitioned others
for help in controlling international trade.

Important Species

Species IUCN Habitat / distribution Additional details

Gray Slender Loris LC Western Ghats Kerala, Karnataka and Besides the
Western Tamil Nadu continuing along platypus, slow
the Eastern Ghats to southern Andhra lorises are the only
Pradesh and Srilanka. venomous
mammals.
3 of 8 species
found in India.
Eurasian Otter NT Eurasia, India (Himalayan foothills, Schedule II of
southern Western Ghats and the central WildLife
Indian landscape) Protection Act +

Appendix I of
CITES
White rhino / 'square NT Grassland and savanna; South Africa, Appendix II
lipped' rhino Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia,
Kenya, Uganda
Black rhino / 'hook CR Tropical grassland, Shrublands, deserts; Appendix I
lipped' rhino South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe,
Tanzania, Kenya
Greater one horned rhino VU Tropical grassland, shrublands, savanna; Schedule I +
/ Indian Rhino India, Nepal. Appendix I
In India, Khaziranga is known for this.
Sumatran rhino CR Tropical and subtropical forests; Appendix I
Sumatra, Sabah
Javan rhino CR Tropical and subtropical forests; Appendix I
Sumatra, Sabah
White-Rumped Vulture CR Found all over the country. Appendix II

Slender-Billed Vulture CR Found along the Sub-Himalayan regions Appendix II

(Gyps tenuirostris) of Indian Subcontinent
Long-Billed /Indian CR India, Pakistan and Nepal. Appendix II
Vulture (Gyps Indicus)
Red-Headed Vulture CR Localized primarily to northern India. Appendix II
(Sarcogyps Calvus) Known as Indian
Black Vulture
found only in the
Indian
Subcontinent.
Egyptian Vulture EN North west India Appendix II
(Neophron Percnopterus)
Himalayan Vulture (Gyps NT Found in the Himalayas of Indian Appendix II
himalayensis) Subcontinent
Cinereous Vulture NT Northern India. Largest true bird
Aegypius Monachus of prey in the
world.
Mugger Crocodile/ VU Found in lakes, rivers and marshes Appendix I
Marsh crocodile
Saltwater crocodile LC Found along the eastern coast of India Schedule I
Gharial CR National Chambal Sanctuary (MP) , Schedule I +
Katarniaghat Sanctuary (UP) , Son River Appendix I
Sanctuary (MP) , Satkosia Gorge
Sanctuary (Odisha).

Gangetic Dolphin EN Found in parts of the Ganges, Meghna, Schedule I +

and Brahmaputra river systems in India, Appendix I
Nepal, and Bangladesh.
Indus Dolphin EN Indus in Pakistan, Beas river in India. Schedule I +
Appendix I.
Punjab’s state
aquatic animal.
Irrawaddy Dolphin EN Coastal areas in South and Southeast Schedule I +
Asia. Mostly found in Chilika Lake of Appendix I
Odisha.
Indian Ocean Humpback EN Coastal areas ranging from Southern -
Dolphin Africa to Western Indochina.
Northern river CR Sundarbans of Bangladesh, Cambodia, Schedule I +
terrapin (Batagur baska) India (parts- West Bengal & Appendix I.
Odisha), Indonesia and Malaysia.

Indian/Ganges softshell VU Ganges, Indus and Mahanadi rivers Schedule I +

turtle Appendix I

Black softshell EW Brahmaputra river (Assam and

Schedule I +
or Bostami turtle Bangladesh) Appendix I
Olive Ridley Turtle VU Pacific and Indian Oceans, but also in the
Schedule I +
warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean Appendix I.
Famous rookeries:
Gahirmatha,
Rushikulya, Devi
etc
Indian Star Tortoise VU India (Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Schedule IV +
Andhra, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan), Appendix I
Pakistan and Srilanka.

Green sea turtle EN Its range extends throughout tropical Appendix I.

and subtropical seas around the world. With two distinct
populations in the
Atlantic
and Pacific
Oceans, but also
found in Indian
Ocean.
Leatherback sea turtle VU Of all the extant sea turtle species, D. It is the largest of
Coriacea has the widest distribution all living turtles.
Humpbacked whale EN Yemen, Oman, the UAE, Iran, Pakistan Appendix I
and India, and possibly the Maldives and
Sri Lanka
Whale Shark EN Distributed widely across tropical and Schedule I +
warm temperate seas. Appendix II
Dugong VU Indian ocean and SE Pacific. (India - Schedule I +
Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar, Appendix I.
Laccadives)
White-bellied heron / CR Eastern Himalayas in India and Bhutan to -
imperial heron north eastern Bangladesh and Burma.
Manas reserves of Assam.
Great Indian Bustard CR 90% Birds are found in Rajasthan and Schedule I +
Gujarat. Other states include Madhya Appendix I
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.

Bengal Floricon CR Native to the Indian subcontinent, Schedule I +

Cambodia, and Vietnam. Uttar Pradesh Appendix I
Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
Lesser Floricon CR Endemic to India, presently found in Schedule I +
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Appendix I.
Andhra and Maharashtra. Smallest bustard
in the world
Great Indian Hornbill VU Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas and SE Appendix I
Asia
Greater Adjutant Storks EN Only three breeding populations; largest -
colony in Assam, a smaller one
around Bhagalpur; and another
in Cambodia.
Tokay gecko LC NE India and SE Asia Appendix II
Red Panda EN Endemic to the temperate forests of Schedule I +
the Himalayas, and ranges from the Appendix I
foothills of western Nepal to China in the
east. India (Sikkim, Arunachal, North
West Bengal and Meghalaya)
Indian Wild Ass NT Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary, Little Rann of Schedule I
Kutch and its surrounding areas of
the Great Rann of Kutch in
the Gujarat province.
Snow Leopard VU Higher Himalayan and trans-Himalayan Schedule I +
landscape in the five states/UTs of J&K, Appendix I
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
and Arunachal Pradesh.
Indian Pangolin EN Widely distributed in India, except the Schedule I +
arid region, high Himalayas and the Appendix II
North-East.

Chinese Pangolin CR Himalayan foothills in Eastern Nepal, Schedule I +

Bhutan, Northern India, and North-East Appendix II
Bangladesh and through Southern China
Nilgiri Tahr EN Endemic to Southern Western Ghats Schedule I +
(Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Appendix I

Lion Tailed Macaque EN Endemic to Southern Western Ghats Schedule I +

Appendix I

Asiatic Lion EN Gir Protected Area Network (Gir NP, Gir Schedule I +
Sanctuary, Pania Sanctuary, Mitiyala Appendix I
Sanctuary) of Gujarat.
Bengal Tiger EN India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh Schedule I +
Appendix I
Indian Elephant EN India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Bangladesh, Schedule I +
Myanmar, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Appendix I
Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Asian Wild Buffalo EN North East India, Chhattisgarh Schedule I
Sangai Deer / brow- EN Only in Keibul Lamjao National Park, Schedule I +
antlered deer located in the southern parts of Appendix I
the Loktak Lake, Manipur.

Kashmir stag / Hangul CR J&K (Dachigam NP, Rajparian sanctuary) Schedule I +

and Himachal Pradesh Appendix I

Asian golden cat NT Eastern Nepal through north-eastern Appendix I

India to Indonesia.
Cochin forest cane turtle EN Endemic to the evergreen and semi- Schedule I +
evergreen forests of the Western Ghats Appendix II.
of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Locally known as
Kavalai
forest turtle
Western Hoolock Gibbon VU Eastern Bangladesh, Northeast India and Schedule I +
Eastern Hoolock Gibbon EN Southwest China. Appendix I.
Only apes found in
India.
 Fishing cat VU Floodplains, deltas and coastal wetlands Schedule I +
of South and Southeast Asia. Appendix II.

Asiatic Cheetah CR Only in Iran. Schedule I +

Appendix I.
Clouded Leopard VU Himalayan foot hill in Nepal through Schedule I +
mainland SE Asia to China Appendix I.
Indian Leopard VU Widely distributed on the Indian Schedule I +
subcontinent. Appendix I.
Tibetian Antelope / Chiru EN China, India (J & K) Schedule I +
Appendix I.
Gee’s Golden Langur EN Bhutan and Northeast India (Assam). Schedule I +
Appendix I.

Eco Sensitive Areas:

 Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas in India notified by
the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Government of India
around Protected Areas , National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
 The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of "shock absorbers" to the protected
areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
 They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser
protection.
 Eco-Sensitive Zones or Ecologically Fragile Areas are areas within 10 kms around Protected
Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
 In case of places with sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches,
crucial for landscape linkage, even area beyond 10 km width can also be included in the eco-
sensitive zone.

Activities Allowed in ESZs:

Prohibited activities: Commercial mining, saw mills, industries causing pollution (air, water,
soil, noise etc), establishment of major hydroelectric projects (HEP),
commercial use of wood, Tourism activities like hot-air balloons over
the National Park, discharge of effluents or any solid waste or
production of hazardous substances.

Regulated activities: Felling of trees, establishment of hotels and resorts, commercial use
of natural water, erection of electrical cables, drastic change of
agriculture system, e.g. adoption of heavy technology, pesticides etc,
widening of roads.

Permitted activities Ongoing agricultural or horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting,

organic farming, use of renewable energy sources, adoption of green
technology for all activities.
Topics: Climate Change and Pollution - Air, Water, Soil, Noise, Radioactive, E-Waste, Solid Waste •
Pollution related issues- Acid Rain, Photochemical Smog, GHG, Ozone depletion, Algal Bloom

Environmental Pollution
Environmental Pollution Pollution is the introduction of substances (or energy) that causes
adverse changes in the environment and living entities.
Pollution Types

Air Pollution
Air Pollution Composition of
Atmosphere Trace Gases
Air Pollution is the
Neon -- Nitrogen
release of pollutants Helium --
such as gases,
particles, biological
Methane -- © '' -
78%

molecules, etc. into

Krypton " Atmosphere
Oxygen )
Argon |~Ar~| *'■ 21%
the air that are
0.93% J
harmful to human
health and & Carbon Dioxide
environment. 0.035%

Major Pollutants  Carbon monoxide (CO)

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
 Ozone, Lead, Dust etc
Indoor
— Air Pollution sources
 Volatile organic compounds
 Smoke
Impact of Air  Biological pollutants
Pollution  Radon
Primary Pollutants These persist in the form in which they are

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 Health impacts – added to the environment Eg. DDT, plastic, Lead
diseases etc.
 Global Warming Secondary Pollutants These are formed by interaction among the
 Acid Rain primary pollutants. Eg. peroxyacetyl nitrate
 Smog (PAN), Ground level ozone, Smog etc.
 Ozone Layer Causes  Burning of Fossil Fuels
Depletion  Automobiles exhaust
 Effect on  Agricultural Activities (Ex: Stubble burning)
Animals  Factories and Industries
 Mining Activities
 Domestic Sources
 Waste deposition (Ex: Methane)
 Indoor Air pollution
Air Pollutant Origin of Pollutant Health Effects
Carbon monoxide Produced from internal combustion Reduction in oxygen-carrying
engines due to incomplete combustion. capacity of blood
Other sources are volcanoes, forest
fires, etc.
Carbon dioxide Heavier than air. CO2 is an asphyxiant gas
Source are volcanoes, fire, vehicle (asphyxia: a condition arising
exhaust, industries etc when the body is deprived of
oxygen, causing unconsciousness
or death.).
Oxides of nitrogen Caused due to the reaction between Irritation of pulmonary tract
oxygen and nitrogen at high temps such affecting functioning of lungs
as in combustion engines and industries. Plays a major role in the
formation of SMOG, acid rain
(nitric acid), and the greenhouse
effect.
Methane Methane is also an asphyxiant
Sources of Methane Emissions
and may displace oxygen in an
Natural
enclosed space. Asphyxia or
Wetlands suffocation may result if the
Paddy Rice oxygen concentration is reduced
Fields
to below 19.5% by displacement.
livestock
Production Atmospheric
Methane
Biomass Emissions
Burning

landfills

Fossil Fuel
Exploration

Chlorofluorocarbons Used in refrigerators, air conditioners, Highly destructive to the Ozone

(CFCs) aerosols, etc. layer.

Ammonia Fertiliser industry, agriculture and in Irritation of mucous membrane

poultry farming
Sulphur dioxide Pungent smelling colorless gas Respiratory issues, premature
produced from mostly volcanic deaths, and impact on nervous
activities, industrial processes, and system
production of sulphuric acid.

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Hydrogen sulphide Manufacture of coke, viscose rayon, Excessive inhalation leads to
distillation of tar and petroleum death
Acids and Chemical industries Eyes, nose and throat irritation
Aldehydes
Suspended Industries, automobile exhaust Respiratory diseases
particulate matter
(SPM)
Silica dust Silicon quarries Silicosis affects the lungs
Asbestos dust Asbestos mining, asbestos Asbestosis which involves severe
Sheet manufacturing respiratory problems and may
lead to cancer.
Lead Automobile exhaust Cumulative poison, impairment of
central nervous system, Digestive
issues, Kidney damage and impact
on intelligence
Hence, Lead was banned as an
additive to fuels and other
products.
Beryllium Aerospace industry, manufacture of Fatal to heart and lungs
house-hold appliances
Manganese Mining operations Damages nerves and reproductive
systems
Benzene Automobile exhaust and manufacture of Leukemia, chromosomal damage
chemicals Increases cancer risk and a major
cause of bone marrow failure.
Ethylene Used in plastic and chemical industries Excess exposure can cause
in the production of Polyethylene and headaches and dizziness.
other polymers. Ethylene oxide is a carcinogen
Asbestos Occurs naturally as a fibrous mineral. The asbestos fibers irritate and
scar lung tissue, causing the lungs
to become stiff. This makes it
difficult to breathe. Exposure to
asbestos can increase the risk of
developing
 Asbestosis, which causes
permanent lung damage.
 Mesothelioma, a rare cancer
of the chest and stomach
lining.
Fly Ash Fly Ash is particles of oxides and other Inhalation or ingestion of the
heavy metals. The majority of them are toxins in fly ash can have impacts
aluminum silicate (in large amounts), on the nervous system, causing
silicon dioxide (SiO2), and calcium cognitive defects, developmental
oxide (CaO). delays, and behavioral problems
Thermal power plants are a major while also increasing a person's
source of Fly Ash pollutants. chance of developing lung
disease, kidney disease, and
gastrointestinal illness
Its deposition in agricultural fields
can cause heavy metal
contamination of crops and
vegetables.
Particulate Matter  It is a term for a mixture of solid  Irregular heartbeat,

L
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 particles and liquid droplets found aggravated asthma,
(PM 10 and PM 2.5) in the air decreased lung function and
 PM 10: Inhalable particles with increased respiratory
diameters that are generally 10 symptoms, such as irritation
micrometers and smaller; and of the airways, coughing or
 PM 2.5: fine inhalable difficulty breathing.
particles, with diameters that are  Small particles less than 10
generally 2.5 micrometers and micrometers in diameter
smaller. pose the greatest problems,
 Some are emitted directly from a because they can get deep
source, such as construction sites, into the lungs, and some may
unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks even get into the
or fires. bloodstream
 Most are a result of complex  Fine particles are also the
reactions of chemicals such as main cause of reduced
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, visibility (haze)
which are pollutants emitted from
power plants, industries and
automobiles.
Measure Taken to control Air Pollution
National Air Quality  Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been executing this nation-
Monitoring wide programme of ambient air quality monitoring.
Programme (NAMP)  The network consists of 804 operating stations covering 344 cities/towns
in the country.
 Four air pollutants - Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2,
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10) and Fine
Particulate Matter (PM2.5) have been identified for regular monitoring at
all the locations.
 The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and
wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature were also
integrated with the monitoring of air quality.
 Monitoring of air pollutants is carried out twice a week
 The objectives of the NAMP:
 To determine status and trends of ambient air quality
 To ascertain the compliance of NAAQS
 To identify non-attainment cities
 To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for
developing preventive and corrective measures.
 To understand the natural process of cleaning in the
atmosphere.
National Ambient  Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding
Air Quality us in the outdoors.
Standards  NAAQS are the standards for ambient air quality with reference to
(NAAQS) various identified pollutant notified by the Central Pollution Control
Board under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
 Major objectives of NAAQS
 To indicate necessary air quality levels and appropriate margins
 To provide a uniform yardstick for assessment of air quality
 To indicate the extent and need of monitoring programme.
 Current NAAQS were notified by CPCB in the year 2009.
 Pollutants covered under NAAQS are Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen
Dioxide (NO2), Particulate Matter (PM 10, PM 2.5), Ozone (O3), Lead
 (Pb), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3), Benzene (C6H6),
Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP), Arsenic(As), Nickel (Ni).
 In addition to above, MoEF&CC through CPCB has notified 118
emission/effluent standards for 122 different sectors of industries,
besides 32 general standards for ambient air.
 Installation of on-line continuous (24x7) monitoring devices by 17 major
polluting industries has been made mandatory.
National Air Quality  The AQI is an index for reporting daily air quality.
index (AQI)  It focuses on health effects one might experience within a few hours or
days after breathing polluted air.
 AQI is calculated for eight major air pollutants:
1. Ground-level ozone 5. Sulfur dioxide
2. PM10 6. Nitrogen dioxide
3. PM2.5 7. Ammonia
4. Carbon Monoxide 8. Lead
 There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately
polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.

 NAQI, launched by CPCB, Union Environment Ministry, is a number used

to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how
polluted it is forecasted to become
The System of Air  National initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences
Quality and (MoES) to measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring
Weather the overall pollution level & location-specific air quality of the city.
Forecasting and  The system is indigenously developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical
Research (SAFAR) Meteorology (IITM), Pune and is operationalized by the India
Meteorological Department (IMD).
 It has a giant true color LED display that gives out real-time air quality
index on a 24x7 basis with color-coding (along with 72 hours advance
forecast)
 It monitors all weather parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity,
wind speed, and wind direction, UV radiation, and solar radiation.
 It organizes awareness drive by educating the public (prompting self-
mitigation), and
 It also helps the policy-makers to develop mitigation strategies keeping
in mind the nation’s economic development.
 Pollutants monitored: PM1, PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, CO, NOx (NO, NO2),
SO2, BC, Methane (CH4), Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), VOC’s,
Benzene, Mercury.
 Monitored Meteorological Parameters: UV Radiation, Rainfall,
Temperature, Humidity, Wind speed, Wind direction, solar radiation
 SAFAR installed- Pune, Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad.
  The World Meteorological Organization has recognized SAFAR as a
prototype activity on the basis of the high-quality control and standards
maintained in its implementation.

Forty-two Action  Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has issued a comprehensive set of
Point directions under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1986 for
implementation of forty-two (42) measures to mitigate air pollution in
major cities including Delhi and NCR.
 Directions containing 42 action point which was issued initially for
implementation in NCR was subsequently extended to State Boards for
implementation in other non-attainment cities.
National Clean Air  It is a pollution control initiative to cut the concentration of particles
Programme (NCAP) (PM10 & PM2.5) by 20-30% by 2024. It will have 2017 as the base year
for comparison and 2019 as the first year.
 Under NCAP, 122 non-attainment cities have been identified across the
country based on the Air Quality data from 2014-2018.
 Its objectives include
 Stringent implementation of mitigation measures for prevention,
control and abatement of air pollution;
 Augment and strengthen air quality monitoring network across
the country;
 Augment public awareness and capacity building measures.
 Significance of NCAP
 First such effort
 Multisectoral Collaboration and Participatory approach
 All-inclusive approach – It has tried to incorporate measures for
urban as well as rural areas. Further, NCAP identifies the trans-
boundary nature of air pollution and thus specifically assigns
transboundary strategies in managing the air pollution in the
country.
 Linking Health and Pollution
 CPCB shall execute the nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control, and abetment of air pollution within the framework of NCAP.
 The Apex Committee in the MoEFCC will periodically review the progress.
Annual performance will be periodically reported upon.
 3 Major Components of NCAP: Mitigation Actions, Knowledge and
Database Augmentation and Institutional Strengthening.
 Under the NCAP, city-specific action plans will be developed for
all 122 cities that exceed national air quality safeguards.
 Some Smart Cities have established Integrated Command and Control
Centres (ICCCs) which are also connected to Air Quality Monitors (AQMs)
for effective monitoring.
World Air Quality Report 2023
 Released by IQAir, a Swiss group that measures air quality levels based on updated annual WHO
air quality guidelines for PM2.5 (less than 5 micrograms per cubic meter)
 IQAir endeavours to engage, educate, and inspire governments, researchers, Non-Government
Organisations, companies, and citizens to work together to improve air quality and create
healthier communities and cities.
Key Points of the report:

India’s Air Quality Ranking

 India is the world’s third most polluted country, with an annual PM2.5 average of 54.4
µg/m³.
 Bangladesh and Pakistan surpassed India as the first and second most polluted countries,
respectively.
 9 out of the top 10 most polluted cities globally are in India.
 Delhi retained its title as the world’s most polluted capital for the fourth consecutive year.
 Begusarai (Bihar) recorded the highest PM2.5 levels (118.9 µg/m³) among metropolitan
areas worldwide.

Health Impacts and WHO Guidelines

 136 million Indians (96% of the population) live in areas where PM2.5 levels are seven
times higher than the WHO-recommended limit of 5 µg/m³.
  Over 66% of Indian cities exceed the PM2.5 annual threshold of 35 µg/m³.
 PM2.5, largely from fossil fuel combustion, increases risks of heart disease, stroke,
asthma, and oxidative stress, causing severe health implications.

Global Air Quality Trends

 Seven countries, including Australia, Finland, Iceland, and New Zealand, met WHO’s
PM2.5 annual guideline of 5 µg/m³ or lower.
 Africa remains underrepresented in air quality data, with a third of its population lacking
access to monitoring.
 Countries like China and Chile reported reductions in PM2.5 levels, reflecting progress in
combating pollution.

Global Impact of Air Pollution

 Air pollution leads to 7 million premature deaths annually, contributing to 1 in 9 deaths

worldwide.
 Elevated PM2.5 levels are linked to asthma, cancer, mental health disorders, and impaired
cognitive development in children.

The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas
Bill, 2021
o It provides for the constitution of a Commission for better coordination, research,
identification, and resolution of problems related to air quality in the National Capital Region
(NCR) and adjoining areas.
 Adjoining areas have been defined as areas in the states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan,
and Uttar Pradesh adjoining the NCR where any source of pollution may cause adverse
impact on air quality in the NCR.
o It also dissolves the Environment Pollution Prevention and Control Authority established in
the NCR in 1998 upon the directions of Supreme Court.
o The Commission will be headed by a full-time chairperson who has been a Secretary to the
Government of India, or a Chief Secretary to a State government.
 The chairperson will hold the post for three years or until s/he attains the age of 70 yrs.
o It will have members from several Ministries as well as representatives from the stakeholder
States.
o It will have experts from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and Civil Society.
 o Functions:
o Coordinating actions taken by concerned state governments (Delhi, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh).
o Planning and executing plans to prevent and control air pollution in the NCR.
o Providing a framework for identification of air pollutants.
o Conducting research and development through networking with technical institutions.
o Training and creating a special workforce to deal with issues related to air pollution.
o Preparing various action plans such as increasing plantation and addressing stubble
burning.
o Powers:
o The new body will have the power to issue directions and entertain complaints as it
deems necessary for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the air in
the NCR and adjoining areas.
o It will also lay down parameters for control of air pollution (such as permissible levels
of emissions and discharge of pollutants).
o It will also have the powers to overrule directives issued by the state governments in
the region, that may be in violation of pollution norms.
o It will also be in charge of identifying violators, monitoring factories and industries and
any other polluting unit in the region, and will have the powers to shut down such
units.

Air pollution in Delhi-NCR and the Indo Gangetic Plains is a complex phenomenon that is dependent
on a variety of factors.
o The direction of the wind is northwesterly in summers, which brings the dust from
northern Pakistan and Afghanistan.
o High-speed winds are very effective at dispersing pollutants, but winters bring a dip in
wind speed overall as compared to in summers which makes the region prone to
pollution.
o Also, Delhi lies in a landlocked region which does not have a geographical advantage
that eastern, western or southern parts of the country enjoy where the sea breeze
disperses the concentrated pollutants.
o Stubble burning in Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana is blamed for causing a thick blanket
of smog in Delhi during winters.
o Other reasons include dust storms, firecrackers during Diwali, Construction and
industrial activities.

How Air Purifiers Work?

 Air purifiers sanitize the air, getting rid of pollutants, allergens, and toxins.
 Air purifiers have a relatively simple set-up: a fan that sucks in air, and one or more filters. These
filters — usually paper, fibers such as fiberglass, or a mesh — capture and neutralize pollutants
and particles as air passes over them, before the clean air is recirculated into the living space.
 They're effective at filtering out most polluting particles, although some are likely to still remain
on soft and hard surfaces like furniture or walls.
 The particular airborne particles that get pulled out of the air depend on the type of air purifier
and filter used.
 High-efficiency filters use a dense network of fibers and several layers of intricate weaves to
remove pollutants and allergens measuring as small as 2.5 microns.
 Some air purifiers have ultraviolet filters and use light to destroy biological impurities such as
mold and bacteria, while those with activated charcoal can remove gases like volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and smoke particles. As such, air purifiers can help with allergies, to a certain
extent.
 Is Pollen a Form of Air Pollution?

 Pollen is technically a type of Particulate Matter but because most intact pollen grains are
larger than 10 um, they don't usually fall into the PM10 category and are typically too large to
enter our lungs.
 Occasionally, however, pollen particles can rupture into smaller particles - in these instances, the
smaller fragments of pollen grain can become small enough to be classified as PM10, or even
PM2.5, and can enter our airways.
 During pollen season, there are lots of additional particles in the air, some of them small enough
to get into our airways. For sensitive groups like those with allergic asthma, this additional
respiratory threat can pose a serious threat, especially when combined with air pollution.
 Plant pollen is considered as the main aeroallergen causing allergic reactions. According to
available data, urban residents experience more respiratory allergies than rural residents mainly
due to the interaction between chemical air pollutants and pollen grains.
 Air pollutants might damage the pollen cell wall, facilitating allergen release into the
environment and penetration into the lower respiratory tract
 These pollutants can interact with allergen-carrying small particles, which pass through the
airway and cause asthma symptoms
 Water Pollution
Water Pollution  Water pollution is said to occur when toxic pollutants and particulate matter
are introduced into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas.
Water Resource  Oceans (97%) with marine water constituting 97% of it.
Distribution  Freshwater (3%) : Glaciers > Groundwater > Ice and Snow > Lakes > Soil
moisture > Swamps & marshes > Rivers > Biological water > Atmospheric
water
Causes

Point Sources  If pollution comes from a single location, such as a discharge pipe attached
to a factory. Eg: Sewage discharge pipes.
Non-point or  Water pollution happens not from one single source but from many
Diffuse Sources different scattered sources. Eg. Agriculture runoff.
Diseases caused  Can cause infectious diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, Diarrhea, Typhoid,
Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia), Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease), Intestinal
Worms, Hepatitis, Trachoma, Gastroenteritis, dysentery, jaundice, etc.

Dissolved  Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water decreases the dissolved
Oxygen (DO) oxygen content of the water.
 Water having DO content below 8.0 mg/L may be considered as
contaminated (below 4.0 mg/L is considered as highly polluted)
  A number of factors like surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2
consumption by organisms and decomposition of organic matter are the
factors which determine the amount of DO present in water.
 Increasing waste in water increase the rates of decomposition and O2
consumption (required for decomposition) thereby decreases the DO
content of water.

Biological  Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical

Oxygen Demand Oxygen Demand (BOD).
(BOD)  BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing
the organic wastes present in water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen
per litre of water.
 The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of water.
 Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials, it is not a reliable method
of measuring water pollution.

Chemical oxygen  COD measures the amount of oxygen in parts per million required to
demand (COD) oxidise organic (biodegradable and non-biodegradable) and oxidizable
inorganic compounds in the water sample
Marine pollution  Sources of oceanic pollution include navigational discharge of oil, grease,
detergents, sewage, garbage and radioactive wastes, offshore oil mining, oil
spills.
 Oil being lighter than water covers the water surface as a thin film
cutting off oxygen to floating plants and other producers. Within
hours of an oil spill, the fishes, shellfish, plankton die due to
suffocation and metabolic disorders.
  Over 300 million tons of plastic are produced every year for use in a wide
variety of applications.
 At least 14 million tons of plastic end up in the ocean every year, and plastic
makes up 80% of all marine debris found from surface waters to deep-sea
sediments.
 Marine species ingest or are entangled by plastic debris, which causes
severe injuries and death.
 Under the influence of solar UV radiation, wind, currents and other
natural factors, plastic breaks down into small particles called
microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) or nanoplastics (particles
smaller than 100 nm). The small size makes them easy for marine
life to ingest accidentally.
 Plastic pollution threatens food safety and quality, human health, coastal
tourism, and contributes to climate change.
Underground  Groundwater contamination occurs when man-made products such as
water pollution gasoline, oil, road salts and chemicals get into the groundwater and cause it
to become unsafe and unfit for human use.
 For example, pesticides and fertilizers can find their way into groundwater
supplies over time. Road salt, toxic substances from mining sites, industrial
& municipal waste & effluents also may seep into groundwater.
 Natural Sources: Some substances found naturally in rocks or soils, such as
iron, manganese, arsenic, chlorides, fluorides, sulphates, or radionuclides,
can become dissolved in ground water. Other naturally occurring
substances, such as decaying organic matter can move in ground water as
particles.
 Pollutants like fluorides, uranium, heavy metals and nutrients like nitrates
and phosphates are common in many parts of India.
 Drinking water containing bacteria and viruses can result in illnesses such as
hepatitis, cholera, or giardiasis.
 Methemoglobinemia or “blue baby syndrome,” an illness affecting
infants, can be caused by drinking water that is high in nitrates.
 Benzene, a component of gasoline, is a known human carcinogen.
 Measure Taken to control Water Pollution
National Water  The CPCB in association with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) /
Quality Monitoring Pollution Control Committees (PPCs) is monitoring the quality of water
Programme bodies at 2500 locations across the country under NWQMP.
(NWQMP)  Data indicate that organic pollution is the predominant cause of water
pollution.
 Based on the magnitude of organic pollution, CPCB in 2008 identified 150
polluted river stretches which increased to 302 in 2015.
Central Pollution  CPCB is a statutory organisation which was constituted in September,
Control Board 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
(CPCB)  It was entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
 Principal Functions of the CPCB, a
 to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of
the States by prevention, control and abatement of water
pollution.
 to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air
pollution in the country.
 In India, the CPCB an apex body in the field of water quality
management, has developed a concept of “designated best use”.
 Accordingly, the water body is designated as A, B, C, D, E on the basis of
 pH,
 dissolved oxygen, mg/l
 BOD, (200C) mg/l
 total coliform (MPN/100ml)
 free ammonia mg/l,
 electrical conductivity etc.
Initiatives to  Ganga Action Plan in 1985
Prevent Ganga  ‘National River Ganga Basin Authority (NRGBA)’ was formed by the
Pollution Central Government of India in the year 2009 under Section-3 of the
Environment Protection Act, 1986, chaired by Prime Minister of India.
 NRGBA declared the Ganga as the ‘National River’ of India.
 Namami Gange Programme in 2014
 National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) is the implementation wing of
the National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection, and Management of
River Ganga also known as National Ganga Council (set in 2016; which
replaced the NRGBA, chaired by PM).
Other Measures  Preparation of action plan for sewage management and restoration of
water quality in aquatic resources by State Governments.
 Hot water should be cooled before release from the power plants.
 Installation of Online Effluent Monitoring System to check the discharge
of effluent directly into the rivers and water bodies.
 Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of water quality.
 Action to comply with effluent standards is taken by SPCBs / PCCs to
improve the water quality of the rivers.
 Financial assistance for installation of Common Effluent Treatment Plants
for cluster of Small-Scale Industrial units.
 Issuance of directions for implementation of Zero Liquid Discharge.
 Issuance of directions under Section 5 of Environment (Protection) Act,
1986 to industries and under Section 18(1)(b) of Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
 Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed, invasive species) can purify water by
taking some toxic materials and a number of heavy metals from water.
 Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of bregoli — a by-product
of paper industry resembling sawdust, oil zapper, microorganisms.
 It has been suggested that we should plant eucalyptus trees all along
sewage ponds. These trees absorb all surplus wastewater rapidly and
release pure water vapour into the atmosphere.
Convention on  An inter-governmental conference on the Convention on the Dumping of
Dumping of Wastes Wastes at Sea met in London in November 1972 to adopt this
at Sea instrument, the London Convention.
 The Convention has a global character and is aimed at international
control and putting an end to marine pollution.
 The definition of dumping under the Convention relates to deliberate
disposal at sea of wastes or other materials from vessels, aircraft,
platforms and other man-made structures.
 ‘Dumping’ here does not cover wastes derived from the exploration
and exploitation of sea-bed mineral resources.
 The 1996 Protocol states that “the polluter should, in principle, bear the
cost of pollution”. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is
responsible for Secretariat duties with respect to the Protocol.

Sewage Water Treatment for Domestic Use:

 Substances that are removed during the process of drinking water treatment include
suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals such as iron and manganese.
 The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical processes such as
settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and coagulation and biological
processes such as slow sand filtration.
Coagulation • During coagulation, liquid aluminium sulfate (alum) is added to
Flocculation untreated water. Other chemicals, such as ferric sulphate or sodium
aluminate, may also be used.
• This causes the tiny particles of dirt in the water to stick together or
coagulate.
• Next, groups of dirt particles stick together to form larger particles
called flocs. Flocs are easier to remove by settling or filtration.
Sedimentation • As the water and the floc particles progress through the treatment
process, they move into sedimentation basins where the water moves
slowly, causing the heavy floc particles to settle to the bottom.
• Floc which collects on the bottom of the basin is called sludge and is
piped to drying lagoons.
• In Direct Filtration, the sedimentation step is not included, and the floc
is removed by filtration only.
Filtration • Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water.
The filters are made of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases,
crushed anthracite.
• Filtration collects the suspended impurities in water and enhances the
effectiveness of disinfection. The filters are routinely cleaned by
backwashing.
Disinfection • Water is disinfected before it enters the distribution system to ensure
that any disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites are destroyed.
• Chlorine is used because it is a very effective disinfectant, and residual
concentrations can be maintained to guard against possible biological
contamination in the water distribution system.
• Chlorine can combine with certain naturally occurring organic
compounds in water to produce chloroform and other potentially
harmful by-products.
• The risk of this is very small, however, when chlorine is applied after
coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.
• Ozone gas may also be used for disinfection of drinking water.
However, since ozone is unstable, it cannot be stored and must be
produced on-site, making the process more expensive than
chlorination.
• Ozone has the advantage of not causing taste or odour problems. It
also leaves no residue in the disinfected water.
• The lack of an ozone residue, however, makes it difficult to monitor its
continued effectiveness as water flows through the distribution system.
Sludge Drying • Solids that are collected and settled out of the water by sedimentation
and filtration are removed to drying lagoons.
Fluoridation • Water fluoridation is the treatment of community water supplies for
the purpose of adjusting the concentration of the free fluoride ion to
the optimum level sufficient to reduce dental caries.
• Excess fluoride ions causes fluorosis.
• Bureau of Indian Standards prescribes 1.0 mg/l as desirable and 1.5
mg/l as a maximum permissible limit for drinking water.
• Defluoridation at domestic level can be carried out by mixing water for
treatment with an adequate amount of aluminium sulphate (alum)
solution, lime or sodium carbonate and bleaching powder depending
upon its alkalinity (concentration of bicarbonates and carbonates in
water) and fluoride contents
pH Correction • Lime is added to the filtered water to adjust the pH and stabilise the
naturally soft water in order to minimise corrosion in the distribution
 system and within customers’ plumbing.
Removal of iron • In many parts of our country, we have a problem of excess iron in
drinking water, especially in North-East regions.
• Iron causes bad taste and odour to the drinking water.
• BIS prescribes desirable limit for iron as 0.3 mg/l.
• A major part of iron is oxidised. Then the water is made to react with
oxidising media (limestone).
• By aeration and further oxidation, the dissolved iron is converted to
insoluble ferric hydroxide. The insoluble iron can thus be easily
removed through filtration.
Removal of arsenic • Arsenic is found in groundwater in some parts of West Bengal. Arsenic
is highly toxic.
• BIS prescribes desirable limit for arsenic as 0.05 mg/l.
• Bleaching powder and alum are used for the removal of arsenic.

Traditional Water Conservation Systems around India

Name Region Characteristics
Phad Maharashtra It is a community-managed irrigation system in the tapi
river basin
Zing Ladakh small tanks that collect melting glacier water.
abo or Ruza Nagaland Rainwater that falls on forested hilltops is collected by
System channels that deposit the run-off water in pond-like
structures created on the terraced hillsides.
Suranga/ Western Ghats system used to provide a reliable supply of water for
Surangam Region human settlements through tunnel system
Taanka Rajasthan It is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which
rainwater from rooftops, courtyards or artificially
prepared catchments flows
Jhalara Jodhpur, Rajasthan Jhalaras are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that
have tiered steps on three or four sides in the city of
Jodhpur
Bawari Rajasthan Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of
the ancient networks of water storage in the cities of
Rajasthan.
Khadin Jaislamer, Rajasthan Also called dhora, is a long earthen embankment that is
built across the hill slopes of gravelly uplands. It is
indigenous to Jaisalmer region and similar to the
irrigation methods of Ur region (Present Iraq).
Kund Rajasthan and It is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes
Gujarat towards the central circular underground well.
It is found in the sandier tracts of western Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
Ahar Pynes Bihar They are traditional floodwater harvesting systems
indigenous to South Bihar
Kuhls Himachal Pradesh They are surface water channels found in the
mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh.
Johads Hilly areas They are small earthern check dams used to conserve
and recharge ground water, mainly constructed in an
area with naturally high elevation.
Jackwells Great Nicobar Island The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands uses this
 system, in which bamboos are placed under trees to
collect runoff water from leaves and carries it to
jackwells which are pits encircled by bunds made from
logs of hard wood.
Pat system Madhya Pradesh It is developed in Madhya Pradesh, in which the water is
diverted from hill streams into irrigation channels by
diversion bunds.
Panam keni Kerala The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses
wooden cylinders as a special type of well, which are
made by soaking the stems of toddy palms and
immersed in groundwater springs.
Eri Tamil Nadu It is tank system, widely used in Tamil Nadu which acts
as flood-control systems, prevent soil erosion and
wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and
also recharge the groundwater.
 Soil Pollution
Soil Pollution / Refers to the degradation of land due to the presence of chemicals or other man-
Soil made substances in the soil.
Contamination It is build-up of persistent toxic compounds, salts, chemicals, radioactive materials,
or disease-causing agents in soil which have adverse effects on plant growth,
human and animal health.
Causes  Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides,
 Insecticides and herbicides
 Pollution due to urbanisation
 Dumping large quantities of solid waste
 Deforestation and soil erosion
Sources

Impacts On Agriculture  Increased erosion

 Loss of soil and nutrients
 Reduced soil fertility
 Reduced nitrogen fixation
 Reduced crop yield
 Increased salinity
 Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
On Health  Release of pollutant gases
 Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
 Bio magnification
 Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
On Environment  Reduced vegetation
 Ecological imbalance
 Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
 Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution It refers to the excessive amount of noise in the surrounding that disrupts the
natural balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like
volcanoes can contribute to noise pollution.
In general, any sound which is over 85 decibels is considered to be detrimental.
Also, the duration an individual is exposed plays an impact on their health.
Causes  Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.
 Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.
 Construction noises
 Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.)
 Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)
Impacts  Hearing loss
 Tinnitus
 Sleeping disorders
 Hypertension and Communication problems
Ambient Noise  A Real time Ambient Noise Monitoring Network - Terminals have been
Level installed in different noise zones in metro cities across India.
Monitoring  Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 2000 define ambient noise
levels for various areas as follows:
Category of Limits in dB(A) Leq
Area/Zone
Day (6AM - Night (10PM –
10PM) 6AM)
Industrial 75 70
Area
Commercial 65 55
Area
Residential 55 45
Area
Silence 50 40
Zone
Green Mufflers:
 Radioactive Pollution
Radioactive Radioactive pollution occurs when there is presence or depositions of radioactive
pollution materials in the atmosphere or environment, especially where their presence is
accidental and when it presents an environmental threat due to radioactive decay.
Causes  Nuclear accidents from nuclear plants
 Nuclear Bombs (Weapons of Mass Destruction)
 Use of radioisotopes in medicine and other applications
 Spillage of radioactive materials in ocean
 Radiation tests

Impacts  Genetic Mutation- change of genetic material in the future generations

 Diseases like Cancers, leukemia occur due to radiation
 Soil pollution – which may cause biomagnifications.
 Cell destruction, Burns etc
Remedies  Proper method of disposal of radioactive waste as per international guidelines
 Labelling of hazardous radioactive materials and proper usage instructions
 Banning Nuclear arms tests
 Shifting to alternative to nuclear energy
 Proper storage of nuclear waste using containers which can absorb the radiation
 Reusing the nuclear material and reduce the nuclear waste generated.
 Electronic Waste
E-Waste

 The discarded and end-of-life electronic products ranging from computers, equipment, home
appliances, audio and video products and all of their peripherals are popularly known as
Electronic waste (E-waste).
 E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage or recycled by scientific methods or
transported from one place to the other in parts or in totality in the formal sector. The e-waste
can, however, be considered hazardous if recycled by primitive methods.
 Unlike developed countries, which have specifically built facilities for recycling of e-waste,
recycling in developing countries often involves manual participation thus exposing workers to
toxic substances present in e-waste
Pollutant Source Health Effects
Lead Used in glass panels and gaskets Lead causes damage to the central and
in computer monitors. Solder in peripheral nervous systems, blood systems,
printed circuit boards kidney and reproductive system in humans.
It also effects the endocrine system, and
impedes brain development among children.
Cadmium Occurs in SMD chip resistors, Toxic cadmium compounds accumulate in the
infra-red detectors, and human body, especially the kidneys.
semiconductor chips.
Mercury Used in thermostats, sensors, Mercury can cause damage to organs including
relays, switches, lamps, medical the brain and kidneys, as well as the foetus.
equipment, mobile phones and in When inorganic mercury spreads out in the
batteries. water, it is transformed to methylated mercury
which bio-accumulates in living organisms and
concentrates through the food chain, particularly
via fish.
Brominated From plastic housing of electronic Cause neural disorders
Flame equipment to prevent flames.
Retardants
Hexavalent Used as corrosion protector and Cause damage to DNA and is extremely toxic in
Chromium as a decorative or hardener for the environment.
steel housings Plastics (ex: PVC).
Barium Used in computers in the front Causes brain swelling, muscle weakness, damage
panel of a CRT, to protect users to the heart, liver, and spleen.
from radiation.
Beryllium Found in motherboards and finger Cause lung cancer, skin disease.
clips, copper beryllium alloy to
strengthen connectors.
Phosphor Phosphor is an inorganic chemical The phosphor coating on cathode ray tubes
and compound that is applied as a contain heavy metals, such as cadmium, and
Additives coat on the interior of the CRT other rare earth metals, for example, zinc,
faceplate. vanadium as additives. These metals and their
compounds are very toxic.
 Bio-Remediation
It is a type of waste management technique which involves the
Meaning of Bioremediation use of organisms to remove or utilize the pollutants from a
polluted area.
It is biotechnical process that abates/ cleans up contamination.
Bio-venting It involves supplying of air and nutrients through wells to
contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of microorganisms.
In-situ Bio-sparging It involves the pressurized injection of air below the water
(Treated at table to increase the content of groundwater oxygen
contaminated concentration and also increase the rate of biological
site) degradation of wastes by naturally occurring Microorganisms.
Bioaugmentation It involves the continuous addition of microorganisms
(indigenous or exogenous) to the contaminated sites.
Land farming Contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared
bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded.
Composting It involves the use of a biological system of micro-organisms in
Ex-situ
a mature, cured compost to sequester or break down
(Contaminants
contaminants in water or soil.
excavated out
Bio-pile It is a hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially,
of the
engineered cells are constructed as aerated composted piles.
location)
Bioreactor It involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil,
sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered
containment system.
Based on type Phytoremediation Use of plants to decontaminate.
organisms Mycoremediation Fungi are used to decontaminate.
used Bacterioremediation Bacteria used to decontaminate.
Advantages  Useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of contaminants.
 The complete destruction of target pollutants is possible.
 Less expensive.
 Environment friendly.
Disadvantages  Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all
compounds are susceptible to rapid and complete degradation.
 Biological processes are often highly specific.
 It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot scale studies to full-scale field
operations.
 Bioremediation often takes longer time than other treatment process.
 SMOG and Acid Rain
SMOG Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).
 Smog contains soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
and other components.
Sulfurous Smog  Also called “London smog,” (first formed in London).
 Sulfurous smog results from a high concentration of Sulfur Oxides in the air
and is caused by the use of sulfur bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal and
diesel (Coal was the mains source of power in London during 19th century.
The effects of coal burning were observed in early 18th century).
 This type of smog is aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of
suspended particulate matter in the air.
Photochemical  Also known as “Los Angeles smog”.
Smog  Photochemical smog occurs most prominently in urban areas that have large
numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen oxides are the primary emissions).
 When pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and volatile
organic compounds (primary pollutant) react together in the presence of
sunlight, ozone (Secondary pollutant) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
(Secondary pollutant) are formed.
 Nitrogen oxides + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons = Ozone + PAN
 The resulting smog causes a light brownish coloration of the atmosphere,
reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation of eyes, and respiratory distress.
 Acid Rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry
forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
What Causes  Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) react
Acid Rain? with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.


While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural
sources such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.
The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Forms of Acid Wet Deposition - The sulfuric and nitric acids formed in the atmosphere fall to
Deposition the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.
Dry Deposition - Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere
in the absence of moisture as dry deposition.
Effects of Acid On Ecosystems
Rain  Fish and Wildlife – some acidic lakes have no fish, animals or plants it eats
might not tolerate moderately acidic water.
 Plants and Trees - Acid rain also removes minerals and nutrients from the
soil, Dead or dying trees
 Episodic acidification
 Nitrogen Pollution
On Materials
 Dry deposition on statues, buildings, and other manmade structures, and
damage their surfaces.
 The acidic particles corrode metal and cause paint and stone to deteriorate
more quickly. They also dirty the surfaces of buildings

Eutrophication and Algal Blooms

 Eutrophication is the pollution of water because of over-supply of nutrients while
algal blooms are an excessive growth of algae in the water.
 Both eutrophication and algal bloom usually occurs due to the introduction of a
nutrient (such as nitrogen or phosphorus) into an aquatic ecosystem.
 Algal blooms can be any colours, but the most common ones are red or brown.
These blooms are commonly referred to as red or brown tides.
 Water temperature has also been related to the occurrence of algal blooms, with
unusually warm water being conducive to blooms.
 Eutrophication can also occur outside water bodies. For example, soils can be
eutrophic when they have high levels of nitrogen, phosphorous or other nutrients.

Algae is a term that is used to describe both unicellular and multicellular, photosynthetic organisms.
Discolouration of the water characterises a unicellular algal bloom. Giant kelp forests are examples
of a multicellular algal bloom.
Causes of Algal Bloom:
Nutrient  The most common cause of algal blooms is a sudden increase of
Increase nutrients which are typically needed by algae for growth.
 These nutrients are usually introduced into an aquatic ecosystem
(Manmade or
through agricultural runoffs, sewage runoffs and other anthropogenic
Natural)
causes.
 However, algal blooms can also be caused naturally.
 Ocean currents drive up nutrients to the surface from the depths, and
the abundance of nutrients, combined with sunlight on the ocean
surface provides a very favourable environment for the algae to grow.
These conditions will lead to the rapid growth of algae.
Temperature  Early blue–green algal blooms usually develop during the spring when water
temperature is higher and there is increased light
 Water temperatures above 25°C are optimal for growth of Cyanobacteria.
 In temperate regions, blue–green algal blooms generally do not persist
through the winter months due to low water temperatures.
Stable  Most of blue–green algae prefer stable water conditions with low flows, long
Conditions retention times, light winds and minimal turbulence
 Thermal stratification occurs when the top layer of the water column
becomes warmer and the lower layer remains cooler. When the two layers
stop mixing, the upper layer becomes more stable and summer blooms of
blue-green algae are supported
Turbidity  Turbidity is caused by the presence of suspended particles and organic
matter in the water column
 When turbidity is low, more light can penetrate through the water column.
This creates optimal conditions for algal growth.
Impact of Algal Bloom:
Loss of fresh  Eutrophication eventually creates detritus layer in lakes and produces
water lakes successively shallower depth of surface water.
 Eventually the water body is reduced into marsh whose plant community is
transformed from an aquatic environment to recognizable terrestrial
Hypoxia  Eutrophication promotes overgrowth of plants and algae. After such
organisms die, the bacterial degradation of their biomass consumes the
oxygen in the water, thereby creating the state of hypoxia (state of having
less oxygen).
Harmful algal  Blooms which can injure animals or the ecology are called HAB
blooms(HAB)  In a marine environment, single-celled, autotrophic organisms form
the base of the food web. These organisms are called phytoplankton,
and about 5,000 species have been discovered till date.
 Of these 5,000 species, 2% of phytoplankton species are known to be
toxic. These toxin-producing species are termed as Harmful Algal
Blooms (HABs)
 HABs cause damage by producing biological toxins or interfere with
mechanical functions or organisms.
 HABs are also responsible for mass die-offs, where a large population
of species dies after consumption of the toxic algae.
 HABs most notably affect sea birds, sea turtles, marine mammals and
many species of finfishes. Though marine life is affected the most, the
toxins can travel through the food chain and enter the human body.
This can cause adverse repercussions from gastrointestinal ailments to
paralysis.
New species  Eutrophication may make the ecosystem competitive by transforming the
invasion normal limiting nutrient to abundant level. This causes shifts in species
composition of the ecosystem.
Human  Humans become seriously ill from eating oysters and other shellfish
Health contaminated with toxins produced as a result of the eutrophication process.
 It can cause eye, skin and respiratory irritation to swimmers, boaters and
residents of coastal areas.
Loss of coral  This can occur due to a decrease in water transparency as a result of
reefs eutrophication.
Economic  The substantial loss of aquatic life has a devastating effect on fisheries and
Impact the fishing industry. Its adverse impact goes beyond the fishing industry.
Recreational fishing which is the backbone of the tourism industry also
suffers from a loss of revenues.
 Affects navigation due to increased turbidity (increased cloudiness or
haziness in water bodies).
Dead Zones  Dead zones are areas in the ocean with very low oxygen concentration
(hypoxic conditions). Dead zones (biological deserts) are increasing in the
coastal delta and estuarine regions.
 Dead zones emerge when influx of chemical nutrients spur algae growth.
 These zones usually occur 200-800 meters (in the saltwater layer) below the
surface.
 Dead zones are detrimental to animal life. Most of the animal life either dies
or migrates from the zone.
 One of the largest dead zones forms in the Gulf of Mexico every spring
(farmers fertilize their crops and rain washes fertilizer off the land and into
 streams and rivers).
 There’s a dead zone in Gulf of Oman and it’s growing

Mitigation of Algal Bloom:

Sewage Water  Treating Industrial effluents domestic sewage to remove nutrient-rich
Treatment sludge through wastewater processing.
Riparian buffer  Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land created near the
waterways, farms, roads, etc. in an attempt to filter pollution.
 Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer zones instead of
deposition in water (Wetlands, estuaries are natural riparian buffers).
Change in  Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorous fertilisers and using
Agricultural them at adequate levels.
Practices  Nitrogen testing & modelling: N-Testing is a technique to find the
optimum amount of fertiliser required for crop plants. It will reduce the
amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.
 Encouraging organic farming.
 Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power plants.

Ozone Layer and Ozone Depletion

Ozone Layer:
 Most atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a
layer in the stratosphere, about 9 to 18 miles
(15 to 30 km) above the Earth's surface.
 Ozone is a molecule that contains three
oxygen atoms.
 At any given time, ozone molecules are
constantly formed and destroyed in the
stratosphere. The total amount has remained
relatively stable during the decades that it has
been measured.
 The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs a
portion of the radiation from the sun,
preventing it from reaching the planet's surface.
 Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of UV light called UVB . UVB has been
linked to many harmful effects, including skin cancers, cataracts, and harm to some
crops and marine life.
 Ozone concentrations in the atmosphere vary naturally with sunspots, seasons, and
latitude. These processes are well understood and predictable. Each natural
reduction in ozone levels has been followed by a recovery.
 Beginning in the 1970s, however, scientific evidence showed that the ozone shield
was being depleted well beyond natural processes.

Ozone Depletion:
 Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to intense UV
light in the stratosphere. These compounds contribute to ozone depletion, and are
called ozone-depleting substance (ODS)
 o ODS that release chlorine include Cholofluorocarbons(CFCs),
Hydrofluorocarbons(HCFCs), Carbon tetra chloride and methylcholoform.
ODS that releases bromine includes halons and methylbromide.
 Although ODS are emitted at the Earth’s surface, they are eventually carried into the
stratosphere in a process that can take as long as two to five years.
 When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the
stratosphere, they destroy ozone molecules.
 One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed
from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more quickly than it is naturally
created.
 Some natural processes, such as large volcanic eruptions, can have an indirect effect
on ozone levels. For example, Mt. Pinatubo's 1991 eruption did not increase
stratospheric chlorine concentrations, but it did produce large amounts of tiny
particles called aerosols. These aerosols increase chlorine's effectiveness at
destroying ozone.
o The aerosols in the stratosphere create a surface on which CFC-based
chlorine can destroy ozone.
 Not all chlorine and bromine sources contribute to ozone layer depletion. For
example, researchers have found that chlorine from swimming pools, industrial
plants, sea salt, and volcanoes does not reach the stratosphere.
 In contrast, ODS are very stable and do not dissolve in rain. Thus, there are no
natural processes that remove the ODS from the lower atmosphere.
 Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because it increases the amount
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases the rate of
skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage.
 The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the first of several comprehensive
international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting
chemicals (more details on this in later handouts).
 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS, REGULATORY BODIES, ACTS & POLICIES: FOREST RIGHTS ACT,
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY
AUTHORITY, NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Important Environmental Acts/Policies/Rules

The Wild Life  The Act provides for the formation of wildlife advisory boards, wildlife
(Protection) Act of wardens, specifies their powers and duties, etc.
1972  The Act prohibited the hunting of endangered species.
 There are five types of protected areas as provided under the Act:
o Sanctuaries
o National parks
o Conservation Reserves
o Community Reserves
o Tiger Reserves
 The Act created six schedules which gave varying degrees of protection
to classes of flora and fauna.
 Schedule I and Schedule II (Part II) get absolute protection and
offences under these schedules attract the maximum penalties.
 Its provisions paved the way for the formation of the Central Zoo
Authority. This is the central body responsible for the oversight of zoos
in India. It was established in 1992.
 The National Board for Wildlife was constituted as a statutory
organisation under the provisions of this Act (PM is the Chairperson)
 The Act also provided for the establishment of the National Tiger
Conservation Authority.

The Water  The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards to
(Prevention and establish and enforce effluent standards for factories.
Control of  The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take
Pollution) Act of the sample for the purpose of analysis.
1974 and  A Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) performs the same functions
Amendment, 1988 for Union Territories and formulates policies and coordinates activities
of different State Boards.
 Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was
achieved through criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
 The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a
defaulting industrial plant.
The Forest  First Forest Act was enacted in 1927.
(Conservation) Act  Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental
of 1980 degradation, Centre Government enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act
in 1980.
 It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of
forest produces and the duty leviable on timber and other forest
produce.
 Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
 Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central
Government is required for diversion of forestlands for non-forest
purposes.
 An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Centre on
these approvals.
 The Indian Forest Act of 1927 deals with the four categories of the
forests, namely reserved forests, village forests, protected forests and
private forests.

Reserved forest
 A state may declare forestlands or waste lands as reserved forest and
may sell the produce from these forests.
 Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in
reserved forests is punishable with a fine or imprisonment, or both
Village forests:
 Reserved forests assigned to a village community are called village
forests.
Protected forests
 The state governments are empowered to designate protected
forests and may prohibit the felling of trees, quarrying and the removal
of forest produce from these forests.
 The preservation of protected forests is enforced through rules, licenses
and criminal prosecutions.

The Air (Prevention  Enacted to arrest the deterioration in the air quality.
and Control of  The Air Act’s framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974.
Pollution) Act of  It expanded the authority of the central and state Pollution control
1981 and boards established under Water Act, to include air pollution control.
Amendment, 1987  As per the act “air pollutant” means any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other
living creatures or plants or property or environment.
The Environment  In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted
(Protection) Act of the Environment Act of 1986.
1986  The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment of 1972.
 Act authorizes the central government to protect and improve
environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources,
and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial
facility on environmental grounds.
 It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged
with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms.
 The Act was last amended in 1991.
 The Environment (Protection) Rules lay down procedures for setting
standards of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.
 Eco sensitive Zones, Coastal Regulation Zones come under this act.
 Most of the Rules related with environment protection like CRZ Rules,
ODS rules etc are issued under this Act.
National Forest  The policy aims at maintaining of environmental stability.
Policy, 1988  It looks at conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving
the remaining natural forests.
 Increasing forest/tree cover in the country through massive
afforestation and social forestry programmes.
 Creating a massive people’s movement for achieving these objectives
and to minimise pressure on existing forests.
Biodiversity Act,  The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity
2000 and associated knowledge against their use by foreign individuals and
organizations without sharing the benefits arising out of such use, and to
check biopiracy.
 The Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority
(NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management
Committees (BMCs) in local bodies.
 The NBA will enjoy the power of a civil court.
 BMCs promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation of
biodiversity.
 NBA and SBB are required to consult BMCs in decisions relating to use of
biological resources or related knowledge within their jurisdiction and
BMCs are to promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation
of biodiversity.
 All foreign nationals or organizations require prior approval of NBA for
obtaining biological resources and associated knowledge for any use.
 Indian individuals /entities require approval of NBA for transferring
results of research with respect to any biological resources to foreign
nationals/organizations.
 The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a result of approvals by NBA
will be deposited in National Biodiversity Fund.
 There is provision for notifying National Heritage Sites important from
standpoint of biodiversity by State Governments in consultation with
local self-government.
The Scheduled  Nodal Agency for the implementation is Ministry of Tribal Affairs
Tribes and Other  Act is applicable for Tribal and Other Traditional Forest Dwelling
Traditional Forest Communities.
Dwellers  Act provides for recognition of forest rights of other traditional forest
(Recognition of dwellers provided they have for at least three generations prior to
Forest Rights) Act, 13.12.2005 primarily resided in and have depended on the forests for
2006. bonafide livelihood needs.
 The maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest land is 4 hectares.
Also known as  The Act recognizes the right of ownership access to collect, use, and
dispose of minor forest produce by tribals.
Forest Rights Act,  Minor forest produce includes all non-timber forest produce of plant
2006 origin.
 The rights conferred under the Act shall be heritable but not alienable
or transferable.
 The Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate the process for determining
the nature and extent of Individual Forest Rights (IFR) or Community
Forest Rights (CFR) or both that may be given to Forest land in forest
Dwelling Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers.
 The gram sabha’s recommendation goes through two stages of
screening committees at the taluka and district levels. The district level
committee makes the final decision.
 The Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH) have been envisaged in Forest
Rights Act, 2006.
National Green  Act of the Parliament of India which enables creation of NGT to handle
Tribunal Act, 2010 the expeditious disposal of the cases pertaining to environmental issues.
 The specialized architecture of the NGT will facilitate fast track
resolution of environmental cases and provide a boost to the
implementation of many sustainable development measures.
 NGT is mandated to dispose the cases within six months of their
respective appeals.
Compensatory  The Act established National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (NCAF)
Afforestation Fund under the Public account of India and State Compensatory Afforestation
Act 2016 Funds under public accounts of states.
 The CAF Act was enacted to manage the funds collected for
compensatory afforestation which till then was managed by ad hoc
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority
(CAMA established by Supreme Court Order).
 Compensatory afforestation means that every time forest land is
diverted for non-forest purposes such as mining or industry, the user
agency pays for planting forests over an equal area of non-forest land,
or when such land is not available, twice the area of degraded forest
land.
 The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds
will receive the remaining 90%.
 The funds can be used for treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural
generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management,
relocation of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife
conflicts, training and awareness generation, supply of wood saving
devices and allied activities.
 Act provides statutory status for two ad-hoc institutions, namely
o National Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and
Planning Authority for management and utilisation of NCAF.
o State Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and
Planning Authority for utilisation of State CAF.
  The act also seeks to provide for constitution of a multidisciplinary
monitoring group to monitor activities undertaken from these funds.
 The act also provides for annual audit of the accounts by the Comptroller
and Auditor General.
Solid Waste The salient features:
Management  Rules are applicable not only to municipal areas but also to urban
Rules, 2016 agglomeration, census towns, Indian railways, SEZ, pilgrims places etc.
 The source segregation of waste has been mandated to channelize the
waste to wealth by recovery, reuse and recycle.
 Responsibilities of Generators have been introduced to segregate waste
into three streams:
 Wet (Biodegradable),
 Dry (Plastic, Paper, metal, wood, etc.) and
 Domestic hazardous wastes (diapers, napkins, empty
containers of cleaning agents, mosquito repellents, etc.)
 Segregated wastes should be handed over to authorized rag-pickers or
waste collectors or local bodies.
 Integration of waste pickers/ rag pickers and waste dealers in the formal
system. This is to be done by State Governments, and Self Help Group,
or any other group to be formed.
 Generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to waste collector and for ‘Spot
Fine’ for Littering and Non-segregation.
 Partnership between waste generators and local bodies in swachh
Bharat has been introduced.
 Composting or bio-methanation should be applied for processing bio-
degradable waste.
 5% of total total area of SEZ should be allotted for recovery and recycling
facility.
 Waste generated in construction sites and demolition sites should be
disposed off according to construction and demolition waste
management rules, 2016.
 In hilly areas landfills should not be constructed. Transfer station should
be constructed at suitable location.
Bio-Medical Waste Bio-Medical Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018:
Management  Phase out chlorinated plastic bags (excluding blood bags) and gloves by
Rules, 2016 March 27, 2019.
 All healthcare facilities shall make available the annual report on its
website within a period of two years (from 2018).
 Operators of common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal
facilities shall establish barcoding and GPS for handling of bio medical
waste in accordance with guidelines issued by the CPCB.
 Every person having administrative control over the institution
generating biomedical waste shall pre-treat it through sterilization on-
site in the manner as prescribed by WHO and then sent to the Common
biomedical waste treatment facility for final disposal.
E-Waste E-Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018:
Management  Extended Producer Responsibility: manufacturers of the products are
Rules, made responsible for collecting and processing their products upon the
2016 end of their lifetime
  The e-waste collection targets under extended producer responsibility
(EPR) have been revised. The phase-wise collection targets for e-waste
in weight shall be 10% of the quantity of waste generation as indicated
in the EPR Plan during 2017-18, with a 10% increase every year until
2023. From 2023 onwards, the target has been made 70% of the
quantity of waste generation as indicated in the EPR Plan.
 Separate e-waste collection targets have been drafted for new
producers.
 Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs) shall apply to the Central
Pollution Control board (CPCB) for registration to undertake activities
prescribed in the Rules.
 Under the Reduction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) provisions, cost
for sampling and testing shall be borne by the government for
conducting the RoHS test. If the product does not comply with RoHS
provisions, then the cost of the test will be borne by the Producers.
Plastic Waste  Increase minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50 microns
Management and stipulate minimum thickness of 50 micron for plastic sheets also to
Rules, 2016 facilitate collection and recycle of plastic waste.
 To promote use of plastic waste for road construction.
 Rural areas have been brought in ambit of these Rules. Responsibility
for implementation of the rules is given to Gram Panchayat.
 First time, responsibility of waste generators is being introduced.
 First time, persons organizing events like marriages, religious gatherings
have been made responsible for management of waste generated from
these events.
 SPCBs will not grant/renew registration of plastic bags, or multi-layered
packaging.
 Producers to keep a record of their vendors.
 CPCB has been mandated to formulate the guidelines for thermo-set
plastic (plastic difficult to recycle).
 Every local body has to be responsible for setting up infrastructure
for segregation, collection, processing, and disposal of plastic waste.

Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018:

 The phasing out of Multilayered Plastic (MLP) is now applicable to MLP,
which are “non-recyclable, or non-energy recoverable, or with no
alternate use.
 Central registration system for the registration of the
producer/importer/brand owner.
 A national registry has been prescribed for producers with a presence in
more than two states, a state-level registration has been prescribed for
smaller producers / brand owners operating within one or two states.
 Explicit pricing of carry bags has been omitted.

Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2021

 It prohibits identified single use plastic items which have low utility and
high littering potential by 2022.
 The manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of single-
use plastic, including polystyrene and expanded polystyrene,
commodities shall be prohibited.
  The manufacture of a range of plastic products will be banned. These
include earbuds with plastic sticks, plastic flags, ice-cream sticks,
thermocol for decoration, plates, cups, cutlery such as forks, spoons
and knives, straws, trays, wrapping or packing films around sweet
boxes, invitation cards, and cigarette packets, plastic or PVC banners
less than 100 microns, and stirrers.
 The thickness of plastic carry bags has been increased from 50 microns
to 70 five microns and to 120 microns. This will also allow reuse of
plastic carry due to increase in thickness.
 The plastic packaging waste, which is not covered under the phase out
of identified single use plastic items, shall be collected and managed in
an environmentally sustainable way through the Extended Producer
Responsibility of the Producer, importer and Brand owner (PIBO).
 The Guidelines for Extended Producer Responsibility being brought out
have been given legal force to make it more effective.
 The guidelines also allow for sale and purchase of surplus extended
producer responsibility certificates. This will set-up a market
mechanism for plastic waste management.
 Reuse of rigid plastic packaging material has been mandated in the
guidelines to reduce the use of fresh plastic material for packaging.
 State Pollution Control Board (SPCBs) have been tasked to submit an
annual report on EPR portal with respect to its fulfillment by producers,
importers and brand-owners and plastic waste processors in the
state/Union Territory to the CPCB.
 The government has also called for establishing a centralised online
portal by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for the registration as
well as filing of annual returns by producers, importers and brand-
owners, plastic waste processors of plastic packaging waste by 31st
March, 2022.
 It would act as the single point data repository with respect to orders
and guidelines related to implementation of EPR for plastic packaging
under Plastic Waste Management Rule, 2016.
Wetlands  The rules prohibit setting up or expansion of industries and disposal of
(Conservation and construction and demolition waste within the wetlands.
Management)  Each State/UT will have to set up an authority that will define strategies
Rules 2019 for conservation and wise use of wetlands within their jurisdiction.
 The Authority will prepare a list of all wetlands of the State or UT within
three months from the date of publication of these rules.
 It will develop a comprehensive list of activities to be regulated and
permitted within the notified wetlands and their zone of influence.
 It will also recommend mechanisms for maintenance of ecological
character through promotional activities for land within the boundary of
notified wetlands.
 GOI has also created a web portal for sharing information regarding the
implementation of Wetlands Rules where the central government, state
governments are required to upload all relevant information and
documents pertaining to wetlands in their jurisdiction.
The Ozone  Issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Depleting  Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various ODSs, besides
Substances Rules, regulating production, trade import and export of ODSs and the product
2000. containing ODS.
  These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs (Chlorofluro Carbons) in
manufacturing various products beyond 1st January 2003.
 Rules have been amended many times.
ODS (Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2019:
 Issuance of import license for HCFC-141b is prohibited from 1st January
2020 under this amendment (HFC- Hydro Chloro fluro Carbon)
Hazardous and  Solid plastic waste has been prohibited from import into the country
Other Wastes including in Special Economic Zones (SEZ) and by Export Oriented Units
(Management&  Exporters of silk waste have now been given exemption from requiring
Transboundary permission from the Union Environment Ministry.
Movement)  Electrical and electronic assemblies and components manufactured in
Amendment Rules, and exported from India, if found defective can now be imported back
2019 into the country, within a year of export, without obtaining permission
from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
 Industries which do not require consent under Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1981, are now exempted from requiring authorization also
under the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management & Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2016, provided that hazardous and other wastes
generated by such industries are handed over to the authorized actual
users, waste collectors or disposal facilities.

National Institutions/Bodies

Ministry of  Nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central

Environment Forests Government, for the planning, promotion, co-ordination and
and Climate Change overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry policies
(MoEFCC) and programmes.
 Nodal agency in the country for the UNEP, South Asia Co-operative
Environment Programme (SACEP) and for the follow-up of the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
 The principal activities undertaken by Ministry are:
 Conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forests and wildlife
 Prevention and control of pollution
 Afforestation and regeneration of degraded areas
 Protection of the environment and
 Ensuring the welfare of animals
 These objectives are well supported by a set of legislative and
regulatory measures, aimed at the preservation, conservation and
protection of the environment. Besides the legislative measures,
the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Development, 1992; National Forest Policy,
1988; Policy Statement on Abatement of Pollution, 1992; and
the National Environment Policy, 2006 also guide the Ministry's work.
Central Pollution  It is a statutory organisation under the Ministry of Environment,
Control Board (CPCB) Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
 It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of
pollution) Act, 1974.
  CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
 It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the
Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 It Co-ordinates the activities of the State Pollution Control Boards by
providing technical assistance and guidance and also resolves
disputes among them.
National Board for  NBWL is a statutory body (Wildlife Protection Act, 1972).
Wild Life (NWBL)  Chairman: Prime Minister
 Vice Chairman: Minister of Environment.
 Composition: 47 members including the PM. 19 ex-officio members +
Three MPs (2 LS & 1 RS) + five NGOs and 10 eminent ecologists,
conservationists and environmentalists.

Power and functions:

 Promote the conservation and development of wildlife.
 Advisory body to Centre.
 Review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around
national parks and sanctuaries.
 No alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
can be done without approval of the NBWL.

National Green  The NGT was established in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal
Tribunal (NGT) Act 2010, passed by the Central Government.
 The stated objective of the Central Government was to provide a
specialized forum for effective and speedy disposal of cases pertaining
to environment protection, conservation of forests and for seeking
compensation for damages caused to people or property due to
violation of environmental laws or conditions specified while granting
permissions.
 It draws inspiration from Article 21 of Constitution of India, which
assures the citizens of India the right to a healthy environment.
 The Principal Bench of the NGT has been established in the National
Capital – New Delhi, with regional benches in Pune, Bhopal, Chennai
and Kolkata.
  The Chairperson of the NGT is a retired Judge of the Supreme
Court. Other Judicial members are retired Judges of High Courts.
 Each bench of the NGT will comprise of at least one Judicial Member
and one Expert Member.
 The NGT is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of
Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural
justice.
 NGT is also not bound by the rules of evidence as enshrined in the
Indian Evidence Act, 1872.
National Tiger  NTCA is a statutory body under the Union Environment Ministry
Conservation  It was provided statutory status by 2006 amendment to Wildlife
Authority (NTCA) (Protection) Act, 1972.
 It addresses the administrative as well as ecological concerns for
conserving tigers, by providing a statutory basis for protection of tiger
reserves.
 It also provides strengthened institutional mechanisms for the
protection of ecologically sensitive areas and endangered species.
 It ensures enforcing of guidelines for tiger conservation and monitoring
compliance of the same.
 It also places motivated and trained officers having good track record
as Field Directors of tiger reserves.
Wildlife Crime  It is a statutory body.
Control Bureau  It is a multi-disciplinary body under the Union Environment Ministry to
(WCCB) combat organized wildlife crime in the country.
 It was established in June 2007 by amending the Wildlife (Protection)
Act (WLPA), 1972.
Genetic Engineering  GEAC is apex body under Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Approval Committee Climate Change for regulating manufacturing, use, import, export and
(GEAC) storage of hazardous micro-organisms or genetically engineered
organisms (GMOs) and cells in the country.
 It is also responsible for giving technical approval of proposals
relating to release of GMOs and products including experimental field
trials.
 However, Environment Minister gives final approval for GMOs.
Central Zoo  The Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA) is the body of the government
Authority of India responsible for oversight of zoos.
 The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 was amended in 1991 to establish
the Central Zoo Authority.
 The main objective of the authority is to complement the national
effort in conservation of wild life.
 In India, the Zoos are regulated as per the provisions of Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972 and are guided by the National Zoo Policy, 1992.
  Every zoo in the country is required to obtain recognition from the
Authority for its operation.
 Central Zoo Authority is headed by Minister of State for Environment
& Forests (Forests & Wildlife), Government of India.
National  NAEB set up in August 1992, is responsible for promoting
Afforestation And afforestation, tree planting, ecological restoration and eco-
Eco-Development development activities in the country, with special attention to the
Board (NAEB) degraded forest areas and lands adjoining the forest areas, national
parks, sanctuaries and other protected areas as well as the ecologically
fragile areas like the Western Himalayas, Aravallis, Western Ghats, etc.
 It evolves mechanisms for ecological restoration of degraded forest
areas and adjoining lands through systematic planning and
implementation, in a cost-effective manner.
 It restores fuel wood, fodder, timber and other forest produce on the
degraded forest and adjoining lands in order to meet the demands for
these items.
 It sponsors research and extension of research findings to disseminate
new and proper technologies for the regeneration and development of
degraded forest areas and adjoining lands.
Wildlife Institute of  WII is an autonomous institution under the MoEFCC.
India (WII)  It is based in Chandrabani, Dehradun.
 It conducts specialised research in areas of study like Endangered
Species, Biodiversity, Wildlife Management, Wildlife Policy, Wildlife
Forensics, Habitat Ecology, Spatial Modelling, Ecodevelopment, and
Climate Change.
Wildlife Trust of  WTI is a leading Indian nature conservation organisation committed
India (WTI) to the service of nature. Its mission is to conserve wildlife and its
habitat and to work for the welfare of individual wild animals, in
partnership with communities and governments.
 Asian Elephant Alliance an umbrella initiative by five NGOs - Elephant
Family, International Fund for Animal Welfare, IUCN Netherlands and
World Land Trust have teamed up with Wildlife Trust of India’s (WTI).

 ‘Gaj Yatra’, a nationwide campaign to protect elephants, was led by

the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI).
Zoological Survey of  The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established to promote the
India (ZSI) survey, exploration and research of the fauna in the region.
 The activities of the ZSI are coordinated by the Conservation and
Survey Division under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, Government of India.
 Primary objectives are: Exploring, Surveying, Inventorying and
Monitoring of faunal diversity in various States, selected ecosystems
and protected areas of India; Taxonomic studies of the faunal
components collected; Status survey of Threatened and Endemic
species; Preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India and Fauna of
States.
 Secondary objectives are: GIS and Remote Sensing studies on
recorded animal diversity as well as on threatened species;
Chromosomal Mapping and DNA Barcoding.
Botanical survey of  The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is the apex research organization
India (BSI) under the MOEFCC for carrying out taxonomic and floristic studies on
wild plant resources of the country.
 The prime objective of the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is to
undertake intensive floristic surveys and collect accurate and detailed
information on the occurrence, distribution, ecology and economic
utility of Plants in the country.
Forest Survey of India  Forest Survey of India (FSI) is engaged in the assessment of the
country’s forest resources on a regular interval.
 An organization under the MoEFCC located at Dehradun.
 It is involved in forest cover assessment of the country on biennial basis
by interpretation of satellite data
 Releases ‘India State of Forest Report’ biennially.
 It also forms inventory of forests and Trees Outside Forests (TOF) in
both urban and rural areas.
Animal Welfare  It is a statutory advisory body on Animal Welfare Laws and promotes
Board of India animal welfare in the country.
 Established in 1962 under Section 4 of the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act, 1960.
 It was started under the stewardship of Late Smt. Rukmini Devi
Arundale.
 From ensuring that animal welfare laws in the country are diligently
followed, to provide grants to Animal Welfare Organizations and
advising the Government of India on animal welfare issues, the Board
has been the face of the animal welfare movement in the country for
the last 50 years.
 HQ has been shifted from Chennai to Ballabhgarh, Harayana
Society of Integrated  Established under the aegis of the Ministry of Environment with a
Coastal Management vision for vibrant, healthy and resilient Coastal and Marine
(SICOM) Environment.
 Governing Body is Presided by Minister, MoEF&CC. Its Governing
Council is headed by Secretary to MoEF&CC.
 SICOM is a registered society under Societies registration Act 1860.
 Objective and Functions of SICOM:
 To Support implementation of the Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM) activities in India.
 To promote Research & Development (R&D) and stakeholder
participation in management of the Coastal areas in India.
 To support to check violations to CRZ through improved technology-
enabled enforcement, strengthened institutions, and regulatory and
legal reform.
 SICOM is the National Project Management Unit of India in strategic
planning, management, execution, monitoring and successful
implementation of the ICZMP-Phase-I.
 SICOM has also embarked upon the Pilot Project Blue Flag Beach
programme first time in India, identifying one beach each in all 13
Coastal States/UTs. The main objective programme is to promote
sustainable development in coastal regions of India for the beach
management authorities to strive to achieve high international
standards in four categories of:
 Environmental Management including cleanliness, solid waste
management in beaches.
 Environment Education.
 Safety & Security of Beachgoers.
 Bathing Water Quality Standards.
 SICOM has initiated the above process in 13 pilot beaches (one pilot
beach in every Coastal States/UTs) under this programme and in line
with Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
Central Water  It is a premier Technical Organization of India in the field of Water
Commission (CWC) Resources and is presently functioning as an attached office of the
Ministry of Jal Shakti.
 Responsibilities of initiating, coordinating and furthering in
consultation of the State Governments concerned, schemes for
control, conservation and utilization of water resources throughout
the country.
 Chairman, with the status of Ex-Officio Secretary to the Government
of India.
Central Ground  A subordinate office of the Union Ministry of Water Resources
Water Board (CGWB)  It is the National Apex Agency entrusted with the responsibilities of
providing scientific inputs for management, exploration, monitoring,
assessment, augmentation and regulation of ground water resources
of the country
 It is a multi-disciplinary scientific organization consisting of
Hydrogeologists, Geophysicists, Chemists, Hydrologists, Engineers and
Hydrometeorologists.
Central Ground  Constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to regulate
Water Authority and control development and management of ground water resources
(CGWA) in the country.
Powers & Functions:
 Exercise of powers under section 5 of the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 for issuing directions and taking such measures in respect of
all the matters referred to in sub-section (2) of section 3 of the said Act.
 To resort to penal provisions contained in sections 15 to 21 of the said
Act.
  To regulate and control, management and development of ground
water in the country and to issue necessary regulatory directions for
the purpose.
 Exercise of powers under section 4 of the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 for the appointment of officers.

National Initiatives

Project Tiger  Aims at conserving India’s national animal i.e. Tiger.

 Launched in 1973.
 It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Ministry of
Environment, Forests and Climate Change providing
central assistance to the tiger States for tiger
conservation in designated tiger reserves.
 The All India tiger estimation is carried out once
in every four years.

Project Elephant  It is a centrally sponsored scheme.

 Launched in 1992.
 Objectives:
 To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
 To address issues of man-animal conflict
 Welfare of captive elephants
 It provides financial and technical support to major
elephant bearing states in the country for protection of
elephants, their habitats and corridors. It also seeks to
address the issues of human-elephant conflict and
welfare of domesticated elephants.
Project Hangul  Jammu Kashmir Government with the support of IUCN
and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) prepared a project for
the protection of Hangul or Kashmir Red Stag and its
habitat.
 Hangul, is a subspecies of elk native to India listed in
schedule 1 and is critically endangered
 Dachigam National Park is famous for this Hangul.

Project Snow Leopard  The project stresses on a landscape approach to

conservation of Snow Leopard.
 The project will be operational in five Himalayan
States viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh
 State animal of Himachal Pradesh.
 India has around 10% of the Global snow leopard
population in less than the 5% of Global snow leopard
habitat.
 12 Snow Range Countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, China,
India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz, Mongolia, the Nepal, Pakistan,
the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan
 Leaders in the governments of all 12 snow leopard range
countries have adopted the Bishkek Declaration on the
Conservation of the Snow Leopard.
 It is National Heritage Animal of Pakistan and
Afghanistan.
 Project Save Our Snow Leopard (SOS) was launched in
January 2014 by WWF India in partnership with Tata
Housing Development Company.
 The Government of India has launched the First National
Protocol on Snow Leopard Population Assessment, to
mark the occasion of International Snow Leopard Day
(23rd October 2019).
 The first National Snow Leopard Survey of the nation has
been developed using of technology such as camera
traps and scientific surveys.
 Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection (GSLEP)
Program, a high-level inter-governmental alliance of all
the 12 snow leopard range countries.
 SECURE Himalaya: Global Environment Facility (GEF)-
United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) funded the project on conservation of high-
altitude biodiversity and reducing the dependency of
local communities on the natural ecosystem. This
project is now operational in four snow leopard range
states, namely, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and Sikkim.
Sea Turtle Project  A significant proportion of world’s Olive Ridley Turtle
population migrates every winter to Indian coastal
waters for nesting mainly at eastern coast.
  With the objective of conservation of Olive Ridley turtles
and other endangered marine turtles, MoEFCC initiated
the Sea Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration of
UNDP in 1999.
 Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun is the
Implementing Agency.
 The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of
the country with special emphasis in State of Orissa.
 The project has helped in preparation of inventory map
of breeding sites of Sea Turtles, identification of nesting
and breeding habitats along the shore line, and
migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles, development of
guidelines to safeguard and minimize turtle mortality.
 One of the important achievements have been
demonstration of use of Satellite Telemetry to locate the
migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and
sensitizing the fishermen and State Government for the
use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to
check turtle mortality in fishing net.
Crocodile Conservation Project  It is one of the most successful conservation initiatives
in the world.
 It has pulled back the once threatened crocodilians from
the brink of extinction and placed them on a good path
of recovery.
 All three species of crocodiles (Gharial, Mugger and
Saltwater) in the river systems of Odisha were on the
verge of extinction by the seventies.
Saving Asia's Vultures from  SAVE is a consortium of like-minded, regional and
Extinction (SAVE) international organisations, created to oversee and co-
ordinate conservation, campaigning and fundraising
activities to help the plight of South Asia's vultures
 India is home to nine species of vultures, but most of
them face the danger of extinction.
 Bioaccumulation of Diclofenac drug caused kidney
failure in Vultures, leading to death.

Rhino Vision 2020  Indian Rhino Vision 2020 implemented by the

department of environment and forests, Assam.
 The programme will be supported by WWF India, the
International Rhino Foundation (IRF), and a number of
local NGOs.
 Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020
program.
 The goal set was to populate the potential rhino habitat
areas identified viz. Manas NP, Dibru Saikhowa WLS,
Laokhowa-Bura Chapori WLS with a viable population of
 rhino through translocations from Kaziranga NP and
Pobitora WLS.
 Manas National Park was selected as the first site for
translocation of rhinos.
 The vision of this program is to increase the total rhino
foundation in Assam from about 2000 to 3000 by the
year 2020 and to ensure that these rhinos are
distributed over at least 7 protected areas (PA) to
provide long term viability of the one-horned rhino
population.
Asiatic Lion Conservation Project  MoEFCC has launched the “Asiatic Lion Conservation
Project” with an aim to protect and conserve the
world’s last ranging free population of Asiatic Lion and
its associated ecosystem.
 The Asiatic Lion Conservation Project is aimed
to strengthen the ongoing measures for conservation
and recovery of Asiatic Lion with the help of state-of-the
–art techniques/ instruments, regular scientific research
studies, disease management, Modern surveillance/
patrolling techniques.
 The project will be funded from the Centrally Sponsored
Scheme- Development of Wildlife Habitat (CSS-
DWH) with the contributing ratio being 60:40 of Central
and State share.
 The Environment Ministry in the past has
supported Asiatic Lion in Gujarat by including it in list of
21 critically endangered species for recovery
programme.
Integrated Development of  Started in 2008-09 meant for providing support to
Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) protected areas (national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
conservation reserves and community reserves except
tiger reserves), protection of wildlife outside protected
areas and recovery programmes for saving critically
endangered species and habitats.
 It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme under MoEFCC.
 The scheme has following three components:
 Support to Protected Areas (National Parks,
Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and
Community Reserves)
 Protection of Wildlife Outside Protected Areas
 Recovery programmes for saving critically
endangered species and habitats.
Integrated Coastal Zone  ICZM is a planning and coordinating process which
Management (ICZM) deals with development management and coastal
resources and which is focused on the land/water
interface.
 This concept was borne in 1992 during the Earth Summit.
 'Integrated' in ICZM refers to the integration of
objectives and also to the integration of the many
instruments needed to meet these objectives
  MoEFCC has unveiled the draft Environmental and
Social Management Framework (ESMF) for Integrated
coastal management.
 The ESMF draft plan as a part of a World Bank-funded
project seeks to assist the Government of India
in Enhancing Coastal Resource Efficiency and Resilience
(ENCORE), by building collective capacity (including
communities and decentralised governance) for
adopting and implementing Integrated Coastal Zone
Management Plan.
 The MoEFCC had launched an Integrated Coastal Zone
Management Project (ICZMP) by establishing a SICOM.
 Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan: (ICZM) is a
process for the management of the coast using an
integrated approach, regarding all aspects of the coastal
zone, including geographical and political boundaries, in
an attempt to achieve sustainability.
 Till now three coastal states namely West Bengal,
Gujarat and Orissa have been selected under the ICZM
plan.
Forest Fire Prevention &  It is a Centrally Sponsored scheme, specifically
Management Scheme (FFPM) dedicated to assist the states in dealing with Forest Fires.
 It replaced the Intensification of Forest Management
Scheme (IFMS) in 2017. It has increased the amount
dedicated for forest fire work.
 It allocates funds with 90:10 to the Northeast and
Western Himalayan regions and a 60:40 ratios for all
other states.
 It provides the states to have the flexibility to direct a
portion of the National Afforestation Programme (NAP)
and Mission for Green India (GIM) funding toward forest
fire work.
National Action Plan on Forest  The MoEFCC has prepared a NAFF in 2018, after
Fires (NAFF) consultation with all states and Union Territories.
 The objective of this plan is to minimise forest fires by
informing, enabling and empowering forest fringe
communities and incentivizing them to work in tandem
with the State Forest Departments
 It also intends to substantially reduce the vulnerability of
forests across diverse forest ecosystems in the country
against fire hazards.
 It aims to enhance capabilities of forest personnel and
institutions in Fighting Fires and swift recovery
subsequent to Fire Incidents.
 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
 Launched in 2008 by the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
 It aims at creating awareness among the representatives of the public, different agencies of the
government, scientists, industry and the communities on the threat posed by climate change
and the steps to counter it.
 There are 8 national missions forming the core of the NAPCC which represent multi-pronged,
long term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in climate change.
Mission Features Functions and Goals
National Mission  Governed by the Ministry of  Spread awareness about the
for Enhanced Power. efficacy and efficiency
Energy Efficiency  Based on the Energy Conservation  Ensure adequate supply of
Act, 2001. energy efficient products
 It creates a market-based  Create financing platforms which
mechanism to enhance cost can make risk guarantee funds,
effectiveness of improvements on financial derivatives.
energy efficiency. Switching to  Formulate well thought
cleaner fuels, commercially viable out evaluation and monitoring
technology transfers, capacity mechanisms to capture energy
building needs etc are the way savings in a transparent manner.
forward for this mission.  Overcome market
 Key areas to work upon failures through regulatory and
are Energy, Efficiency, Equity and policy measures.
Environment.
National Solar  Governed by Ministry of New and  Making solar water heaters
Mission Renewable Energy. mandatory in buildings
 Aims to increase the share of solar  Remote village electrification
energy in India's energy mix. programme, using solar power as
 It takes the measures of an off-grid solution to provide
increasing R&D efforts, promoting power to the power deprived
decentralised distribution of poor.
energy by creating cheaper and  R&D in solar technology.
more convenient solar power  The ultimate objective is to
systems. develop a solar industry in
 Emphasis on manufacturing solar India, capable of delivering solar
panels at the local level and to tie energy competitively against the
up local research with fossil fuel options.
international efforts.  Achieve grid tariff parity by 2022
 Seeks to reduce the absolute
cost of solar energy to bring it
down and make it affordable.
Green India  Governed by the Ministry of  Enhancing carbon
Mission Environment, Forest and Climate sinks in sustainably managed
Change. forests.
 It has the mandate of reviving  Enhancing the resilience of
degraded forest land with a focus vulnerable species and
on increasing forest cover & ecosystems to adapt to climate
density and conserving change.
biodiversity.  Enabling forest dependent
 Works towards reducing communities to adapt to climate
fragmentation of forests, variability.
 enhancing private public  Double the area to be taken up
partnerships for plantations, for afforestation.
improving schemes based on joint  Increase greenhouse gas
forestry management etc. removals by Indian forests.
 Makes plans to tackle the  Enhance resilience of forests and
challenges posed by climate ecosystems falling under the
change. mission.
National Mission  Governed by the Department of  Human and knowledge
for Sustaining the Science and Technology. capacities.
Himalayan  Created to protect the Himalayan  Institutional capacities- creating
Ecosystem ecosystem. The mandate is to capability to conduct long term
evolve measures to sustain and observations, studies to
safeguard the Himalayan glaciers, understand and warn of changes
mountain ecosystems, in the Himalayan ecosystem
biodiversity and wildlife  Evidence based policy building
conservation & protection. and governance- creating a
platform for Himalayan states
and the Centre to interact with
various bodies.
 Balancing between forces of
Nature and actions of mankind by
creating strong linkages with
community based organisations.
 Establishing of a modern centre
of Glaciology, standardisation of
data collection to ensure
interoperability and mapping of
natural resources in the area.
National Mission  Governed by the Ministry of  To create and adopt a more
on Sustainable Urban Development. holistic approach for solid and
Habitat  Manifold agenda mission because liquid waste management and
it looks at energy efficiency within ensuring their full potential for
buildings, waste disposal from energy generation (conversion of
these buildings and betters the solid waste into
public transport system. energy), recycling, reusing and
 Plans to make urban areas more composting.
climate friendly and less  To encourage alternative
susceptible to climate change by transport systems and establish
a multi-pronged approach to fuel efficiency standards.
mitigate and adapt to it.  To provide for adoption and
creation of alternative
technologies mitigating climate
change and to encourage
community involvement for it.
 Creation of one building code for
the entire nation.
 Establish financial incentives
based on green rating.
 Promote use of natural gas and
alternative & renewable fuels.
  Comprehensive urban renewal
master plan proposals with
sustainable designs.
National Mission  Governed by the Ministry of  Strengthening agricultural
for Sustainable Agriculture. insurance, develop a system
Agriculture  It works towards devising based on GIS and remote
strategies to make Indian sensing to map soil resource and
agriculture less susceptible to land use.
climate change.  Preparation of state-level agro-
 It would identify and develop new climatic atlases.
crop varieties, use traditional and  Strategise to evolve low input
modern agricultural techniques. agriculture with enhanced water
 This mission sees dry land and nitrogen efficient crops.
agriculture, risk management,  Nutritional strategies to manage
access to information and use of heat stress in dairy animals.
biotechnology as areas of  Using of micro irrigation systems.
intervention.  Promotion of agricultural
techniques like minimum tillage,
organic farming and rain water
conservation.
 Capacity building of farmers,
Production of bio-fertilizer,
compost along with subsidies
for chemical fertilizers.
National Mission  Governed by the Department of  Develop regional climate science.
on Strategic Science and Technology.  Leverage international
Knowledge for  It identifies challenges and cooperation.
Climate Change requisite responses to climate  The efforts undertaken here
change. This will be done through would feed into the Indian
open international collaboration National Network for Climate
and would ensure sufficient Change Assessment (INCCA).
funding for this research.  Creation of a data generation and
 There is a need for strong sharing system by mapping
strategic knowledge system on resources on knowledge relevant
climate change. to climate change.
 Identifying knowledge gaps and
inspiring from global
technological trends to select and
test technologies.
 Creating new centres dedicated
to climate research within
existing institutional framework.
National Water  Governed by the Jal Shakti  Expeditiously implement water
Mission Ministry. projects in climate sensitive
 Ensures better integrated water regions.
resource management leading to  Promotion of water purification
water conservation, less wastage, and desalination techniques.
equitable distribution forming  Enactment of a bill for the
better policies. regulation and management
 Looks into the issues of groundwater sources.
of groundwater and surface water
management, domestic and  Research in water use efficiency
industrial water management, in industry, agriculture and
improvement of water storage domestic sectors.
capacities and protection of  Providing incentives for water
wetlands. neutral & positive technologies.
 Review National Water Policy to
include integrated water
resources management, evapora
tion management and basin
level management.
 Water data base in the public
domain.
 Promotion of citizen and state
action for water conservation,
augmentation and preservation.
 More focused attention to over-
exploited areas.
 Improving water use efficiency by
20% through regulatory and
pricing mechanisms.
 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
EIA is a tool to anticipate the likely environmental impacts that may arise out of the proposed
developmental activities and suggest mitigation measures and strategies.

Objectives To enable the planners to foresee the potential environmental problems that
would arise out of a proposed development and address them in the project’s
planning and design stage.
Components  Air Environment
 Noise Environment
 Water Environment
 Biological Environment
 Land Environment
 Socio‑ economic and Health Environment
 Risk Assessment
 Environment Management Plan
Steps in EIA  Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location
Process and type of development and if the project needs statutory clearance.
 Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation
possibilities and need for monitoring.
 Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of
study area.
 Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and
temporary and permanent impacts need to be predicted which
presupposes a good understanding of the project by the assessment
agency.
 Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the
actions and steps for preventing, minimizing or bypassing the impacts or
else the level of compensation for probable environmental damage or
loss.
 Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental
groups living close to project site may be informed and consulted.
 Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts
consult the project-in-charge along with consultant to take the final
decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment Management Plan).
 Monitoring and implementation of environmental management
plan: The various phases of implementation of the project are monitored.
 Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation Measures and
Environmental Impact Assessment Report: For every project, possible
alternatives should be identified, and environmental attributes compared.
Alternatives should cover both project location and process technologies.
 Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn
up for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental
improvements.
 Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability and index also
form part of EIA procedures.
 EIA Notification 2020: Changes and Criticisms:

1. Removal of several activities from the purview of public consultation:

 A list of projects has been included under Category B2, expressly exempted from the
requirement of an EIA
 The projects under this category include offshore and onshore oil, gas and shale
exploration, hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW, irrigation projects between 2,000
and 10,000 hectares of command area, small and medium mineral beneficiation units,
MSMEs in dye industry etc.
 Also, coal and non-coal mineral prospecting and solar photovoltaic projects do not
need prior environmental clearance or permission in the new scheme.
2. Subverts Public Consultation: The notice period for public hearing has been cut from 30
days to 20 days. This will make it difficult to study the draft EIA report, more so when it is
not widely available or provided in the regional language.
3. New provision for post-facto environmental clearance: It means that the clearances for
projects can be awarded even if they have started construction without securing
environmental clearances.
4. Promotes Expansion: For project modernisation and expansion, the norms in Notification
2020 are liberal, with only those involving more than 25% increase requiring EIA, and over
50% attracting public consultation.
5. Diluted Compliance Mechanism: Project proponents need to submit only one annual
report on compliance with conditions, compared to the existing two

Aarhus Convention
Signed in 1998, this convention stipulates that
 Environmental rights and human rights are linked
 The present generation owes an obligation to future generations
 Sustainable development can be achieved only through the involvement of all
stakeholders
 Government accountability and environmental protection are connected
 Interactions between the public and public authorities must take place in a democratic
context.
 Related News

Arctic Policy  India’s engagement with the Arctic dates back to a century when
‘Svalbard Treaty’ was signed in February 1920 in Paris
 Today India is undertaking several scientific studies and research
in the Arctic region monitoring arctic glaciers for their mass
balance and comparing them with glaciers in the Himalayan
region.
 India is also observer in Arctic Council (established in 1996
consisting of Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Iceland,
USA & Canada)
 The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) in
Goa, an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Earth
Sciences, is the nodal institution for India’s Polar research
programme, which includes Arctic studies.
 India's Arctic policy titled 'India and the Arctic: building a
partnership for sustainable development’ lays down six pillars:
o strengthening India's scientific research and cooperation
o climate and environmental protection
o economic and human development
o transportation and connectivity
o governance and international cooperation
o national capacity building in the Arctic region.

India's Arctic policy aims to promote the following agenda:

 Strengthening national capabilities and competencies, both
institutional & human resources, in science and exploration.
 Inter-ministerial coordination in pursuit of India's interests in the
Arctic.
 Enhancing understanding of the impact of climate change in the
Arctic on India's climate, economic, and energy security.
 Contributing better analysis, prediction, and coordinated
policymaking on the implications of ice melting in the Arctic on
India's economic, military and strategic interests related to global
shipping routes, energy security, and exploitation of mineral
wealth.
 Studying linkages between polar regions and the Himalayas.
 Deepen cooperation between India and countries of the Arctic
region under various Arctic forums, drawing expertise from
scientific and traditional knowledge.
 Increase India’s participation in the Arctic Council and improve
understanding of the complex governance structures in the Arctic,
relevant international laws, and geopolitics of the region.
Protection of Plant In News: Two years ago PepsiCo India had sued nine Gujarati farmers for
Varieties and allegedly infringing patent rights by growing its registered potato variety.
Farmers Rights’  However, now the company’s registration of the variety has been
Authority revoked by the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights’
(PPV&FRA). Authority (PPV&FRA).
 The PPV&FRA questioned the documentation produced by
PepsiCo claiming it was the owner of the variety,
Brief Background of the issue:
  The FL-2027 variety of potatoes, used in Lays potato chips, was
grown by about 12,000 farmers with whom the company had an
exclusive contract to sell seeds and buy back their produce.
 In 2016, the company registered the variety under the PPV&FR
Act, 2001.
 Alleging that farmers who were not part of its “collaborative
farming programme” were also growing and selling this variety in
Gujarat, PepsiCo had filed rights infringement cases against nine
farmers.
 The Frequently Asked Questions or FAQ document had claimed
that “only small and marginal farmers involved in subsistence
farming” are eligible to claim rights under the Protection of Plant
Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001. The FAQ also
said these rights are not for “commercial farmers” and are only
meant for “small scale” use.
 Pepsico cited the FAQ document to justify dragging more than
nine farmers to court in 2018 for growing and selling its registered
variety without its consent.
 The company faced product boycotts and major protests across
the political spectrum for slapping a ₹4.2 crore lawsuit against
four farmers, and ultimately withdrew all cases after government
intervention just before Lok Sabha elections in May 2019.

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act,

2001:
Objectives of the PPV & FR Act, 2001:
 To establish an effective system for the protection of plant
varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to
encourage the development of new varieties of plants.
 To recognize and protect the rights of farmers in respect of their
contributions made at any time in conserving, improving and
making available plant genetic resources for the development of
new plant varieties.
 To accelerate agricultural development in the country, protect
plant breeders’ rights; stimulate investment for research and
development both in public & private sector for the development
new of plant varieties.
 Facilitate the growth of seed industry in the country which will
ensure the availability of high-quality seeds and planting material
to the farmers.
Rights under the Act:
 Breeders’ Rights: Breeders will have exclusive rights to produce,
sell, market, distribute, import or export the protected variety.
Breeder can appoint agent/ licensee and may exercise for civil
remedy in case of infringement of rights.
 Researchers’ Rights: Researcher can use any of the registered
variety under the Act for conducting experiment or research. This
includes the use of a variety as an initial source of variety for the
purpose of developing another variety but repeated use needs
prior permission of the registered breeder.
 Farmers’ Rights:
 o A farmer who has evolved or developed a new variety is
entitled for registration and protection in like manner as a
breeder of a variety;
o Farmers variety can also be registered as an extant
variety;
o A farmer can save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or
sell his farm produce including seed of a variety protected
under the PPV&FR Act, 2001 provided farmer shall not be
entitled to sell branded seed of a variety protected under
the PPV&FR Act, 2001;
o Farmers are eligible for recognition and rewards for the
conservation of Plant Genetic Resources of land races and
wild relatives of economic plants;
o There is also a provision for compensation to the farmers
for non-performance of variety under Section 39 (2) of
the Act, 2001 and
o Farmer shall not be liable to pay any fee in any
proceeding before the Authority or Registrar or the
Tribunal or the High Court under the Act.
Laboratory for the  It is India's only research facility engaged in conservation and
Conservation of preservation of wildlife and its resources.
Endangered Species  It was established in 1998 with the help of Central Zoo Authority of
(LaCONES) India, CSIR and the government of Andhra Pradesh.
 It is a Council of Scientific and Industrial Research lab located in
Hyderabad.
Objectives of the LaCONES:
 Monitoring of genetic variation: Modern techniques such as DNA
fingerprinting may be used to monitor genetic variation
 Establishment of gene banks: Cryo-preservation of semen, eggs
and embryos of endangered species may be undertaken.
 Semen analysis: Semen quality may be studied for selecting
animals for breeding.
 Determination of the time of ovulation: Successful intra-uterine
insemination may be achieved once the time is determined.
 Artificial insemination: Standardisation of the technique for use in
wild animals is needed – it is already well established for domestic
animals.
 In vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo transfer: The process
involves fusion of spermatozoon with oocyte carried out in vitro
and the transfer of the resulting embryo to the true or surrogate
mother.
 Establishment of cell bank: The cells preserved under appropriate
conditions to be used in future for various purposes including
cloning.
 Cloning: The technique may be developed only for those species
which are extremely rare.
Expert Appraisal  Expert appraisal committees (EAC) exist at the Union as well as
Committees state levels (state expert appraisal committee or SEAC) to advise
the government on environmental clearance of development
projects.
  The role of EAC is integral to the process of granting environmental
clearance to development projects.
 According to the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
Notification, 2006, evaluation of proposals involves four steps:
screening, scoping, public hearing and appraisal.
 EAC/SEAC are involved in various capacities in all the stages, except
for public hearing.
Conservation  News: Fourteen out of India’s 51 tiger reserves have received the
Assured|Tiger Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CATS) accreditation for
Standards (CA|TS) meeting a set of standards for effective conservation of big cats.
 The 14 reserves are Manas, Kaziranga, and Orang (Assam);
Sundarbans (West Bengal); Valmiki (Bihar); Dudhwa (Uttar
Pradesh); Panna, Kanha, Satpuda and Pench (Madhya Pradesh);
Anamalai and Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu); Parambikulam (Kerala) and
Bandipur (Karnataka).
About:
 CATS is a globally accepted conservation tool that sets best
practices and standards to manage tigers and assessments to
benchmark progress.
 CATS accreditation is a global recognition of good tiger governance.
 This recognition means a lot in the context of adaptation to climate
change, sustainability of ecosystem services, and safeguarding
disruption of zoonotic cycles, through an umbrella species
approach.
 CA|TS was developed by tiger and protected area experts. Officially
launched in 2013, CA|TS is an important part of Tx2, the global goal
to double wild tiger numbers by the year 2022.
 The Global Tiger Forum (GTF), an international NGO working on
tiger conservation, and World Wildlife Fund India are the two
implementing partners of the National Tiger Conservation
Authority for CATS assessment in India.
 TOPIC: GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE SUMMITS

Green House  The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's
Effect atmosphere trap the Sun's heat.
 This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an
atmosphere.
 The greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable
place to live.

Green House  The gases in the atmosphere that absorb radiation are known as "greenhouse
Gases (GHGs) gases" (GHG) because they are largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
and their  Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect on planets.
sources  The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water
vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and
ozone (O3).

Water Vapour:
 It is the biggest overall contributor to the greenhouse effect.
 Naturally present in atmosphere – Evaporation, transpiration etc.
 Humans are not directly responsible for emitting this gas in large quantities.
Carbon Dioxide:
 Natural sources: Ocean – atmosphere exchange, Plant and animal respiration,
Soil respiration and decomposition and Volcanic eruptions
 Human sources: Fossil fuel use, Land use changes, vehicle emissions, Industrial
processes etc.

Methane:
 Natural sources include wetlands, termites and the oceans.
 Human sources include landfills and livestock farming, Paddy fields etc.
Nitrous Oxide:
 The major natural sources include soils under natural vegetation, tundra and
the oceans.
 Important human sources come from agriculture (nitrous oxide fertilizers, soil
cultivation), livestock manure, biomass or fossil fuels combustion, and
industrial processes.
Ozone:
 Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of oxygen (O3).
 Ozone occurs both in the Earth's upper atmosphere and at ground level.
Ozone can be good or bad, depending on where it is found.
 Called stratospheric ozone, good ozone occurs naturally in the upper
atmosphere, where it forms a protective layer that shields us from the sun's
harmful ultraviolet rays.
 This beneficial ozone has been partially destroyed by manmade chemicals,
causing what is sometimes called a "hole in the ozone."
 Tropospheric, or ground level ozone, is not emitted directly into the air, but is
created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile
organic compounds (VOC).
 This happens when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers,
refineries, chemical plants, and other sources chemically react in the presence
of sunlight.

Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6):

 Are emitted in smaller quantities than the other GHGs.
 Once emitted into the atmosphere, they disperse widely around the globe.
 They are removed from the atmosphere only by sunlight in the highest levels
of the atmosphere.
 Being the most potent of the GHGs and having the longest lifespans, these
gases often are described as the “high global warming potential (GWP)
gases.”
 Black Carbon (BC):
 Commonly known as soot, is a form of particulate air pollutant
 It stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
 BC particles strongly absorb sunlight and give soot its black color.
 BC is produced both naturally and by human activities as a result of the
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass.
Primary sources include emissions from diesel engines, cook stoves, wood
burning and forest fires.

Brown Carbon (BrC):

 Organic aerosol (OA) constitutes a substantial fraction of fine particles and
affects both human health and climate.
 It is becoming clear that OA absorbs light substantially (hence termed Brown
Carbon, BrC), adding uncertainties to global aerosol radiative forcing
estimations.
 The few current radiative-transfer and chemical-transport models that
include BrC primarily consider sources from biogenic and biomass
combustion.
Carbon Overview:
Emissions  Published by UNEP, tracking progress to limit global warming below 2°C,
Contributions pursuing 1.5°C (Paris Agreement).
(As per 2024  Assesses gap between GHG emission pledges and required levels since 2010.
‘Emissions 2024 Findings:
Gap Report’  GHG cuts needed: 42% by 2030, 57% by 2035 for 1.5°C target; 28% and 37%
of UNEP) for 2°C.
 Without enhanced NDCs, temperatures may rise 2.6-3.1°C by 2100.
 Global GHG Trends:
 Emissions rose 1.3% in 2023; power sector leads, followed by transport and
agriculture.
 India: 6.1% rise, third-largest emitter at 4,140 MtCO₂e.
 EU and US saw declines of 7.5% and 1.4% respectively.
Emissions by Share:
 Top six emitters: 63% of global GHG; Least developed countries: 3%.
Sector-wise Emissions:
 Energy > Industry > Forestry > Transport > Agriculture > Building.
Emissions by Country in 2023:
 China (30%) > USA (11%) > India (8%) > EU (6%) > Russia (5%) > Brazil (2%).
Per capita Carbon Emissions:
 Qatar > Trinidad & Tobago > Kuwait > UAE

Global  It is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the

Warming Earth’s surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute to changes in
global climate patterns.
 It is caused due to both natural and man-made reasons.
 Reasons: Impacts:
 Burning fossil fuels  Increase in average temperatures
 Deforestation & Tree-Clearing and temperature extremes
 Agriculture & Farming  Extreme weather events
 Certain industrial processes that  Rise in Sea levels and ocean
release fluorinated gases. acidification
 Use of Vehicles  Melting of the ice caps, glaciers.
 Natural causes include adding  Loss of biodiversity - habitat loss.
water vapour to atmosphere,  Spread of disease.
forest blazes, aerosol emissions  Changes in rainfall patterns.
from volcanoes etc  Bleaching of Coral Reefs.
Global  GWP is a measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the
Warming atmosphere up to a specific time horizon, relative to carbon dioxide.
Potential  It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in
(GWP) and question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon
Lifetime of dioxide and is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is
GHGs standardized to 1).
 A GWP is calculated over a specific time horizon, commonly 20, 100, or 500
years.
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides the generally
accepted values for GWP.
Lifetime GWP
GHGs
(years) (100 years)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 100 1
Methane (CH4) 12.4 28
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 121 298
Hydro Fluoro Carbons (HFCs) 1-270 140-11,700
Perfluoro Carbons (PFCs) 800-50,000 4,660 – 9,200
Carbon Tetrafluoride (CF4) 50000 6,630
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) 3,200 23,800

Climate  Climate change is periodic modification of Earth's climate brought about as a

Change result of changes in the atmosphere as well as interactions between the
atmosphere and various other geologic, chemical, biological, and geographic
factors within the Earth system.
 Climate change in IPCC usage refers to a change in the state of
the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically
decades or longer.
 The rate of climatic changes depends on the nature of causal factor.
Factors Natural Factors: Anthropogenic Factors:
affecting  Continental drift  Increased Greenhouse Gases
Climate  Volcanic activity emissions
Change  Variation in the earth’s orbit  Atmospheric Aerosols added due to
 Plate movements various activities.
 Ocean currents  Changes in land use pattern
Impacts of
Climate
Change

The Three 1. Mitigation: Slowing the rate of global warming:

Pillars of the  It involves reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-
Response to trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Global  It is done either by reducing sources of these gases (for example, the
Warming burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing
the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans,
forests and soil).
2. Adaptation: Taking steps to live with the effects of global warming:
 Adapting to the climate change already in the pipeline. Adapting to life in
a changing climate – involves adjusting to actual or expected future
climate.
 The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate
change.
 Adaptation can take many forms. Some communities may decide to build
dikes, levees or sea walls to hold back water; others may want to move
people and economic activity out of flood-prone areas.
 Farmers may choose to grow crops that are more suitable to warmer
temperatures than the crops they are growing now, or that are more
resistant to periods of drought.
 Communities that have never had to consider saving water may have to
develop systems to hold rain water or mountain runoff for periods of
drought. And many communities, particularly in the developing world or
in tropical climates, may have to adjust their building codes so that homes,
schools and public buildings can withstand more severe weather events.
3. Resilience: Nations need to become more resilient to the effects of climate
change:
 Resilience means the key economic and social systems are climate-
proofed for the future.
 Nations need to become more resilient to the effects of climate change.
For example, flood insurance for high-risk areas of frequent flooding.
  Resources can be made available to strengthen homes and other
structures to better withstand extreme storms.
 And infrastructure for temporary evacuation and sheltering of vulnerable
populations can be developed.
 But it is not just about extreme weather. Climate change is slow and
inexorable, but the exact nature of the effects can be unpredictable.
 With rising temperatures around the globe comes more responsibility
from the top down. How we consume our natural resources and integrate
more proactive and continuous community planning will be instrumental
in how resilient we are.
Mitigation Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Sink:
Strategies  Carbon sequestration is the process of capture and long-term storage of
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
 It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine
accumulation of greenhouse gases.

 Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological,

chemical, or physical processes.
 ‘Carbon capture and storage’ catches and sequesters (hide) carbon dioxide
(CO2) from stationary sources like power plants.
 After capture, secure containers sequester the collected CO2 to prevent or
stall its re-entry into the atmosphere.
 The two storage options are geologic and oceanic:
o Geologic storage involves injecting CO2 into the earth - Depleted oil or
gas fields and deep saline aquifers safely store CO2 while coal
seams absorb it.
o Ocean storage, a technology still in its early stages, involves injecting
liquid CO2 into waters 500 to 3,000 meters deep, where it dissolves
under pressure.
 Carbon Sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores
some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period.
 A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon than that it releases, whilst
a Carbon Source is anything that releases more carbon than is absorbs.
 Forests, soils, oceans and the atmosphere all store carbon and this carbon
moves between them in a continuous cycle.
 Blue Carbon: Refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the
indicative vegetation, marine organism and sediments.

 Green Carbon: It is the carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the

plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
 This constant movement of carbon means that forests act as sources or sinks
at different times.

 Carbon fertilization or Carbon Dioxide Fertilisation is the phenomena that,

the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of
photosynthesis in plants.
Carbon Credit:
 A carbon credit is a tradable certificate representing the right to emit one
tonne of CO2 equivalent.
 One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide.
 An organisation can earn carbon credit if it produces one tonne less of CO2
equivalent than the standard level of carbon emission allowed for its activities.
 This certificate or permit that represents the legal right to emit one tonne
(metric ton) of carbon dioxide or equivalent greenhouse gas.
 Carbon credits are not generated by projects designed to specifically cut
greenhouse gas emissions. They are the result of an organization reducing
their emissions below the forecast
 Carbon credits can be sold privately or in the international market. These
trades and settle internationally and hence permit allowances to be
transferred between countries. Climate exchanges provide a spot market in
allowances, as well as futures and options market.

Carbon Offsetting:
 Carbon offsets are credits for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions made
at another location, such as wind farms which create renewable energy and
reduce the need for fossil-fuel powered energy.
 Carbon offsets are quantified and sold in metric tones of carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e).
 Carbon offsets are generated by projects with clearly defined objectives,
usually outside the confines of a company‘s own operational sites.
Carbon Tax:
 A carbon tax is a fee
imposed on the burning
of carbon-based fuels
(coal, oil, gas).
 This tax is based on the
amount of carbon
contained in a fuel such
as coal, etc.
 The aim of this tax is to
cause less fossil fuel use
and hopefully cause an
incentive to use other
sources of energy.
 Clean Energy Cess is a
kind of carbon tax and is
levied in India as a duty of
Excise on Coal, Lignite
and Peat in order to
finance and promote
clean environment
initiatives.

Geo-Engineering:
 It aims at modifying and cooling Earth’s environment, defeating the
environmental damage and ensuing climate changes to make the planet more
inhabitable.
 Two main approaches under the geo-engineering umbrella: carbon-dioxide
removal (CDR) and solar radiation management (SRM).
 Carbon-Dioxide Removal (CDR) approaches:
o Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) involves burning
biomass for energy, and capturing and storing the emissions
underground.
o Soil carbon sequestration: A process in which CO2 is removed from the
atmosphere and stored in the soil carbon pool. This process is
primarily mediated by plants through photosynthesis,
with carbon stored in the form of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC).
o Afforestation
o Iron Fertilisation: Introduction of iron fines to iron-poor areas of the
ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production. This is intended
to enhance biological productivity and/or accelerate carbon dioxide
(CO2) sequestration from the atmosphere.
 Solar Radiation Management approaches:
o Stratospheric aerosol injection gases are pumped into the
stratosphere to reflect some of the sun's heat
o Marine cloud brightening sea salt or other particles are sprayed into
marine clouds to make them thicker and more reflective
o Cirrus cloud thinning: High-altitude Cirrus clouds are thin and whispy,
so they don't reflect much solar radiation back into space, and instead
trap long-wave radiation on earth. CCT proposes thinning them further
through cloud seeding, letting more long-wave radiation escape.
 A TIMELINE
Year Agreements/ Conventions/Protocols
1971 Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance)
1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference)

1973 Washington Convention - Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of

Wild flora and fauna (CITES)
1979 Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
1982 Nairobi Declaration on the State of Worldwide Environment.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
1985 Vienna Convention for the protection of ozone layer
1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
Brundtland Report (Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development)
1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal.
1992 Agenda 21 at United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
or Rio Earth Summit or Rio Conference.
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
1997 Kyoto Protocol
1998 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development or ‘Rio + 10’
2010 Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing
2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development or ‘Rio + 20’
2013 Minamata Convention on Mercury
2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change
2016 Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol.
2021 Glasgow Climate Summit (COP 26)
2022 Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt Climate Summit (COP 27)
2023 COP 28 at Dubai, the United Arab Emirates
2024 COP29 at Baku, Azerbaijan
 ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS/CONVENTIONS/PROTOCOLS/DECLARATIONS

Ramsar Convention  The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is

the intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
 Adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in
1975.
 World Wetlands Day is celebrated every year on 2 February. This
day marks the date of the adoption of the Convention.
 Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties
commit to:
1. Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
2. Designate suitable wetlands for the list of wetlands of
international importance (the “Ramsar List”) and ensure
their effective management;
3. Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands,
shared wetland systems and shared species.
 Amended twice in 1982 and 1987.
 Number of Contracting Parties: 171
 India has 80+ Ramsar Sites.
 Global Wetland Outlook, released by the Ramsar Convention.
Montreux Record  Montreux Record under the Ramsar Convention is a register of
wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance
where changes in ecological character have occurred, are
occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological
developments, pollution or other human interference.
 Montreux Record is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
 Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record:
o Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and
o Loktak Lake (Manipur).
Stockholm Declaration,  The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at
1972 Stockholm, Sweden on 5th and 6th June 1972, generally called as
the Stockholm Conference, was the first declaration of
international protection of the environment.
 In the conference, 113 States, including India, participated and
accepted the declaration.
 The Stockholm Declaration contains 26 principles that provide the
basis of an International Policy for the Protection and improvement
of the environment.
 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been
established by the United Nations General Assembly in pursuance of
the Stockholm Conference.
 The declaration is the first document in international environmental
law to recognize the right to a healthy environment.
 In the declaration, the nations agreed to accept responsibility for any
environmental effects caused by their actions
Nairobi Declaration,  The Nairobi Declaration was adopted at Nairobi, Kenya for
1982 celebrating the 10th Anniversary of the Stockholm conference
 The Declaration was endorsed by the governing Council of United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1987.
  The Declaration envisaged the creation of a special commission to
frame long-term environment strategies for achieving sustainable
developments up to the year 2000 and beyond.
Rio Earth Summit and  Earth Summit 1992, Rio Summit, the Rio Conference in 1992 was
Agenda 21 the first major global summit on environment held at Brazilian city
of Rio de Janeiro.
Outcome of this summit were:
 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development - principles
intended to guide countries in future sustainable development.
 Forest Principles: Non-legally binding document on Conservation
and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests.
 Rio Conventions:
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
2. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD)
 Agenda 21:
 It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken
globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN,
governments, and major groups in every area in which
humans affect the environment.
 The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
Rio+10 (2002) or Earth  It is World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Summit 2002  Took place in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002.
 Rio+10 affirmed UN commitment to Agenda 21, alongside the
Millennium Development Goals.
 Johannesburg Declaration: committing the nations of the world to
sustainable development.
Rio+20 (2012)  Rio+20 (2012) or United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development.
 It was a 20-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 1992 and 10-year
follow-up to the Earth Summit 2002.
 Hosted by Brazil in Rio de Janeiro in 2012.
 It reaffirmed the commitment to Agenda 21.
 By this conference UN wanted to bring together governments,
international institutions and major (NGO) groups to agree on a
range of smart measures for poverty reduction, clean energy and
Sustainable development.
 The Future We Want is the declaration on sustainable development
and a green economy adopted at the Rio+20.
Convention on  It is an international treaty adopted at the Earth Summit in 1992.
Biological Diversity  The Convention has three main goals:
(CBD) 1. Conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
2. Sustainable use of its components;
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic
resources.
 Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation
and sustainable use of biological diversity.
 Legally binding: Parties are obliged to implement its provisions
 195 UN states and EU are parties to the convention.
  All UN member states, with the exception of the United States have
ratified the treaty.
 The CBD Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada and it operates
under the United Nations Environment Programme.
Cartagena Protocol  The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD)
 It is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe
handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMOs)
resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects
on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human
health.
 Adopted in 2000 (COP5 to CBD) and entered into force 2003.
 lt establishes an Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure for
ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary
to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such
organisms into their territory.
 The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate
the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to
assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.
 Genetically Modified Organisms can be regulated under this.
Nagoya Protocol  The Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the
Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
Utilization”, one of the three objectives of the CBD.
 In 2010, at 10th Conference of Parties (COP) to the Convention on
Biological Diversity in Nagoya, Japan, this Protocol was adopted.
 It is the second Protocol to the CBD.
 It deals with access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits arising from their Utilization to the Convention
on Biological Diversity.
 Along with Nagoya Protocol, the COP-10 also adopted a ten-year
framework for action by all countries to save biodiversity.
 Officially known as “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-
2020”, provide a set of 20 ambitious yet achievable targets (divided
into 5 sections: A to E), collectively known as the Aichi Targets for
Biodiversity.
International Treaty on  It was adopted by the 31st session of the Conference of FAO of UN
Plant Genetic on 3rd November 2001.
Resources for Food and  Popularly known as the International Seed Treaty.
Agriculture  In harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.
(PGRFA)  Objectives:
1. Farmers’ Contribution: To recognize the contribution of farmers
to the diversity of crops,
2. Access and Benefit Sharing: Establish a global system to provide
farmers, plant breeders and scientists with access to plant
genetic materials,
3. Sustainability: To conserve and sustainably use plant genetic
resources for food and agriculture, and fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of their use, in harmony with
the Convention on Biological Diversity
 India is a signatory to the treaty.
Vienna Convention  Convention for the protection of ozone layer.
 A multilateral environmental agreement signed in 1985.
 In force from 1988.
 Ratifiers: 197 (Universal Ratification in 2009).
 It became an important legal basis for taking international action to
protect the Earth’s stratospheric ozone layer.
 Depository – UN Secretary General.
 This agreement is a framework convention that lays out principles
agreed upon by many parties.
 It does not, however, require countries to take control actions to
protect the ozone layer.
Montreal Protocol  Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
 It is a protocol to Vienna Convention agreed in 1987.
 Came into force in 1989.
 It is legally binding universal treaty.
 It facilitates global cooperation in reversing the rapid decline in
atmospheric concentrations of ozone.
 Under the protocol countries agreed to phase out the production
and consumption of certain chemicals that deplete ozone with
specific deadlines.
 It aims at phasing out of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydro
chloro fluorocarbons (HFCs).
 The Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol are the first and
only global environmental treaties to achieve universal ratification,
with 197 parties.
 As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in
Antarctica is slowly recovering.
Kigali Agreement  In the 28th meeting of the Parties (2016) to the Montreal Protocol,
negotiators from 197 nations have signed an agreement to amend
the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, Rwanda.
 The parties are expected to reduce the manufacture and use of
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-85% from their
respective baselines, till 2045.
 It is a legally binding agreement between the signatory parties with
non-compliance measures.
 It came into effect from 1st January 2019.
 Under it, developed countries will also provide enhanced funding
support.
 It has divided the signatory parties into three groups:
 The first group consists of rich and developed economies like
USA, UK and EU countries who will start to phase down HFCs
by 2019 and reduce it to 15% of 2012 levels by 2036.
 The second group consists of emerging economies like China,
Brazil as well as some African countries that will start phase
down by 2024 and reduce it to 20% of 2021 levels by 2045.
 The third group consists of developing economies and some
of the hottest climatic countries like India, Pakistan, Iran, and
Saudi Arabia who will start phasing down HFCs by 2028 and
reduce it to 15% of 2024-2026 levels till 2047.
United Nations  It is one of three Rio Conventions along with United Nations
Convention to Combat Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
Desertification Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
(UNCCD)  Established in 1994, UNCCD is the only legally binding international
agreement to address the problem of land degradation,
desertification and other land issues.
 It encourages the participation of local people in combating
desertification and land degradation.
 The convention promotes sustainable land management (SLM) as
solution to global challenges.
 194 parties to Convention.
 Secretariat at Bonn, Germany.
 COP is the supreme decision-making body and it reviews the
implementation of the Convention.
 India became a signatory in 1994 and ratified it in 1996. MoEFCC is
the nodal Ministry for the Convention.
 The Global Mechanism (GM) was established under Article 21 of the
UNCCD to assist countries in the mobilization of financial resources
to implement the Convention and address desertification, land
degradation and drought.
 Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Target Setting Programme.
 The Global Land Outlook (GLO) is a strategic communications
platform and associated publications of the UNCCD secretariat
Land Degradation  LDN Fund is an impact investment fund created to invest in projects
Neutrality (LDN) Fund that reduce or reverse land degradation.
 Mirova, a subsidiary of Natixis Investment Managers, structured the
fund and will manage it on behalf of the UNCCD.
 Aims to catalyse the huge available pool of private capital by
leveraging the limited public resources available to achieve land
degradation neutrality.
 Land degradation neutrality (LDN) is one of 169 targets set under
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 15.3).
 About 29% of total geographic area of India is degraded.
 LDN is “a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources,
necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and
enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified
temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems.”
 UNCCD - The LDN Target Setting Programme.
 Over 120 Countries have committed to setting LDN targets.
Forest landscape  IUCN and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) first proposed Forest
restoration (FLR) landscape restoration (FLR) at the start of 21 st century as a
systematic framework for managing landscapes, to complement
forest conservation and sustainable management efforts
 FLR is the ongoing process of regaining ecological functionality and
enhancing human well-being across deforested or degraded forest
landscapes.
 FLR is more than just planting trees, it is restoring a whole landscape
to meet present and future needs and to offer multiple benefits and
land uses over time.
 It is about Forests, Landscapes and Restoration.
 Guiding principles of FLR:
 Focus on landscapes
 Maintain and enhance natural ecosystems within
landscapes
 Engage stakeholders and support participatory governance
 Tailor to the local context using a variety of approaches
 Restore multiple functions for multiple benefits
 Manage adaptively for long-term resilience.
Bonn challenge  It is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s
deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350
million hectares by 2030.
 It was launched in 2011 by the Government of Germany and IUCN,
and later endorsed and extended by the New York Declaration on
Forests at the 2014 UN Climate Summit.
 Underlying the Bonn Challenge is the forest landscape restoration
(FLR) approach.
 It is an implementation vehicle for national priorities such as water
and food security and rural development while contributing to the
achievement of international climate change, biodiversity and land
degradation commitments.
 At the UNFCC COP 2015 in Paris, India also joined the voluntary
Bonn Challenge pledge to bring into restoration 13 million hectares
of degraded and deforested land by the year 2020, and additional 8
million hectares by 2030.
 In COP 14 of UNCCD 2019, India increased the target to 13 million
hectare from 8 million hectare for the period of 2021-2030.
Convention on  CITES also known as Washington Convention.
International Trade in  International agreement to regulate worldwide commercial trade
Endangered Species on in wild animal and plant species.
Wild Fauna and Flora  Signed on March 3, 1973 (World Wildlife Day on March 3).
(CITES)  Entered into force in July 1975.
 183 Parties (countries and organizations).
 Legally binding on parties, but does not take the place of national
laws.
 Administered by the UNEP and Secretariat at Geneva.
 It classifies plants and animals according to three categories, or
appendices, based on how threatened:
o Appendix I: It lists species that are in danger of extinction.
Commercial trade prohibited.
 o Appendix II: They are those that are not threatened with
extinction but that might suffer a serious decline. Their trade is
regulated by permit.
o Appendix III: They are protected in at least one country that is a
CITES member states.
 India hosted CoP 3rd in 1981.

Bonn Convention /  CMS is an international treaty concluded under aegis of UNEP.

Convention on  Signed in 1979 and came into force in 1983.
Conservation of  It provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable
Migratory Species use of migratory animals and their habitats.
(CMS)  The Conference of Parties (COP) is the decision-making organ of this
convention.
 CMS Appendices:
 Appendix I: Migratory species threatened with extinction
and Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals,
conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating
obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that
might endanger them.
 Appendix II: Migratory species that need conservation and
management or would significantly benefit from
international co-operation.
 India has been a Party to the CMS since 1983.
 The Indian sub-continent is part of the major bird flyway network, i.e,
the Central Asian Flyway (CAF) that covers areas between the Arctic
and Indian Oceans.
 India has launched the National Action Plan for the conservation of
migratory species under the Central Asian Flyway.

CMS COP-13:
 13th COP on the CMS held in Gandhinagar (Gujarat) in February
2020.
 Ten migratory species were added to CMS Appendices at COP-
13 including the Asian Elephant, Jaguar and Great Indian Bustard.
 India, as COP-13 host, has assumed the role of COP Presidency for the
three years.
 India pledged to focus on the conservation of migratory birds along
the Central Asian Flyway.
 The CMS COP-13 has adopted the Gandhinagar Declaration which
calls for migratory species and the concept of ‘ecological
 connectivity’ to be integrated and prioritized in the post-2020 global
biodiversity framework.
 The mascot for CMS COP-13 was “The Great Indian Bustard”.

CMS COP14, held in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, in November 2023:

 Ten new species were added to the CMS Appendices for protection,
including the Asian elephant, Persian leopard, and Saker falcon.
 A significant focus was placed on protecting migratory species from
infrastructure development, with new guidelines adopted for making
infrastructure more wildlife-friendly.
 The conference addressed the growing impact of light pollution on
migratory species, particularly birds, bats, and marine species.
 There was increased attention on the effects of climate change on
migratory routes and habitats, with new measures proposed to help
species adapt.
 The conference strengthened international cooperation for
protecting Central Asian migratory routes, which was particularly
relevant given the host country's location.
Basel Convention  Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
 Adopted in 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Basel,
Switzerland, in response to a public outcry following the discovery, in
the 1980s, in Africa and other parts of the developing world of
deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad.
 It is an international, UN treaty.
 It does not address the movement of radioactive waste.
 Its objective was to stop dumping of hazardous waste from
developed countries in developing nations.
Bamako Convention  A treaty of African nations prohibiting the import into Africa of any
hazardous (including radioactive) waste.
 It is a response to Article 11 of the Basel convention which
encourages parties to enter into bilateral, multilateral and regional
agreements on Hazardous Waste to help achieve the objectives of the
convention.
 The Bamako convention uses a format and language similar to that of
the Basel convention, except that:
o (a) it is much stronger in prohibiting all imports of hazardous
waste, and
o (b) it does not make exceptions on certain hazardous wastes
(like those for radioactive materials) made by the Basel
convention.
 The Convention covers more wastes than covered by the Basel
Convention.
 Purpose of the Convention:
o To prohibit the import of all hazardous and radioactive
wastes into the African continent for any reason;
o To minimize and control transboundary movements of
hazardous wastes within the African continent.
o To prohibit all ocean and inland water dumping or
incineration of hazardous wastes.
 o To ensure that disposal of wastes is conducted in an
“environmentally sound manner".
o To promote cleaner production over the pursuit of a
permissible emissions approach based on assimilative
capacity assumptions
o To establish the precautionary principle.
 Countries should ban the import of hazardous and radioactive wastes
as well as all forms of ocean disposal.
 It was negotiated by 12 nations of the African Union (former
Organization of African Unity) at Bamako, Mali in January, 1991.
 The convention came into force in 1998.
Rotterdam  Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
Convention Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
 It is a multilateral Treaty, UN Treaty.
 Aims to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts
among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous
chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment
from potential harm.
 The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the
implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
 Adopted in 1998 and entered into force in 2004.
Stockholm Convention  The Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding
agreement on persistent organic pollutants.
 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are
resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological,
and photolytic processes.
 Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the
International Programme for Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared a list,
known as the Dirty Dozen, including eight organochlorine pesticides:
aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and
toxaphene; two industrial chemicals: hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and
the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) group; and two groups of
industrial by-products: dioxins and furans.
  The convention entered into force in 2004. Co-signatories agree to
outlaw nine of the "dirty dozen" chemicals, limit the use of DDT to
malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of dioxins and
furans.
Minamata Convention  It is an UN Treaty signed in 2013.
 Aims to protect human health and the environment from
anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury
compounds
 The Convention is named after the Japanese city Minamata (city
went through devastating incident of mercury poisoning).
 It aims to control anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its
lifecycle.
 It came into force in 2017
 The parties to Minamata convention are obligated to commit to the
following:
o Phasing out of the existing Mercury mines and banning new
ones.
o Timely reduction and gradually phasing out the usage of
Mercury or Mercury based compounds in products and
processes
o Strict control measure to check release of pollutants
containing Mercury into the land and water, including such
Mercury based emissions into the air.
o Efficiently regulating the informal sector of small scale and
artisanal gold mining.
 India signed in 2014 and ratified in 2018. As a consequence of the
ratification, India will be allowed to continue the use of processes
requiring Mercury compounds and Mercury – based products till the
year 2025.
United Nations  It is an international treaty which was adopted and signed in 1982.
Convention on the  UNCLOS also known as Law of the Sea divides marine areas
Law of the into five main zones namely- Internal Waters, Territorial Sea,
Sea (UNCLOS) Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas.
 UNCLOS is the only international convention which stipulates a
framework for state jurisdiction in maritime spaces. It provides a
different legal status to different maritime zones.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):

 Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and adjacent to its
territorial sea that extends seaward up to 200 nm from its baselines.
 Within its EEZ, a coastal state has:
 Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting,
conserving and managing natural resources, whether living
or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil.
 Rights to carry out activities like the production of energy
from the water, currents and wind.
 It does not give a coastal state the right to prohibit or limit freedom
of navigation or overflight, subject to very limited exceptions.
  The Convention has created three new institutions on the
international scene:
 The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea,
 The International Seabed Authority,
 The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
London Convention  The "Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Matter 1972", is one of the first global
conventions to protect the marine environment from human
activities.
 The Convention has been in force since 1975.
 It is an International Maritime Organization (IMO) Agreement.
 Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of
marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution
of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.
 In 1996, the "London Protocol" was agreed to further modernize the
Convention and, eventually, replace it. Under the Protocol, all
dumping is prohibited, except for possibly acceptable wastes on the
so-called "reverse list".
 The London Protocol entered into force on 24 March 2006.
 India is not a member to London Convention.
MARPOL Convention  MARPOL Convention on ship-generated wastes.
 It is an IMO Agreement, adopted in 1973.
 The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships (MARPOL) is the main international convention covering
prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from
operational or accidental causes.
 The Protocol of 1978 was adopted in response to a spate of tanker
accidents in 1976-1977. As the 1973 MARPOL Convention had not yet
entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol absorbed the parent
Convention.
 The combined instrument entered into force on 2 October 1983. In
1997, a Protocol was adopted to amend the Convention and a new
Annex VI was added which entered into force on 19 May 2005.
 The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and
minimizing pollution from ships - both accidental pollution and that
from routine operations - and currently includes six technical
Annexes.
  Special Areas with strict controls on operational discharges are
included in most Annexes.
Ballast Water  International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships'
Convention Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM)
 It is also an IMO Agreement.
 Ballast Water Management Convention, adopted in 2004, aims to
prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one region to
another, by establishing standards & procedures for the management
and control of ships' ballast water and sediments
 Under the Convention, all ships in international traffic are required
to manage their ballast water and sediments to a certain standard,
according to a ship-specific ballast water management plan.
Barcelona Convention  The Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean adopted
in 1995.
 In 1975, 16 Mediterranean countries and the European Community
adopted the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), the first-ever
Regional Seas Programme under UNEP's umbrella.
 The 22 Contracting Parties are: Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy,
Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Slovenia,
Spain, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey, and the European Union.
 Parties are determined to protect the Mediterranean marine and
coastal environment while boosting regional and national plans to
achieve sustainable development.
 The Barcelona Convention has given rise to seven Protocols
addressing specific aspects of Mediterranean environmental
conservation.
Nairobi Convention  The Nairobi Convention is a partnership between governments, civil
society and the private sector, working towards a prosperous
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) Region with healthy rivers, coasts and
oceans.
 The Convention offers a regional legal framework and coordinates
the efforts of the member states to plan and develop programmes
that strengthen their capacity to protect, manage and develop their
coastal and marine environment.
 It also provides a forum for inter-governmental discussions that lead
to better understanding of regional environmental problems and the
strategies needed to address them; and promotes sharing of
information and experiences in the WIO region and with the rest of
the world.
Cartagena Convention  The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine
Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) is a regional legal
agreement for protection of the Caribbean Sea.
 The Convention was adopted in Cartagena, Colombia on 24 March
1983 and entered into force on 11 October 1986.
 The Convention is supported by three technical agreements or
Protocols on Oil Spills, Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife
(SPAW) and Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution (LBS).
  The Convention covers several aspects of marine pollution for which
the Contracting Parties must adopt specific measures. These
measures include to prevent, reduce and control:
 Pollution from ships
 Pollution caused by dumping
 Pollution from sea-bed activities
 Airborne pollution
 Pollution from land-based sources and activities
 Countries who are Contracting Parties to the Convention are also
required to:
 Protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems and habitats
of depleted, threatened or endangered species; and
 Develop technical and other guidelines for the planning and
environmental impact assessments of important
development projects.
Carpathian  The Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable
Convention Development of the Carpathians.
 It was adopted and signed by the seven Parties (Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Ukraine) in May
2003 in Kyiv, Ukraine, and entered into force in January 2006.
 It is the only multi-level governance mechanism covering the whole
of the Carpathian area and besides the Alpine Convention the
second sub-regional treaty-based regime for the protection and
sustainable development of a mountain region worldwide.
 The common vision of the Parties to the Carpathian Convention is
to pursue comprehensive policy and cooperation in order to
guarantee protection and sustainable development of the
Carpathians.
 The improvement of the quality of live, the strengthening of local
economies and communities, and the conservation of natural values
and cultural heritage should go hand in hand in the Carpathian area.
 The Convention provides a framework for cooperation and multi-
sectoral policy coordination, a platform for joint strategies for
sustainable development.
Male Declaration on  In 1998, the UNEP, together with the Stockholm Environment
Control and Institute (SEI) drew attention to the possibility of the impacts of
Prevention of Air transboundary air pollution in South Asia.
Pollution and Its Likely  This initiative led to the adoption of the Male Declaration on Control
Transboundary Effects and Prevention of Air Pollution and Its Likely Transboundary Effects
for South Asia for South Asia.
 The Male Declaration’s objective is to aid the process of providing a
clean environment through clean air.
 The Declaration calls for regional cooperation to address the
increasing threat of trans-boundary air pollution and its possible
impacts. Its implementation has been carried out in phases.
 The eight member countries of Male Declaration include
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka.
 Country governments nominated the National Focal Points (NFPs)
and the National Implementing Agencies (NIAs) for its
implementation.
  The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA)
provided funding to the Male Declaration from 1999 to 2013.
Kyoto Protocol  The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997 and came
into force in 2005.
 NOTE: USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol. Canada withdrew in 2012.
 The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities.
 Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions of greenhouse gases across
the developed world by about 5 per cent by 2012 compared with
1990 levels. Thus, Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with
binding limits on GHG emissions.
 GHGs include CO2, CH4, N20, SF6, group of HFCs and group of PFCs.

 Other signatories to the treaty, consisting mostly of developing

countries, were not required to restrict their emissions.
 Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two commitment periods: 2008 –
2012 and 2013 – 2020.
 The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as
the Doha Amendment to the protocol.
 Each commitment period has its own binding targets set for
developed countries to reduce their GHG emissions.
 An Adaptation Fund was established to finance concrete adaptation
projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to
the Kyoto Protocol.
 The protocol provided several means for countries to reach their
targets. One approach was to make use of natural processes, called
“sinks,” and the other approach was the international program called
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which encouraged
developed countries to invest in technology and infrastructure in less-
developed countries, where there were often significant
opportunities to reduce emissions.
 Under the CDM, the investing country could claim the effective
reduction in emissions as a credit toward meeting its obligations
under the protocol.
  Canada withdrew in 2012 after the first commitment period. Japan,
New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first round but
have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period.
 As of January 2019, 124 states have accepted the Doha Amendment,
while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states.
 Thus, the second commitment period is a failure.

Paris Climate Accord:

 The landmark accord signed by all 196 signatories of the UNFCCC in 2015, effectively replaced the
Kyoto Protocol, to reduce, mitigate greenhouse-gas-emissions.
 Temperature Targets: To slow the process of global warming by limiting a global temperature rise
this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit
the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
 Emission Goals: Another crucial point in this agreement was attaining “net zero emissions”
between 2050 and 2100. Nations have pledged “to achieve a balance between anthropogenic
emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this
century”.
 Burden Sharing: Developed countries were also told to provide financial resources to help
developing countries in dealing with climate change and for adaptation measures. Other countries
are invited to provide support on voluntary basis.
 Non-binding Voluntary Targets: The Paris Agreement requires that all countries — rich, poor,
developed, and developing — slash greenhouse gas emissions. Nations voluntarily set their
emissions targets and incur no penalties for falling short of their targets.
 Review Mechanism: A review every five years with first mandatory world review at 2025. Each
review will show an improvement compared with the previous period.
 Climate Fund: It also mandated development of a fund containing $100 billion by 2020—which
would be replenished annually—to help developing countries adopt non-greenhouse-gas-
producing technologies.
 Climate-related loss: The agreement also includes a mechanism to address financial losses faced
by less developed nations due to climate change impacts like droughts, floods etc. However,
developed nations won’t face financial claims since it “does not involve or provide a basis for any
liability or compensation”.

What is Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC)?

 It means the contributions that need to be done by each country to achieve the overall global
goal.
 The contributions need to be reported every 5 years to UNFCCC.
 The contributions are not legally binding.
 The goal is to make sure that all countries have access to technical expertise and financial
capability to meet the climate challenges.

How is Paris Climate different from Kyoto Protocol?

 In the Kyoto Protocol, there was a differentiation between developed and developing countries
which were mentioned as Annex 1 countries and non-Annex 1 countries respectively.
 However, in the Paris agreement, there is no difference between developing and developed
countries.

Financial Support pledged during the Paris 2015 Agreement:

 Developed countries have committed $ 100 Billion a year.
 Finance would be balanced between mitigation and adaptation.
 G7 countries announced the US $ 420 Million for Climate Risk Insurance and the launching of the
Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS) initiative.
 $ 3 Billion commitment for Green Climate Fund.

India’s Greenhouse gas emissions:

 India’s GHG emissions accounted for 6.5% of 2014 global total, according to data from the World
Resources Institute. This made the country the fourth-largest emitter after China, the United
States and the European Union.

What are India’s Climate commitments?

 In 2015, ahead of the UN significant climate conference in Paris, India announced three major
voluntary commitments called the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC):
o Improving the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33–35% by 2030 over 2005 levels
o Increasing the share of non-fossil fuels-based electricity to 40% by 2030.
o Enhancing its forest cover, thereby absorbing 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide

Modest Achievements:
 Tacit consensus on 1.5o target: The notional target of limiting the global temperature rise to 2
degrees celcius above pre-industrial levels (Paris Agreement) remains but the international
discourse is now firmly anchored in the more ambitious target of limiting the temperature rise to
1.5 degrees to match the scale of the climate emergency.
 Focus on Phasing down Coal: The Pact is the first clear recognition of the need to transition away
from fossil fuels, though the focus was on giving up coal-based power altogether. The original
draft had contained a pledge to “phase out” coal. India introduced an amendment at the last
moment to replace it with “phase down”.
o The amendment from phase out to “phase down” came as a result of consultations among
India, China, the UK and the US.
 Recognition of the importance of Adaptation: World recognised that mere mitigation is not
enough and that adaptation needs to be mainstreamed into developmental strategies. There is
now a commitment to double the current finance available for this to developing countries.
 Renewed Commitment for Climate Finance: The Paris Agreement target of $100 billion per
annum between 2005-2020 was never met with the shortfall being more than half. There is now
a renewed commitment to delivering on this pledge in the 2020-2025 period and there is a
promise of an enhanced flow thereafter.
 Compensation for loss and damage for developing countries: This is now part of the multilateral
discourse and the US has agreed that it should be examined in working groups. That is a step
forward but is unlikely to translate into a meaningful flow of funds any time soon.
 Methane Pledge: Agreement was signed among 100 countries to cut methane emissions by 30
per cent by 2030.
 Reverse deforestation: Another group of 100 countries has agreed to begin to reverse
deforestation by 2030. Since the group includes Brazil and Indonesia, which have large areas of
forests that are being ravaged by legal and illegal logging, there is hope that there will be progress
in expanding one of the most important carbon sinks on the planet.
 Clarity on Article 6 of Paris agreement: There is greater clarity on how bilateral carbon trades can
proceed and the creation of a centralised hub that replaces Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development
Mechanism.
o Criteria have been set out for countries to use CERs from projects registered after January
1, 2013 to meet their first NDC or first adjusted NDC.
o It also designates a 12-member Supervisory Body to oversee the emerging hub and to
review the baselines of recognised credits
 New commitments by India: PM announced India’s commitment to achieving net-zero carbon by
2070 that compared favourably with China’s target date of 2060. His announcements of enhanced
targets for renewable energy were also welcomed.
 Pressure by Youth: There was incredible and passionate advocacy of urgent action by young
people across the world. This is putting enormous pressure on governments and leaders and if
sustained, may become irresistible

 India has surprised observers within and outside India with the following ambitious and what at
this point appear to be unconditional pledges on India’s decarburization at COP26:
o Increase non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW (gigawatts) by 2030.
o Meet 50 percent of energy requirements from renewable energy (RE) by 2030.
o Reduce the total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes (BT) by 2030.
o Reduce the carbon intensity of the economy by less than 45 percent.
o Achieve net zero carbon by 2070.
 Many environmentalists hailed these five pledges (“Panchamrit”)
o It is expected to put India on a firm path towards decarbonisation.
o For commercial entities betting on green investments to pay-off handsomely, the
announcements offer the comfort of certainty that government policy will protect their
returns.

UNFCCC COP 28:

 COP28 was held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates from November 30 to December 13, 2023. Here
are the key highlights:
1. The Global Stocktake Agreement: For the first time in COP history, countries agreed to
"transition away" from fossil fuels in energy systems. This marked the first explicit reference
to fossil fuels in a COP agreement.
2. Loss and Damage Fund Operationalization: The conference saw the rapid operationalization
of the Loss and Damage Fund, with initial pledges totaling over $700 million. The World Bank
will serve as the interim host for the first four years.
 3. Climate Finance Commitments:
 Agreement to reform international financial institutions
 Call to scale up climate finance beyond $100 billion
 Recognition of the need for trillions in climate finance, not billions
4. Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Targets:
 Agreement to triple global renewable energy capacity by 2030
 Commitment to double the annual rate of energy efficiency improvements by 2030
5. Methane Reduction:
 Over 150 countries endorsed the Global Methane Pledge
 Commitments to reduce methane emissions from fossil fuel operations
6. Agriculture and Food Systems:
 First-time inclusion of food systems in the final COP decision
 Declaration on Sustainable Agriculture, Resilient Food Systems, and Climate Action
7. Nature and Biodiversity:
 Enhanced recognition of the role of nature-based solutions
 Commitment to protect forests and ecosystems
8. Health Declaration:
 First-ever Climate and Health Declaration, signed by 124 countries
 Recognition of climate change impacts on global health

UNFCC COP29:

 Held in Baku, Azerbaijan in Dec 2024, key features:

1. New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance (NCQG) or Baku Finance Goal:
 Sets goals for financing climate action in developing countries:
 Triple finance to USD 300 billion annually by 2035 (previous goal of USD 100 billion
annually).
 Secure efforts to mobilize $1.3 trillion per year by 2035 from both public and private
sources.
2. Carbon Markets and Article 6:
 Finalized the rules for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.
 Article 6 provides mechanisms for international carbon markets, allowing countries
to trade carbon credits and finance climate action.
3. Transparency:
 All transparency negotiating items concluded, including Enhanced Transparency
Framework (ETF). ETF establishes a system for countries to report on their climate
actions, including greenhouse gas emissions, climate mitigation efforts, and
adaptation measures.
 1st submissions of Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs) by 13 counties under the
Paris Agreement. BTRs are the regular reports submitted by countries under ETF.
 Baku Declaration on Global Climate Transparency and Baku Global Climate
Transparency Platform were also launched for timely delivery of BTRs and to support
the full implementation of the ETF.
4. Adaptation:
 Launched the Baku Adaptation Road Map and Baku High-Level Dialogue on
Adaptation to enhance UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience
implementation.
 Establishment of a support program for implementing National Adaptation Plans
(NAPs) for Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
5. Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities:
 Implementation of the Workplan will begin in 2025 and it has 3 Focus areas:
 o Promoting knowledge exchange;
o Building capacity for engagement;
o Incorporating diverse values and knowledge systems into climate policies and
actions.
6. Gender and climate change:
 Extension of the enhanced Lima Work Programme on Gender and Climate Change for
another 10 years.
 In 2014, COP 20 established the Lima Work Programme on Gender to advance gender
balance, integrating gender considerations into climate policies under the Convention
and Paris Agreement.
 At COP 25 Parties agreed a 5-year enhanced Lima work programme on gender and its
gender action plan was launched.

ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS

United Nations  The UNEP is the leading global environmental authority

Environment Programme established on 5th June 1972 that sets the global environmental
(UNEP) agenda.
 It promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental
dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations
system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global
environment.
 Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya.
 It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.
 Major Reports: Emission Gap Report, Global Environment
Outlook, Frontiers, Invest into Healthy Planet.
 Major Campaigns: Beat Pollution, UN75, World Environment
Day, Wild for Life.
World Meteorological  WMO is an intergovernmental organization with a membership
Organization (WMO) of 192 Member States and Territories.
 It originated from the International Meteorological Organization
(IMO), which was established after the 1873 Vienna International
Meteorological Congress.
 Established by the ratification of the WMO Convention on 23
March 1950, WMO became the specialized agency of the United
Nations for meteorology (weather and climate), operational
hydrology and related geophysical sciences.'
 WMO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
 It publishes ‘Statement on the State of the Global Climate’ and
‘Greenhouse Gas Bulletin’.
International Seabed  It is an intergovernmental body that organizes, regulates and
Authority controls all mineral (non-living resources) related activities in
the international seabed area beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction.
 HQ: Jamaica
 Established in 1994.
 It is an organization established by the Law of the Sea
Convention and functions under the aegis of the UNCLOS.
  It has an observer status to UN.
International Union for  IUCN is an international organization (NGO) working in the field
Conservation of Nature of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural
(IUCN) resources.
 It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field
projects, advocacy, lobbying and education.
 The organization is best known for compiling and publishing
the IUCN Red List, which assesses the conservation status of
species worldwide.
 Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.
World Wide Fund for  WWF is an international non-governmental
Nature (WWF) organization founded in 1961, working in the field of wilderness
preservation, and the reduction of human impact on the
environment.
 WWF is the world's largest conservation organization with over
five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100
countries, supporting around 3000 conservation and
environmental projects.
 The Living Planet Report has been published every two years by
WWF since 1998; it is based on a Living Planet
Index and ecological footprint calculation.
 In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide
campaigns including Earth Hour and Debt-for-Nature Swap, and
its current work is organized around these six areas: food,
climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans
TRAFFIC  The TRAFFIC, the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network is a non-
governmental organization working globally on trade in wild
animals and plants in the context of both biodiversity
conservation and sustainable development.
 TRAFFIC is a joint programme of WWF and IUCN.
 Traffic is complimentary to Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
 TRAFFIC’s mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and
animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
 It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns,
impacts and drivers to provide the leading knowledge base on
trade in wild animals and plants.
Conservation  It is an American non-profit environmental organization
International headquartered in Arlington, Virginia.
 Conservation International works to spotlight and secure the
critical benefits that nature provides to humanity.
 It identifies Biodiversity Hotspots of the world.
Bioversity International • It is a global research-for-development organization.
 It delivers scientific evidence, management practices and policy
options to use and safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity to
attain sustainable global food and nutrition security.
• The international status of Bioversity International is conferred
under an Establishment Agreement that had been signed by
many Governments (including India).
FEE (the Foundation for  FEE is a non-governmental, non-profit organisation promoting
Environmental Education) sustainable development through environmental education.
  It was established in France in 1985 and got extended to areas
outside Europe since 2001.
 FEE is active through five programmes:
1. Blue Flag
2. Eco-Schools
3. Young Reporters for the Environment (YRE)
4. Learning about Forests (LEAF)
5. Green Key International
 It has members in 77 countries worldwide.
 FEE is an international umbrella organisation with one national
member organisation per country representing FEE on the
national level and in charge of implementing FEE programmes
nationally.
World Resource Institute  WRI is a global research non-profit organization that was
(WRI) established in 1982 with funding from the MacArthur Foundation
under the leadership of James Gustave Speth.
 Global Forest Watch (GFW) is an open-source web application to
monitor global forests in near real-time, is a initiative of WRI.
 Greenhouse Gas Protocol establishes comprehensive global
standardized frameworks to measure and manage greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions from private and public sector operations,
value chains and mitigation actions.
 Building on a 20-year partnership between WRI and the World
Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), GHG
Protocol works with governments, industry associations, NGOs,
businesses and other organizations.
International Tropical  ITTO is an intergovernmental organization promoting the
Timber Organization sustainable management and conservation of tropical forests
(ITTO) and the expansion and diversification of international trade in
tropical timber from sustainably managed and legally harvested
forests.
 ITTO:
o Encourage sustainable forest management (SFM) and
sustainable tropical timber industries and trade.
o Assists tropical member countries to adapt such
guidelines and norms.
o Collects, analyzes and disseminates data on the
production and trade of tropical timber.
o Promotes sustainable tropical timber supply chains.
o Helps develop capacity in tropical forestry.
 ITTO’s membership represents about 90% of the global tropical
timber trade and more than 80% of the world’s tropical forests.
 ITTO was established under the auspices of the UN in 1986.
 India is a member of ITTO.
International Whaling  International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling is an
Commission (IWC) international environmental agreement which governs the
commercial, scientific, and aboriginal subsistence whaling
practices of fifty-nine member nations.
 It was signed in 1946.
 By this convention, International Whaling Commission (IWC)
was set up to “provide for the proper conservation of whale
 stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the
whaling industry”.
 This organization has been active against the commercial
whaling. In 1986, it adopted a Moratorium on Commercial
Whaling. This ban still continues.
 In 1994, it created the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
surrounding the continent of Antarctica. Here, the IWC has
banned all types of commercial whaling. Only two such
sanctuaries have been designated by IWC till date. Another is
Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary by the tiny island nation of the
Seychelles.
 HQ of IWC is near Cambridge, England

INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL INITIATIVES

Global  It is an independently operating financial organization

Environment Facility  GEF is multilateral financial mechanism that provides grants to
developing countries for projects that benefit global environment and
promote sustainable livelihoods in local communities.
 It was setup as a fund under World Bank in 1991
 In 1992, at the Rio Earth Summit, the GEF was restructured
and moved out of the World Bank system to become a permanent,
separate institution.
 Since 1994, however, the World Bank has served as the Trustee of the
GEF Trust Fund and provided administrative services.
 GEF serves as financial mechanism for:
o Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
o UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
o Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
o Minamata Convention on Mercury
 India is both donor and recipient of GEF
UN E-mobility  UN Environment’s (UNEP) Electric Mobility Programme supports
Programme developing and transitional countries shift from fossil fuel to electric
vehicles.
 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution through electric
mobility. (transport contributes approximately one quarter of all
energy related carbon emissions)
 The UN Environments Electric Mobility program will involve all
stakeholders leading global agencies in the field of electric mobility
through partnerships
 These partners include international organizations, such as the IEA,
the FIA Foundation, the International Council on Clean Transportation
(ICCT) but also representatives from the vehicle industry, national
governments and other leading regional partners in Africa, Asia and
Latin America.
 Donors : Global Environment Facility, Green Climate Fund, FIA
Foundation, Climate and Clean Air Coalition
Un-Plastic Collective  UPC is a voluntary initiative launched by the UN-Environment
(UPC) Program-India, Confederation of Indian Industry and WWF-India.
 The Collective seeks to minimise externalities of plastics on
the ecological and social health of our planet.
 As a part of UPC initiative companies set time-bound, public targets
to:
o Eliminate unnecessary use of plastic.
o Reuse and circulate plastics through the circular economy.
o Replace plastic with sustainable alternative or recycled
plastics.
o Turn commitments to meaningful and measurable action.
UNEP Partnership for  The PCFV is the leading global public-private initiative promoting
Clean Fuels and cleaner fuels and vehicles in developing countries and countries in
Vehicles (PCFV) transition.
 Established at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
2002.
 The PCFV brings together 72 organizations representing developed
and developing countries.
 The PCFV provides a range of technical, financial and networking
support for governments and other stakeholders to reduce vehicle
emissions, namely fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide, black
carbon and nitrogen oxides, and improve fuel economy.
The United Nations  It is a global partnership established between the United Nations
Environment Environment Program (UNEP) and the financial sector.
Programme Finance  It was created in 1992, following the Earth Summit in Rio de
Initiative (UNEP FI) Janeiro. The UNEP FI consists of 215 members from financial
institutions and 41 supporting institutions. These members include
banks, investors and insurance companies.
Principles for Responsible Investment (PRI):
 The United Nations-supported PRI is an international network of
investors working together to put the six principles into practice.
 Its goal is to understand the implications of sustainability for
investors and support signatories to incorporate these issues into
their investment decision-making and ownership practices.
 In implementing the Principles, signatories contribute to the
development of a more sustainable global financial system.
 Environmental, Social, and Corporate Governance (ESG) issues can
affect the performance of investment portfolios (to varying degrees
across companies, sectors, regions, asset classes and through time).
New York Declaration  NYDF is a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to
on Forests (NYDF) take action to halt global deforestation.
 It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in
September 2014.
 List of NYDF supporters has grown to include over 200 endorsers:
national governments, sub-national governments, multi-national
companies, groups representing indigenous communities, and non-
government organizations.
 These endorsers have committed to doing their part to achieve the
NYDF’s ten goals and follow its accompanying action agenda.
Biodiversity Finance  It is a global partnership that helps government’s cost, plan and pay
Initiative (BIOFIN) for action on biodiversity conservation & its sustainable use.
 It was launched in 2012.
 BIOFIN aims to develop a methodology for quantifying the
biodiversity finance gap at national level, for cost-effectiveness
through mainstreaming of biodiversity into national development and
sectoral planning and for developing comprehensive national
resource mobilizing strategies.
 The BIOFIN methodology is being used by 19 countries to analyze,
calculate and develop strategies to generate the funds they need to
meet national biodiversity targets.
 The initiative is run by UNDP with support from the Governments of
Germany, Switzerland and the European Union.
BreatheLife campaign  A global campaign to mobilize governments and individuals to take
action on air pollution.
 It is a joint campaign led by the World Health Organization (WHO),
United Nations Environment and the Climate & Clean Air Coalition
(CCAC) to mobilize cities and individuals to protect our health and
planet from the effects of air pollution.
 The campaign combines public health and climate change expertise
with guidance on implementing solutions to air pollution in support of
global development goals.
 The campaign aims to support the leadership, policy and technical
work of the WHO, UN Environment and the Coalition in advancing
three core strategic goals:
1. Engage city, sub national and national governments to
commit to achieving WHO Air Quality Guidelines by 2030.
2. Halve the number of air pollution related deaths by 2030.
3. Slow the pace of climate change by 0.5 degrees Celsius by
2050.
 Connect cities: Provide a platform for cities to share best practices
and demonstrate progress in their journey to meeting WHO air quality
targets by 2030.
 Other activities: Increase monitoring; Accelerate solutions; Build
public awareness; Empower individuals.
 Chilamathur Mandal, an administrative division in the state of Andhra
Pradesh, has become India’s first member of the BreatheLife
campaign.
 Bengaluru is the first major Indian city to join the global BreatheLife
campaign, a collaboration with the World Health Organisation.
Wild for Life campaign  Wild for Life is UN Environment’s campaign against illegal trade in
wildlife.
 The initiative is aimed at creating collaboration, policy
implementation, and grassroots participation to sensitize
communities in source and destination countries in war on poaching.
 Launched at the UN Environment Assembly in 2016.
 This campaign is part of an ambitious agenda that is being driven by
the UN which recognizes wildlife crime as a serious crime and a threat
to our shared sustainable development.
Clean Seas campaign  Launched by UN Environment in 2017 with the aim of engaging
governments, the general public and the private sector in the fight
against marine plastic pollution.
 The campaign contributes to the goals of the Global Partnership on
Marine Litter, a voluntary open-ended partnership hosted by UN
Environment.
 Over the five years (2017-2021), it will address the root-cause of
marine litter by targeting the production and consumption of non-
recoverable and single-use plastic.
 It aims to ban single use plastics and microbeads within five years.
 Under the campaign many countries like Indonesia, Italy, China, South
Africa have taken a pledge to work on marine plastic.
 India joined the Clean Seas campaign as it hosted World Environment
Day in June 2019, promising to eliminate all single-use plastics by
2022.
 Kenya banned the plastic bags in 2017 followed by Chile in 2018.
 New Zealand announces its ban of microbeads in personal care and
cosmetic products in 2017.
 Vanuatu becomes the first country in the world to ban plastic straws
in 2018.
‘Glowing, Glowing,  Adobe Stock is partnering with the Pantone Color Institute and
Gone’ Campaign nonprofit organization (and exclusive Adobe Stock contributor) The
Ocean Agency on a campaign called Glowing Glowing Gone to raise
awareness and support necessary to save coral reefs.
 At the end of 2018, Pantone revealed that “Living Coral” was 2019’s
color of the year.
Coral Triangle
Initiative

 The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food

Security (CTI-CFF) is a multilateral partnership of six countries.
 Countries working together to sustain extraordinary marine and
coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security,
climate change and marine biodiversity.
 Recognizing the need to safeguard the Coral Triangle’s marine and
coastal resources, Indonesian President Yudhoyono inspired other
leaders in the region to launch the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral
Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) in 2007.
  The CTI-CFF is a multilateral partnership between the governments
of Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon
Islands and Timor-Leste (the ‘CT6’).
 The Coral Triangle represents a global epicenter of marine life
abundance and diversity. Spanning only 1.6% of the planet’s oceans,
the Coral Triangle region is home to is home to the highest coral
diversity in the world with 600 corals or 76% of the world’s known
coral species.
 It contains the highest reef fish diversity on the planet with 2,500 or
37% of the world’s reef fish species concentrated in the area.
 It also a spawning and nursery ground for six species of threatened
marine turtles, endangered fish and cetaceans such as tuna and blue
whales
Global Fuel Economy  GFEI is a global partnership of expert groups which have come
Initiative (GFEI) together to support governments around the world to set policies for
cleaner and more efficient vehicles.
 GFEI promotes fuel efficiency in cars and light duty vans, through the
adoption of the cost-effective fuel efficiency technologies.
 GFEI has set a target of improving the average fuel economy (in
litres/100km terms) for the global light duty vehicle fleet by at least
50% by 2050 (what we call ‘50by50’) and by 2030 for new vehicles.
 These fuel efficiency gains would save 33Gt of CO2 by 2050 and $2
trillion by 2025, money which could be used to support the transition
to electric vehicles.
 GFEI works towards its goal of a more efficient global fleet through
three key activities: undertake research, undertake global advocacy,
and support countries as they seek policy solutions.
 GFEI has developed an 'autotool', which provides a useful resource to
share experiences.
 The initiative is global, with a focus on developed and developing
markets.
 6 Partners: UNEP, FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society,
International Transport Forum (ITF), International Energy Agency
(IEA), International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Institute
of Transportation Studies (ITS) and University of California, Davis.
 The FIA Foundation hosts the secretariat, and UNEP co-ordinates in-
country support for GFEI countries projects.
 GFEI aims to improve the fuel economy of all road vehicles - passenger
cars and light vans as well as lorries and trucks (known as heavy duty
vehicles or HDVs).
 The Initiative also works across all energy types, including internal
combustion engines, hybrids engines, and electric vehicles.
The Economics of  It is an international initiative to draw attention to the global
Ecosystems and economic benefits of biodiversity.
Biodiversity (TEEB)  In 2007, environment ministers from the G8+5 countries meeting in
Germany proposed TEEB to initiate the process of analyzing the global
economic benefit of biological diversity,
 The costs of the loss of biodiversity and the failure to take protective
measures versus the costs of effective conservation.
 In response to TEED, a global study was initiated in 2017 and was led
by Pavan Sukhdev
  Pavan Sukhdev is an Indian environmental economist whose field of
studies includes green economy and international finance.
Global Biodiversity  It is an international organisation that focuses on making scientific
Information Facility data on biodiversity available via the Internet using web services
(GBIF)  GBIF is an international network and research infrastructure funded
by the world’s governments and aimed at providing anyone,
anywhere, open access to data about all types of life on Earth.
 Data available through the GBIF portal are primarily distribution data
on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes for the world, and scientific
names data.
 The mission of the GBIF is to facilitate free and open access to
biodiversity data worldwide to underpin sustainable development.
Wildlife Enforcement  It is the brainchild of environment policy researcher Remi Chandran.
Monitoring System  It is an environmental governance project developed for assisting
(WEMS) Initiative in monitoring the effectiveness of enforcement and compliance
of wildlife law at a national level.
Alliance for Zero  Formed in 2000 and launched globally in 2005, the AZE comprises
Extinction (AZE) 100 non-governmental biodiversity conservation organizations
working to prevent species extinctions by identifying and
safeguarding sites where species evaluated to
be Endangered or Critically Endangered under IUCN criteria only exist
at one location on earth.
 It works to identify and safeguard the most important sites for
preventing global extinctions, those that have threatened species
restricted to just a single site in the world.
 Zoological survey of India (ZSI) and Ecosystems-India are partners to
this organisation.
Economics of Land • The ELD is a global initiative which aims to increase awareness of the
Degradation (ELD) benefits of sustainable land management and economic
Initiative consequences of land degradation.
• It was co-founded in 2011 by the Secretariat of the UNCCD,
the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and
Development (BMZ), the European Commission (EC).
• Economics of land degradation describes a holistic approach for
estimates of the total economic valuation of land and land based
ecosystems.
• The ELD approach covers economic, social and environmental factors
as well as the costs and benefits of sustainable land management.
• It helps countries achieve their SDGs, especially target 15: Life on
land.
International Solar • It is an Indian initiative launched by Indian PM and President of
Alliance (ISA) France on 30th Nov 2015 in Paris, on the sidelines of COP21 of
UNFCCC, with 121 solar-rich countries lying fully or partially between
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn as prospective members.
• Objective: To collectively address key common challenges to the
scaling up of solar energy in ISA member countries
• This is a Treaty-based international Organisation
• The HQ is in Gurugram, India
• ISA aims to develop cost-efficient solar technologies and applications.
It is also expected to mobilize $ 1 trillion for funding solar projects by
2030.
Africa’s Great Green • Africa’s Great Green Wall (GGW) programme to combat
Wall (GGW) desertification in the Sahel region is an important contribution
programme towards combating climate change.
• The Sahel extends south of the Sahara from Senegal in the west to
Ethiopia in the east of Africa.
• Vast areas of the formerly fertile region are now virtually uncultivated
due to droughts, poor agricultural cultivation methods as well as land
overuse due to the growing demand for food and firewood.
• The GGW programme aims to restore 100 million hectares of
degraded ecosystems across 11 countries in the region. It started in
2007 to promote sustainable development and climate change
mitigation.
• The 11 countries selected as intervention zones for the Great Green
Wall are Burkina Faso, Chad, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mali,
Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Sudan.
• The GGW offers multiple (environmental, social and economic)
benefits on an epic scale, touching on 15 of the 17 United Nations-
mandated Sustainable Development Goals.
• The project aims to restore 100 million hectares of degraded land by
2030; only four million hectares had been restored between 2007 and
2019.
• By 2030, the GGW aims to sequester 250 million tonnes of carbon,
restore 100 million hectares of currently degraded land and create 10
million jobs for the world’s poorest people.

The Global Resilience • A global coalition of 10 organisations launched the Global Resilience
Index Initiative (GRII) Index Initiative (GRII) to build a universal model for assessing
resilience to climate risks.
• The curated, open-source resource can be used in aggregated risk
management across sectors and geographies.
• It will provide a globally consistent model for the assessment of
resilience across all sectors and geographies.
• It will use cross-sector risk modelling experience, including public-
private partnerships between governments, academia, insurance and
engineering.
 • GRI will be a curated, open-source resource with many potential
applications in risk management.
• It can play an important role by creating a shared understanding of
mounting physical climate risks.
The coalition wants to achieve two immediate goals:
• Provide global open reference risk data developed using insurance risk
modelling principles.
• Provide shared standards and facilities applicable to a wide range of
uses
State of Global • A provisional report released by the World Meteorological
Climate-2021 Organisation has stated that the last seven years have been the
warmest on record and global sea-level rise accelerated since 2013,
reaching a new high in 2021.
• The report has attributed the record sea-level rise to warming up and
acidification of ocean waters.
• During COP-26, the WMO will launch the Water and Climate Coalition
to coordinate water and climate action and the Systematic
Observations Financing Facility to improve weather observations and
forecasts which are vital to climate change adaptation.
Coalition for Disaster • It is all about climate-proofing critical infrastructure in member
Resilient countries.
Infrastructure (CDRI) • The coalition is supposed to serve as a ‘knowledge centre’ where
member countries can share and learn best practices with respect to
disaster-proofing infrastructure projects.
• The coalition will not create any new infrastructure but, instead, will
work towards making existing and upcoming infrastructure in
member countries more robust and resilient so that they can
withstand climate disasters like floods, heat waves, cyclones, forest
fires, rains and other such events.
• According to CDRI estimates, every dollar invested in making
infrastructure more resilient in low and middle-income countries can
potentially save over four dollars in losses suffered when a disaster
strikes.
• The CDRI is the second international climate initiative that India has
launched. The first was the International Solar Alliance (ISA)
launched at the 2015 Paris climate change conference.
Climate Vulnerable • It is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately
Forum (CVF) affected by the consequences of global warming.
• The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a
result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental
vulnerabilities.
• These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the
current intensification of climate change, domestically and
internationally.
• The CVF was formed to increase the accountability of industrialized
nations for the consequences of global climate change. It also aims to
exert additional pressure for action to tackle the challenge, which
includes the local action by countries considered susceptible.
• The CVF was founded by the Maldives government before the 2009
United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, which
sought to increase awareness of countries considered vulnerable.
 • India is an observer member of the CVF.
High Ambition • It is an intergovernmental group of 70 countries co-chaired by Costa
Coalition (HAC) for Rica and France and by the United Kingdom as Ocean co-chair,
Nature and People championing a global deal for nature and people with the central goal
of protecting at least 30 percent of world’s land and ocean by 2030.
• The 30x30 target is a global target which aims to halt the accelerating
loss of species, and protect vital ecosystems that are the source of
our economic security.
• It was initiated at the “One Planet Summit” in Paris in January 2021
• HAC members currently include a mix of countries in the global north
and south; European, Latin American, Africa and Asia countries are
among the members. India is the first of the BRICS bloc of major
emerging economies (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) to
join the HAC.
Madrid Protocol on • The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was
Environmental signed in Madrid on October 4, 1991 and entered into force in 1998.
Protection to the It designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and
Antarctic Treaty science”.
• Today there are 38 Parties to the Protocol, who each send
representatives to the annual meetings of the Committee for
Environmental Protection, which advises the Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Meeting on Antarctic environmental issues.
• The Committee for Environmental Protection brings together
scientists, environmental managers and policy-makers from
Governments; inter-Governmental bodies; and expert non-
Governmental organisations.
• The Madrid Protocol prohibits all activities relating to mineral
resources of Antarctica, except for scientific research, and defines
conditions for any scientific or tourist activity in the area.
In its 6 annexes, it specifically lays down rules for:
• impact assessment on the environment,
• conservation of fauna and flora,
• waste disposal and waste management,
• prevention of marine pollution,
• establishment and management of protected areas by members,
• the liability regime for the damage caused to the environment.
India:
• India signed the Antarctic Treaty on 19th August 1983 and soon
thereafter received consultative status on 12th September 1983.
• The Madrid Protocol was signed by India which came into force on
14th January, 1998.
• India is one of the 29 Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty.
• India is also a member of Council of Managers of National Antarctic
Programme (COMNAP) and Scientific Committee of Antarctica
Research (SCAR).
• All these representations show the significant position that India holds
among the nations involved in Antarctic research.
• India has two active research stations; Maitri (commissioned in
1989) at Schirmacher Hills, and Bharati (commissioned in 2012) at
Larsemann Hills in Antarctica.
 • India has successfully launched 40 annual scientific expeditions to
Antarctica till date.
• With Himadri station in Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, Arctic, India now
belongs to the elite group of nations that have multiple research
stations within the Polar Regions.
Blue Flag certification • It is a globally recognised eco-label accorded on the basis of 33
stringent criteria in four major heads which are environmental
education and information, bathing water quality, environmental
management, and conservation and safety and services in the
beaches.
• The Foundation for Environment Education (FEE), Denmark, which
accords the Blue Flag certification.
• As of now, India has 12 Blue Flag certified beaches, listed below:
o Shivrajpur Beach (Gujarat)
o Ghoghla Beach (Diu, Daman & Diu)
o Kasarkod Beach (Karnataka)
o Padubidri Beach (Karnataka)
o Kappad Beach (Kerala)
o Rushikonda Beach (Andhra Pradesh)
o Golden Beach (Puri, Odisha)
o Radhanagar Beach (Andaman and Nicobar Islands)
o Pavangad Beach (Kerala)
o Eden Beach (Puducherry)
o Minicoy Thundi Beach (Lakshadweep)
o Kadmat Beach (Lakshadweep)
• The Blue Flag beach is an eco-tourism model endeavouring to provide
the tourists/beachgoers clean and hygienic bathing water, facilities, a
safe and healthy environment and sustainable development of the
area.
• The Blue Flag label is accorded by the international jury composed
of eminent members: United Nations Environment
Programme(UNEP), United Nations World Tourism Organisation
(UNWTO), Denmark-based NGO Foundation for Environmental
Education (FEE) and International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
Climate Action and • India and the United States of America (USA) launched the “Climate
Finance Mobilization Action and Finance Mobilization Dialogue (CAFMD)”.
Dialogue (CAFMD) • The CAFMD is one of the two tracks of the India-U.S. Climate and
Clean Energy Agenda 2030 partnership launched at the Leaders'
Summit on Climate in April 2021.
• CAFMD will provide both countries an opportunity to renew
collaborations on climate change while addressing the financing
aspects and deliver climate finance primarily as grants and
concessional finance, as envisaged under Paris Agreement to
strengthen climate action.
• Do You Know?
o The 2030 Agenda Partnership Accelerator is a collaborative
initiative by United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs (UN DESA) and The Partnering Initiative, in
collaboration with United Nations Office for Partnerships
 (UNOP), UN Global Compact, and the UN Development
Coordination Office.
o The initiative aims to significantly help accelerate effective
partnerships in support of the Sustainable Development
Goals.
Turtle Survival • It was formed in 2001 as an International Union for Conservation of
Alliance Nature (IUCN) partnership for sustainable captive management of
freshwater turtles and tortoises, and initially designated a Task Force
of the IUCN Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group.
• The TSA arose in response to the rampant and unsustainable harvest
of Asian turtle populations to supply Chinese markets, a situation
known as the Asian Turtle Crisis.
• The TSA works in countries where critically endangered species exist.
• TSA has grown internationally, with significant field projects or
programs in Madagascar, Myanmar, and India, and additional projects
in Belize, Colombia, and throughout Asia.
 TOPICS: LAND RESOURCES: LAND DEGRADATION, DESERTIFICATION, UNCCD ,
DEFORESTATION AND AFFORESTATION- CAMPA; DISASTER MANAGEMENT;
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE - NDMA, SENDAI FRAMEWORK

Significance of Forests:
 Forests cover more than 30% of the Earth's land surface, according to the World Wildlife Fund
(WWF).
 These forested areas produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide (CO 2).
 Forests are home to an estimated 80% of Earth's terrestrial species.
 Forests also are a source of food, medicine and fuel for more than a billion people.
 Worldwide, forests provide 13.4 million people with jobs in the forest sector, and another 41
million people have jobs related to forests.

DEFORESTATION:
 Deforestation is the purposeful clearing of forested land. Throughout history and into
modern times, forests have been razed to make space for agriculture and animal grazing, and
to obtain wood for fuel, manufacturing, and construction. Deforestation has greatly altered
landscapes around the world.
 About 2,000 years ago, 80 percent of Western Europe was forested; today the figure is 34
percent.
 In North America, about half of the forests in the eastern part of the continent were cut down
from the 1600s to the 1870s for timber and agriculture

Today, the greatest amount of deforestation is occurring in tropical rainforests, aided by extensive
road construction into regions that were once almost inaccessible.
 The world has lost about 10% of its tropical tree cover since 2000, and nearly 47,000 square
miles (121,000 square kilometers) were destroyed in 2019 alone.
 Slash-and-burn agriculture is a big contributor to deforestation in the tropics. With this
agricultural method, farmers burn large swaths of forest, allowing the ash to fertilize the land
for crops.
 Tropical forests are also cleared to make way for logging, cattle ranching, and oil palm and
rubber tree plantations.

Consequences of deforestation:
 Deforestation can result in more carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere. With
fewer trees around to take in the carbon dioxide, this greenhouse gas accumulates in the
atmosphere and accelerates global warming.
o That is because trees take in carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis, and
carbon is locked chemically in their wood. When trees are burned, this carbon returns
to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 Deforestation also threatens the world’s biodiversity.
o Tropical forests are home to great numbers of animal and plant species. When forests
are logged or burned, it can drive many of those species into extinction.
 More immediately, the loss of trees from a forest can leave soil more prone to erosion. This
causes the remaining plants to become more vulnerable to fire as the forest shifts from being
a closed, moist environment to an open, dry one.
 In the tropics, much of the deforested land exists in the form of steep mountain hillsides. The
combination of steep slopes, high rainfall, and the lack of tree roots to bind the soil can lead
to disastrous landslides that destroy fields, homes, and human lives.
  According to the United Nation's 2020 State of the World's Forests report (opens in new
tab), three-quarters of Earth’s freshwater comes from forested watersheds, and the loss of
trees can worsen water quality.
o The report also found that over half the global population relies on forested
watersheds for their drinking water as well as water used for agriculture and industry.
 Deforestation in tropical regions can also affect the way water vapor forms over the canopy,
which can reduce rainfall

Land Degradation:
 Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather conditions,
particularly drought. It is also caused by human activities that pollute or degrade the quality
of soils and land utility.

Desertification:
 Land degradation within dry land regions (arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions) is
termed as ‘desertification’.
 Desertification is a consequence of severe land degradation.
 Desertification is the process by which the biological productivity of drylands is reduced due
to natural or manmade factors. It does not mean the expansion of existing deserts.

Status of Desertification in India:

 96 million hectares or close to 29% of India’s area is undergoing degradation.
 According to the Government’s data recently presented to the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification (UNCCD), India lost 31%, or 5.65 million hectares (mha), of grassland
area in a decade.
 The extent of degraded land in India is over 105 million hectares or about 32% of India’s areas.
 India has witnessed an increase in the level of desertification in 26 of 29 states between
2003-05 and 2011-13.
 More than 80% of the country’s degraded land lies in just nine states.

Global Efforts to Check Land Degradation:

United Nations  It was established in 1994 to protect and restore our land and
Convention to Combat ensure a safer, just, and more sustainable future.
Desertification (UNCCD)  The UNCCD is the only legally binding framework set up to
address desertification and the effects of drought.
 There are 197 Parties to the Convention, including 196 country
Parties and the European Union.
 The Convention is based on the principles of participation,
partnership and decentralization
 The Convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and
dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands, where some of the
most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples can be found.
 The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the
nodal Ministry for this Convention.
The Bonn Challenge To bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded
land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Great Green Wall Initiative by Global Environment Facility (GEF), where eleven countries
in Sahel-Saharan Africa have focused efforts to fight against land
degradation and revive native plant life to the landscape.
 It aims to restore Africa’s degraded landscapes and transform
millions of lives in one of the world’s poorest regions, the Sahel.
o Sahel is a semiarid region of western and north-central
Africa extending from Senegal eastward to Sudan.
o It forms a transitional zone between the arid Sahara
(desert) to the north and the belt of humid savannas to
the south
 Once fully completed, the Wall will be the largest living
structure on the planet – an 8,000 km natural wonder of the
world stretching across the entire width of the continent.
 African countries during the UNCCCD COP14 sought global
support in terms of finance to make the Wall a reality in the
continent’s Sahel region by 2030.

Measures taken by India to Curb Desertification:

Integrated  It was launched in 1989-90.

Watershed  It aims to restore ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and
Management developing degraded natural resources with the creation of Rural
Programme Employment.
 It was named as “Haryali Guidelines” in 2003.
 Now it is subsumed under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana
(2015-16 to 2019-20)
Desert Development  It was launched in 1995 to minimize the adverse effect of drought
Programme and to rejuvenate the natural resource base of the identified desert
areas.
 It was launched for hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana
and cold desert areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
 It is implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development.
India & UNCCD  India became a signatory to the UNCCD in 1994 and ratified in
1996. India is working to restore 26 million hectares of degraded
land by 2030.
  India is working hard to achieve its national commitment on Land
Degradation Neutrality (LDN) (Sustainable Development Goal
target 15.3).
 LDN is a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources,
necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and
enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified
temporal and spatial scales and Ecosystems.
National  It has been implemented since 2000 for the afforestation of
Afforestation degraded forest lands.
Programme  It is being implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change
National Mission on  It was approved in 2014 with the objective of protecting, restoring
Green India and enhancing India’s diminishing forest cover with a deadline of
10 years.
 Governed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change.
 It has the mandate of reviving degraded forest land with a focus on
increasing forest cover & density and conserving biodiversity.
 Works towards reducing fragmentation of forests, enhancing
private public partnerships for plantations, improving schemes
based on joint forestry management etc.
Green wall of India  It will be a 1,400km long and 5km wide green belt from Gujarat to
the Delhi-Haryana border, on the lines of the “Great Green Wall”
of Africa
 The overarching objective of India’s Green Wall will be to address
the rising rates of land degradation and the eastward expansion
of the Thar desert.
 The green belt being planned from Porbandar to Panipat will help
in restoring degraded land through afforestation along the Aravali
hill range. It will also act as a barrier for dust coming from the
deserts in western India and Pakistan.
 India seeks replicate the idea as a national priority under its goal to
restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
 The green belt may not be contiguous, but would roughly cover the
entire degraded Aravali range through a massive afforestation
exercise.
CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority)
 Whenever forest land is diverted for non-forest purposes, it is mandatory under the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980 that an equivalent area of non-forest land has to be taken up for
compensatory afforestation. In addition to this, funds for raising the forest are also to be
imposed on whomsoever is undertaking the diversion.
 At the time of submission of project proposal to apply for forest clearance, the applicant must
attach an undertaking stating that they will bear the cost of compensatory afforestation as
per existing rules & scheme.
 The forest department must also provide details regarding the area identified for
afforestation. It is only after this, that the proposal goes to higher authorities for
recommendations and approval.

SC directed creation of Compensatory Afforestation Fund:

 In TN Godhavarman Vs Union of India, 2002 case the Supreme Court (SC) ordered that a
Compensatory Afforestation Fund had to be created in which all the contributions towards
compensatory afforestation and net present value of land had to be deposited.
 Therefore, Compensatory afforestation Fund (CAF) means that every time forest land is
diverted for non-forest purposes such as mining or industry, the user agency pays to this fund
certain amount for planting forests over an equal area of non-forest land, or when such land
is not available, twice the area of degraded forest land.

Creation of CAMPA:
 In April 2004, Ministry of Environment and Forests constituted ad-hoc Compensatory
Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) to overlook and manage
the CAF as directed by the SC.
 The authority was termed as the ‘custodian’ of the fund.
 Further in 2009, the government ordered that State CAMPAs had to be set up to boost
compensatory afforestation at state level and also manage Green India Fund.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 (CAF):

 Despite all these efforts, CAG report in 2013 revealed that the CAMPA funds remained
unutilised. The report stated that between 2006 and 2012, CAF with ad hoc CAMPA grew
from ₹ 1,200 crores to ₹ 23,607 crores.
 To compensate the loss of forest area and to
maintain the sustainability, the Government of
India came up with a well-defined Act, known
as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning Authority).
 The law establishes the National Compensatory
Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of
India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation
Fund under the Public Account of each state.
 The payments made for compensatory
afforestation, net present value and others
related to the project will be deposited in the
fund.
  The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the
remaining 90%.
 The funds can be used for the treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural generation,
forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation of villages from
protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training and awareness generation,
supply of wood saving devices, and allied activities.
 After the 2018 notification rules, ₹ 54,685 crores were brought to the control of central
government fund from the ad hoc CAMPA. Of this, MoEF handed over ₹ 47,436 crore rupees
to various states to take up afforestation and conservation activities as per the provisions of
CAF Act and Rules.

Do You Know?
 In April 2019, the Ministry of Environment notified that states which have a forest land of
more than 75% of their geographical area need not provide non-forest land for
compensatory afforestation. Instead, land can be taken up in states with lesser forest cover.
 Further, it was also notified that the minimum area of compensatory land should be five
hectares if the land is not contiguous to a forest.

Disaster:
 A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes that leads to sudden disruption of
normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent that available social and
economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope.
 The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) describes disaster as a
product resulting from exposure to a hazard, vulnerability of a community to such exposure
and insufficient capacity of the community to deal with the adverse consequences due to such
exposure.
 Thus, disaster risk involves the presence of three variables, i.e., hazards, vulnerability and
insufficient coping capacity

Classification of Disasters:
 Natural disasters are sudden ecological disruptions or threats that exceed
the adjustment capacity of the affected community and require external
Natural assistance. They can be further classified into
Disasters o Geophysical relate to earth phenomena such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions;
o Hydrological: caused by abnormal water cycle such as floods
 oMeteorological: caused due to atmospheric processes like such as
hurricanes, storm, lightening etc
o Climatological: caused by long term natural processes like rise in sea
level, droughts, Glacial Lake Outburst Flood
o Biological: caused by bioactive substances such as epidemics.
 Disasters are also caused by some human activities.
 Bhopal Gas tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disaster, wars, release of CFCs
(Chlorofluorocarbons) and increase of greenhouse gases, environmental
Man Made pollutions like noise, air, water and soil are some of the disasters which
Disasters are caused directly by human actions.
 Landslides and floods due to deforestation, unscientific land use and
construction activities in fragile areas are some of the disasters that are the
results of indirect human actions.

Vulnerability:
 The term vulnerability implies the possibility of being harmed.
 UNISDR explains the vulnerability as “a set of prevailing or consequential conditions arising
from various physical, social, economic and environmental factors, which increase the
susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards”.

Causes of Vulnerability:
Environmental  The environmental factors causing vulnerability include: Natural
Factors resource degradation; Pollution; Permanent loss of biodiversity; Climate
change and Loss of resilience of ecosystems.
 Most of the environmental hazards are caused by overexploitation of
the natural resources, Urbanisation and Industrialisation.
 Example: Degraded coral reefs and mangrove swamps in a few areas
worsened the impact of tsunami on victims, which could otherwise have
absorbed the energy of tsunami surge
Infrastructural  Poor infrastructure exposes people to hazards like landslide, flood, fire,
Factors disease and epidemics
 Infrastructural factors include aspects like suitable land (for housing,
agriculture, etc.), land use planning (rules related to not building houses
in flood plains and wetland areas, etc.), housing design, dense and
unplanned settlement, accessibility to roads, standard material for
building houses, bridges, roads, etc.
Social Factors  Social factors like high level of education, training, information
availability, social cohesiveness, strong cultural beliefs, etc., determine
the vulnerability of the society.
 If people do not have access to early warning, knowledge and training for
how to react in times of distress, the impact of the hazard escalates
enormously.
 Certain groups like women, orphan, old people are more vulnerable than
others
 Also, due to the lack of social cohesion, especially in urban areas often
civil conflicts (like communal riots) occur due to religious, social or
economic differences.
Economic Factors  The economic status of the society is directly linked to the standard of
life, property and infrastructure, and capacity to deal with disasters.
  All disaster studies have established that rich societies either survive or
recover quickly from disasters
Political Factors  Exposure to hazard is strongly linked to decision making and
development process.
 Since, the state is a key player in disaster risk reduction, political will is
fundamental in disaster risk management.
 Favourable political vision towards disaster risk management influences
the development plan and the manner in which vulnerability can be
reduced.

Vulnerability Profile of India:

India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of disasters.
 Around 59% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity.
About 12% (over 40 million hectares) of its land is prone to floods and river erosion.
 Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones and tsunamis.
 68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts; and, the hilly areas are at risk from
landslides and avalanches.
 Moreover, India is also vulnerable to chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN)
emergencies and other man-made disasters.
 Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to
changing demographics and socio-economic conditions, unplanned urbanization,
development within high-risk zones, environmental degradation, climate change, geological
hazards, epidemics and pandemics.
Disaster risk is the interplay of hazard and vulnerability.
 Hazards in themselves are innocuous. It is only when a society is exposed to the hazard and
is unable to withstand the adverse effects of such hazard using its own capacity, disaster risk
results
Disaster Risk = (Vulnerability × Hazard)/Capacity

Disaster Management:
 Disasters are bound to happen. In order to overcome the losses due to disaster, we need to
make systematic efforts towards disaster risk reduction.
 The modern day disaster risk management focuses on Total Risk Management (TRM), which
includes both pre-disaster and post-disaster planning and preparedness.
 The disaster risk management has two objectives:
o to generate resilience towards hazards
o to ensure that development works do not increase vulnerability.
 Disaster Risk Management implies the systematic process of using administrative decisions,
organisation, operational skills, and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping
capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and
related environmental and technological disasters.
 There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:
Before a Disaster To reduce the potential for human, material, or environmental losses
caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimised when
disaster strikes
Pre-Disaster risk reduction includes:
Mitigation  To eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of
hazards through proactive measures taken before
an emergency or disaster occurs.
 In mitigation phase, focus is on long term measures
to reduce or eliminate disaster risk.
 Structural Mitigation includes building such
infrastructure which reduces the intensity of
disaster. Example: Preparing building codes,
demarcating hazardous zones, making homes
earthquake proof, wind proof, building sand bag
barriers for flood, etc.
 Non-Structural Mitigation includes carrying out
non-physical activities like public education,
training, insurance, planning, discussion etc.
Preparedness To take steps to prepare and reduce the effects of
disasters. It implies capacity building to deal with
disaster situations. It includes:
 Communication plan/infrastructure (information,
contact list, etc.)
 Maintenance of supplies and building inventory
Availability of emergency services (ambulance,
fire fighters, social workers, etc.)
 Multi-agency coordination and chain of command
 Development of early warning systems
 Evaluation plan/training/procedure
 Mitigation measures merely reduce the vulnerability of the population.
Disaster preparedness goes one step ahead and involves preparing the
community and emergency services to respond in actual cases of disaster
During a Disaster  To ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to
alleviate and minimise suffering
 Rescue: Providing warning, evacuation, search, rescue, providing
immediate assistance.
 Relief: To respond to communities who become victims of disaster,
providing relief measures such as food packets, water, medicines,
temporary accommodation, relief camps etc.
After a Disaster  Recovery: This stage emphasises upon recovery of victims of
disaster, recovery of damaged infrastructure and repair of the
damages caused.
 The objective of this stage is to achieve rapid and durable recovery
which does not reproduce the original vulnerable conditions

Organisations related to Disaster Management Framework at Global level:

 In 1994 the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction was held in Yokohama, Japan.
 The conference adopted the Yokohama strategy and declared the decade 1990-2000 as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) is the successor to the secretariat
of IDNDR and was created in 1999 to implement UN Disaster Risk Reduction strategy.
 The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) is a 10-year plan (2005-2015) to make the world safer
from natural hazards. Priorities such as, Disaster risk reduction, identification, assessment
through legal and policy frameworks, disaster preparedness and use of innovation was
adopted.
 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, is the successor instrument
to the Hyogo Framework. It is a non-binding agreement, which the signatory nations,
including India, will attempt to comply with on a voluntary basis.
 There are three international agreements within the context of the post- 2015 development
agenda. These are:
o The Sendai Framework.
o Sustainable Development Goals 2015-2030
o The Paris agreement (COP 21) on Climate Change.

Sendai Framework:
 It was adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction,
held from March 14 to 18, 2015 in Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
 The present Framework applies to risk
of small-scale and large-scale,
frequent and infrequent, sudden &
slow-onset disasters caused by
natural or man-made hazards, as well
as related environmental,
technological and biological hazards
and risks.
 It aims to guide the multi hazard
management of disaster risk in
development at all levels as well as
within and across all sectors.
Organisations and Policies related to Disaster Management Framework at National level:
 The Disaster Management Act, 2005 has provided the legal and institutional framework for
disaster management in India at the national, state and district levels.
 In the federal polity of India, the primary responsibility of Disaster management vests with
the state government.
 The central government lays down the plans, policies and guidelines and provides technical,
financial and logistical support while the district administration carries out most of the
operations in collaboration with central and state level agencies.

National Disaster  It is established under the Disaster Management Act 2005.

Management Authority  The objective of NDMA is, to build a safer and disaster resilient
of India (NDMA) India by a holistic, proactive, technology driven and sustainable
development strategy.
 The NDMA is chaired by the Prime Minister of India and has a vice
chairman with the status of Cabinet Minister and eight members
with the status of Ministers of State.
 The NDMA Secretariat is headed by a Secretary and deals with
mitigation, preparedness, plans, reconstruction, community
awareness and financial and administrative aspects.
National Executive  NEC is constituted under Section 8 of DM Act, 2005 to assist the
Committee (NEC) NDMA in the performance of its functions.
 Union Home secretary is its ex-officio chairperson.
 NEC has been given the responsibility to act as the coordinating
and monitoring body for disaster management, to prepare a
National Plan, monitor the implementation of National Policy etc.
National Disaster  NDRF is the specialized force for disaster response which works
response force (NDRF) under the overall supervision and control of NDMA.
 At present, National Disaster Response Force consist of 12
battalions, three each from the BSF and CRPF and two each from
CISF, ITBP and SSB.
 Each battalion have 18 self-contained specialist search and rescue
teams of 45 personnel each including engineers, technicians,
electricians, dog squads and paramedics.
 The total strength of each battalion is 1,149.
 All the 12 battalions have been equipped and trained to respond
natural as well as man-made disasters.
 Battalions are also trained and equipped for response during
chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) emergencies.
National Institute of  NIDM has the mandate of human resource development and
Disaster Management capacity building for disaster management within the broad
(NIDM) policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA.
 It is located at New Delhi
National Disaster  It was released in 2016, it is the first ever national plan prepared in
Management Plan the country for disaster management.
(NDMP)  With National Disaster Management Plan (2016) India has aligned
its National plan with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030, to which India is a signatory.
 The objective of the plan is to make India disaster resilient, achieve
substantial disaster risk reduction.
 It aims to significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and
assets in terms of economic, physical, social, cultural, and
environmental. To maximize the ability to cope with disasters at all
levels of administration as well as among communities.
State Disaster  At State level, State Disaster Management Authorities are
Management Authority established under Disaster Management Act 2005
(SDMA)  SDMA is chaired by the Chief Minister of the State and has not
more than eight members who are appointed by CM.
 The SDMA prepares the state disaster management plan and
implements the National Disaster Management Plan.
 State Executive Committee (SEC)- Headed by the Chief Secretary
of the state, SEC has the responsibility for coordinating and
monitoring the implementation of the National Policy, the National
Plan and the State Plan as provided under the DM Act.
District Disaster  Under DM Act 2005, every State government shall establish a
Management Authority DDMA for every district in State.
(DDMA)  The DDM Authority shall consist of:
o Chairperson - the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy
Commissioner act as Chairperson of DDMA.
 o Co-Chairperson - is the elected representative of the local
authority. In the Tribal Areas, the Chief Executive Member of
the district council of autonomous district is the co-chairperson
o Further in district, where Zila Parishad exists, its Chairperson
shall be the Co-Chairperson of DDMA.
 There are not more than seven other members in DDMA.
 The Disaster Management Committee governed under District
Magistrate will formulate village level disaster management plans
for concern villages.
 The DDMA makes District Disaster Management Plan and
implements the state Disaster Management Plan.
 The District Authority also has the power to examine the
construction in any area in the district to enforce the safety
standards and to arrange for relief measures and respond to the
disaster at the district level.
National Disaster  National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) was renamed as
Response Fund National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) with the enactment of
the Disaster Management Act in 2005.
 It is placed in the “Public Account” of Government of India
under “reserve funds not bearing interest”.
 It is managed by the Central Government for meeting the
expenses for emergency response, relief and rehabilitation due to
any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
 It supplements the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) in case of
a disaster of severe nature, provided adequate funds are not
available in the SDRF.
 The Centre contributes 75% of the SDRF allocation for general
category States and Union Territories, and 90% for special
category States/UTs (northeast States, Sikkim, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir).
 NDRF is financed through the levy of a cess on certain
items, chargeable to excise and customs duty, and approved
annually through the Finance Bill.
 Department of Agriculture and Cooperation under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmer Welfare monitors relief activities for
calamities associated with drought, hailstorms, pest attacks and
cold wave/frost while rest of the natural calamities are
monitored by the Ministry of Home Affairs.
 CAG audits the accounts of NDRF.
 In July 2020, Central Government has allowed contributions from
any person or institution in the National Disaster Response Fund
(NDRF) as per Section 46(1)(b) of the Disaster Management (DM)
Act, 2005.
 Disaster Risk Reduction in Sustainable Development Goals:

Goal 1 Target 1.5, which relates to building the resilience of the poor, further strengthens the
position of disaster risk reduction as a core development strategy for ending extreme
poverty.
Goal 2 Target 2.4 supports the immediate need to advance actions in mainstreaming disaster
risk reduction and climate adaptation into agriculture sector planning and investments
in order to promote resilient livelihoods, food production and ecosystems.
Goal 3 Target 3.d, relates to strengthening early warning and risk reduction of national and
global health risks presents an opportunity to further actions to promote resilient
health.
Goal 4 Target 4.7 focusing on building and upgrading education facilities and promoting
education for sustainable development, contribute significantly to resilience-building in
the education sector.’
Goal 6: Target 6.6, which relates to protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems, will
significantly contribute to strengthening the resilience of communities to water-related
hazards
Goal 9 Targets 9.1 related to developing sustainable and resilient infrastructure development
are vital not only to protect existing infrastructure but also future infrastructure
investments.
Goal 11 Action targets under this goal focusing on upgrading urban slums, integrated urban
planning, reducing social and economic impacts of disaster risk, building the resilience
of the urban poor, adopting and implementing urban policies in line with the Sendai
Framework and building sustainable and resilient urban infrastructure.
Goal 13 Target actions under this goal, focusing on strengthening resilience and adaptive
capacity, capacity building and integrating climate change measures into policies and
plans, awareness raising on climate adaptation and early warning provide opportunities
to strengthen the integration between disaster and climate resilience and to protect
broader development paths at all levels.
Goal 14: Target action 14.2, focusing on the sustainable management and protection as well as
strengthening resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems, can contribute to reducing
disaster risk and increase in demand for healthy marine and coastal ecosystems.
Goal 15 These, focus on managing and restoring forests, combating land degradation and
desertification, conserving mountain ecosystems and their biodiversity and integrating
ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development
processes, poverty reduction strategies.
TOPIC: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; RENEWABLE ENERGY; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE;
GM FOOD

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT and SDGs:

 Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently
quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report.
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
 Sustainability is the foundation for today’s leading global framework for international
cooperation – the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs).
 Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 SDGs
was adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in New York in September 2015.
 Each of the 17 SDGs has specific targets to be achieved by 2030.
 The goals and targets are universal, meaning they apply to all countries around the world,
not just poor countries. Reaching the goals requires action on all fronts – governments,
businesses, civil society and people everywhere all have a role to play.
 Now, the annual High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development serves as the
central UN platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs.
 The Division for Sustainable Development Goals (DSDG) in the United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) provides substantive
support and capacity-building for the SDGs and their related thematic issues.
Millennium Development  At the Millennium Summit in 2000 the largest gathering of
Goals (MDGs) world leaders in history adopted the UN Millennium
Declaration.
 By committing their nations to a new global partnership to
reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-
bound and quantified targets, with a deadline of 2015, that
have become known as the Millennium Development Goals.
 They are aimed at addressing extreme poverty in its many
dimensions-income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of
adequate shelter, and exclusion-while promoting gender
equality, education, and environmental sustainability. They
are also basic human rights.
 The internationally agreed framework of 8 goals and 18
targets was complemented by 48 technical indicators to
measure progress towards the Millennium Development
Goals.
 The goals were adopted in 2000 but base level for setting
targets is 1990.

UN Conference on  The objective was to produce a set of universally applicable

Sustainable Development goals that balances the three dimensions of sustainable
(Rio+20), 2012 development: the environmental, social, and economic.
 Rio+20 committed UN Member States to develop a set of
sustainable development goals (and targets and indicators)
that would be balanced, coherent and comprehensive. The
task of preparing a proposal on the SDGs and developing a set
of measurable targets and indicators was assigned to the
intergovernmental Open Working Group (OWG) of the UN
General Assembly.
 The Post-2015 Development Agenda will build on the
progress achieved through the MDGs.
UN Sustainable  It was set up in 2012 under the auspices of the UN Secretary-
Development Solutions General.
Network (SDSN)  SDSN mobilizes global scientific and technological expertise
to promote practical solutions for sustainable development,
including the implementation of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Climate Agreement.
  SDSN works closely with United Nations agencies,
multilateral financing institutions, the private sector, and civil
society.
 It promotes integrated approaches to implement the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris
Agreement on Climate Change, through education, research,
policy analysis, and global cooperation.
 The World Happiness Report is its annual publication.
United Nations Human  UN-Habitat is the United Nations agency for human
Settlements Programme settlements and sustainable urban development.
(UN-Habitat)  UN-Habitat was established in 1978 and its headquartered at
Nairobi, Kenya.
 It is mandated by the UN General Assembly to promote
socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities
with the goal of providing adequate shelter for all.
 The main documents outlining the mandate of the
organisation are the Vancouver Declaration on Human
Settlements, Habitat Agenda, Istanbul Declaration on
Human Settlements, the Declaration on Cities and Other
Human Settlements in the New Millennium, and Resolution
56/206.
 The United Nations Millennium Declaration recognises the
dire circumstances of the world’s urban poor. It articulates
the commitment of Member States to improve the lives of at
least 100 million slum dwellers by the year 2020 – Target 11
of Goal No.7 – a task mandated to UN-Habitat.
 UN-Habitat reports to the United Nations General Assembly.
 The first session of the UN-Habitat Assembly was held in
2019
 Assembly will establish UN-Habitat’s Executive Board and
elect its members. It will review and approve the UN-Habitat
Strategic Plan 2020-2025 and will also review Progress in
implementation of New Urban Agenda.
 India has been elected as an executive board member in the
first UN-Habitat Assembly.
Global Partnership for  It is a global network working together to ensure the new
Sustainable Development opportunities of the data revolution are used to achieve the
Data Sustainable Development Goals.
 It includes hundreds of partners from governments, the
private sector, and civil society organizations are joining
forces to take action, galvanize political commitment, build
trust, and spur innovation in the booming data ecosystems of
the 21st century.
United Nations Global  It is a non-binding United Nations pact to encourage
Compact businesses worldwide to adopt sustainable and socially
responsible policies, and to report on their implementation.
  It is a principle-based framework for businesses, stating ten
principles in the areas of human rights, labour, the
environment and anti-corruption.
 Under the Global Compact, companies are brought together
with UN agencies, labour groups and civil society. Cities can
join the Global Compact through the Cities Programme.
 The UN Global Compact is the world's largest corporate
sustainability (corporate social responsibility) initiative with
13000 corporate participants and other stakeholders over
170 countries with two objectives:
1. Mainstream the ten principles in business activities
around the world.
2. Catalyse actions in support of broader UN goals, such
as the MDGs and SDGs.
 The UN Global Compact and its signatories are deeply
invested and enthusiastic about supporting work towards the
SDGs.
The Landscapes for People,  It is an international collaborative effort to foster cross-
Food and Nature sectoral dialogue and action to support the widespread
practice of integrated agricultural landscape approaches.
 The Initiative supports an approach to rural landscape
management that seeks to integrate food production,
biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, and enhancement
of rural livelihoods.
 The Initiative is led by a coalition of leading agriculture and
environment organizations including: Bioversity
International; Conservation International; FAO;
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD),
World Resource Institute etc.
International Institute for  It is an independent think tank founded in 1990.
Sustainable  The institute has offices in Winnipeg, Ottawa, New York City,
Development (IISD) and Geneva. It has over 100 staff and associates working in
over 30 countries.
Cape Town Global Action  Plan for Sustainable Development Data Prepared by the
Plan High-level Group for Partnership, Coordination and Capacity-
Building for Statistics for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development
 It was informally launched at the first UN World Data Forum
on 15 January 2017 in Cape Town South Africa, and adopted
by the United Nations Statistical Commission at its 48th
Session in March 2017.
The SEED Initiative:  The SEED Initiative inspires, supports and researches
Supporting Entrepreneurs exceptional, entrepreneurial, nascent, multi-stakeholder
for Sustainable partnerships for locally-led sustainable development.
Development
 The initiative focuses on 'business as unusual' - innovative
action delivering real solutions through project cooperation
among small and large businesses, local and international
 NGOs, women's groups, labour organisations, public
authorities and UN agencies, and others working in the field
of sustainable development.
 The SEED Initiative aims to: support outstanding and
innovative start-up entrepreneurs working in partnership in
developing countries to improve livelihoods and manage
natural resources sustainably develop practical tools to help
social and environmental entrepreneurs to scale up influence
policy-makers to create enabling environments for
sustainable development businesses inspire new
entrepreneurial ventures to deliver social and environmental
benefits.
World Business Council for  WBCSD is a global, CEO-led organization of over 200 leading
Sustainable Development businesses working together to accelerate the transition to
(WBCSD) a sustainable world.
 The Council is also connected to 60 national and regional
business councils and partner organizations.
 Its origins date back to the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit of
1992.
 The WBCSD was created in 1995 as a merger of the Business
Council for Sustainable Development and the World Industry
Council for the Environment and is based at the Maison de la
paix in Geneva, Switzerland, with offices in New York and
New Delhi.
 It helps make member companies more successful and
sustainable by focusing on the maximum positive impact for
shareholders, the environment and societies.
 WBCSD is the leading voice of business for sustainability.

RENEWABLE ENERGY:
Renewable  Wind: This takes advantage of wind motion to generate electricity.
Energy Sources o Onshore Wind Farms: operated on land, where the wind tends to
be the strongest. The turbines on the onshore wind farms are less
expensive and easier to set up.
Energy obtained
o Offshore turbines: Construction of wind farms in large bodies of
from sources
water to generate electricity. Offshore wind farms are most
that are
essentially expensive that the onshore
inexhaustible,  Solar: Taps heat from the sun to produce energy for generation of
unlike, for electricity, heating, lighting homes and commercial buildings.
example, the o Photovoltaic electricity: It absorbs the direct sunlight and
fossil fuels, of generate electricity
which o Solar thermal electricity: The solar collector has a mirrored
there is a finite surface which reflects the sunlight onto a receiver that hears up a
supply. liquid.
  Hydropower: Utilizes moving water to produce electricity. Moving
water creates high energy that can be harnessed and turned into
power.
 Biomass: Organic matter that constitutes plants is referred to as
biomass, which can be utilized to generate electricity, chemicals or
fuels to power vehicles.
 Tidal Energy: Can be generated from tides by creating the reservoir
or basin behind a barrage and the passes the tidal waters through the
turbines in the barrage to generate electricity.
 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the ocean
thermal gradient between cooler deep and warmer shallow or
surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce useful work,
usually in the form of electricity.
 Geothermal: Leverages heat from underneath the earth to generate
electricity.
Renewable  Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) has stated that
Energy(RE) India will achieve 40% cumulative Electric power capacity from non-
Targets fossil fuel-based energy resources.
 GoI has set a target of achieving 227 GW (Earlier it was 175 GW) of
renewable energy capacity by 2022. This includes:
o Solar (utility-scale, distributed, off-grid/mini-grid – 115 GW)
o Wind (utility-scale – 66 GW)
o Floating solar and offshore wind power (31 GW).
o Small hydro (5 GW)
o Bioenergy (10 GW)
Advantages of RE: Disadvantages of RE:
 Renewable energy won’t run out.  Higher upfront cost.
 Renewable energy is eco-friendly.  Intermittency - Though RE
 Renewable energy is a reliable resources are available
source of energy. around the world, many of
 Renewable energy has stabilized these resources aren’t
global energy prices. available 24/7, year-
 Maintenance requirements are round.
lower.  Storage capabilities.
 Renewables lower reliance on  Geographic limitations.
foreign energy sources.  The electricity generation
 Renewable energy has numerous capacity is still not large
health and environmental benefits. enough.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:
National Clean Energy  A fund created in 2010-11 using the carbon tax - clean
Fund energy cess, for funding research and innovative projects in
clean energy technologies of public sector or private sector
entities, upto the extent of 40% of the total project cost.
 The Fund has been created out of cess on coal produced /
imported under the “polluter pays” principle.
  Clean energy cess collected from coal at the rate of Rs 400
per tonne of coal.
 Assistance is available as a loan or as a viability gap funding,
as deemed fit by the Inter-Ministerial group, which decides
on the merits of such projects.
 The Fund is designed as a non-lapsable fund under Public
Accounts and with its secretariat in Department of
Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
 An Inter-Ministerial Group, chaired by the Finance
Secretary in Ministry of Finance recommends projects
eligible for funding under NCEF.
Jawaharlal Nehru  One of the 8 missions under NAPCC with a objective of the
National Solar Mission National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader
in solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for its
diffusion across the country as quickly as possible.
Sustainable rooftop  Aims to bring DISCOMs to the forefront in the
implementation of Solar implementation of rooftop solar projects by providing
transfiguration of India them financial support.
(SRISTI) scheme  The scheme shall integrate DISCOMs as an implementing
agency in Phase II of rooftop solar scheme.
 Central Financial Assistance will be provided only for
installation of roof top solar plants in residential sector.
 The residential users may install the plant of capacity as per
their requirement and the regulations of respective state
electricity regulatory commission. But the subsidy support
will be limited up to 5 kW capacity of plant
 The proposed scheme has set sector wise targets – with
commercial and industrial sector to set 20,000 MW and the
government, residential, social and institutional sector to
set up 5000 MW.
National Green Corridor  For evacuation of renewable energy from generation points
Programme to the load centres by creating intra-state and inter-state
transmission infrastructure.
 The intra-state transmission component of the project is
being implemented by the respective states and the Power
Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL) is implementing inter-
state transmission component.
Other schemes  Off Grid and Decentralised Solar PV Applications
Programme
 Small Hydropower Programme
 National Off-Shore Wind Policy
 Suryamitra Programme to prepare qualified workforce.
 Renewable purchase obligation for large energy consumer
customers.
BIOFUELS:

Biofuels: First generation biofuels -made from food

sources such as sugar, starch, vegetable oil.
Any hydrocarbon fuel that E.g. Biodiesel, Biogas.
is produced from an Second generation biofuels - produced from
organic matter (living or non-food crops or portions of food crops.
Categories:
once living material) in a E.g. cellulose ethanol, biodiesel.
short period of time (days, Third generation biofuels - produced from
weeks, or even months) is micro-organisms like algae. E.g. Butanol
considered a biofuel. Fourth Generation Biofuels - crops that are
Biofuels may be solid, genetically engineered used in production.
liquid or gaseous in nature.  Availability and renewability
 Solid: Wood, dried  Clean and less polluting
plant material, and Advantages:
 Economic stimulation
manure  Non-toxic & Biodegradable
 Liquid: Bioethanol and
 Energy security
Biodiesel
 Food security at stake
 Gaseous: Biogas Disadvantages:
 High water use
 Less competitive with other alternative

INITIATIVES TAKEN:
GOBAR (Galvanizing  Aims to positively impact village cleanliness and generate
Organic Bio-Agro wealth and energy from cattle and organic waste.
Resources) DHAN  The scheme focuses on managing and converting cattle
scheme, 2018 dung and solid waste in farms to useful compost, biogas
and bio-CNG.
 It will also help in keeping the village clean while increasing
income of farmers and cattle herders.
 The scheme will be hugely beneficial for country as India is
home to highest cattle population in world (around 300
million in number) which produces around 3 million tonnes
of dung.
 It will encourage farmers to consider dung and other waste
not just as waste but as source of income.
 The scheme will provide many benefits to rural people by
keeping villages clean and sanitized, improving livestock
health and increasing farm yields.
 Under it, biogas generation will help to increase self-
reliance in energy utilized for cooking and lighting.
 The scheme will augment income of farmers and cattle
herders. It will create new opportunities for jobs linked to
waste collection, transportation, biogas sales etc.
 It will also provide stable fuel supply in market for oil
companies and accessible credit in market through
government schemes and banks for entrepreneurs.
  Under it, villagers will be mobilized to create self-help
groups (SHGs) and creative societies that will help in clean
energy and green jobs initiative.
 Gram panchayats will play key role in implementation of
this scheme under which bio-gas plants from cattle dung
will be set up at individual or community level and also at
level of Self Help Groups (SHGs) and NGOs like Gaushalas.
 The central and state governments will provide funds in
the ratio of 60:40, which will depend upon the number of
households in villages.
 They will also provide assistance of experts for setting up
the plants.
National Policy on Salient Features:
Biofuels, 2018  Categorization: The Policy categorises biofuels as ‘Basic
Biofuels’ viz. 1G bioethanol & biodiesel and ‘Advanced
Biofuels’ –2G ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to
drop-in fuels, 3G biofuels, bio-CNG etc. to enable extension

of appropriate financial and fiscal incentives under each

category.
 Scope of raw materials: The Policy expands the scope of
raw material for ethanol production by allowing use of
Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet,
Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials like Corn,
Cassava, Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice,
Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human consumption for ethanol
production.
 Protection to farmers: Farmers are at a risk of not getting
appropriate price for their produce during the surplus
production phase. Taking this into account, the Policy
allows use of surplus food grains for production of ethanol
for blending with petrol with the approval of National
Biofuel Coordination Committee.
 Viability Gap Funding: With a thrust on Advanced Biofuels,
the Policy indicates a viability gap funding scheme for 2G
ethanol Bio refineries of Rs.5000 crore in 6 years in
addition to additional tax incentives, higher purchase
price as compared to 1G biofuels.
 Boost to biodiesel production: The Policy encourages
setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel
 production from non-edible oilseeds, Used Cooking Oil,
short gestation crops.
 It envisages an indicative target of 20% blending of ethanol
in petrol and 5% blending of bio-diesel in diesel by 2030.
Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN  Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN (Jaiv Indhan- Vatavaran Anukool
Yojana, 2019 fasal awashesh Nivaran) Yojana
 The objective of the scheme is to create an ecosystem for
setting up commercial projects and boost to Research and
Development in 2G Ethanol sector.
 Under the scheme funds have been allocated for supporting
12 Commercial projects, 10 Demonstration Projects:
o Phase-I (2018-19 to 2022-23) 6 Commercial and 5
demonstration projects will be supported.
o Phase-II (2020-21 to 2023-24) Remaining 6 Commercial
and 5 demonstration projects will be supported.
 The ethanol produced by the scheme beneficiaries will be
mandatorily supplied to Oil Marketing Companies
(OMCs) to further enhance the blending percentage under
Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP).
 Centre for High Technology (CHT), a technical body under
the aegis of MoP&NG, will be the implementation Agency
for the scheme.
 It is being launched as a tool to create 2G Ethanol capacity
in the country and attract investments in this new sector.
Biomass Power and  It is implemented with the main objective of promoting
Cogeneration technologies for optimum use of country’s biomass
Programme resources for grid power generation.
 Biomass materials used for power generation include
bagasse, rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya
husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, groundnut
shells, saw dust etc.

RENEWABLE ENERGY ORGANISATIONS/INITIATIVES:

Ministry of New and  MNRE is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India
Renewable Energy for all matters relating to new and renewable energy.
(MNRE)  The broad aim of the Ministry is to develop and deploy
new and renewable energy for supplementing the energy
requirements of the country.
The Indian Renewable  IREDA is a Non-Banking Financial Institution under the
Energy Development administrative control of this Ministry for providing term
Agency (IREDA) loans for renewable energy and energy efficiency
projects.
 It is a Mini Ratna (Category – I) Government of India
Enterprise with the motto: “ENERGY FOR EVER”.
 Main objectives:
 To give financial support to specific projects and schemes
for generating electricity and / or energy through new and
renewable sources and conserving energy through energy
efficiency.
 To increase IREDA`s share in the renewable energy
sector by way of innovative financing.
Solar Energy Corporation  SECI is a CPSU under the administrative control of MNRE,
of India Ltd (SECI) set up in 2011 to facilitate the implementation of
National Solar Mission (JNNSM).
 Then converted into a Section-3 company under the
Companies Act, 2013. The mandate of the company has
also been broadened to cover the entire renewable
energy domain.
 It is the only CPSU dedicated to the solar energy sector.
 The company is responsible for implementation of a
number of schemes of MNRE, major ones being the
Viability Gap Funding schemes for large-scale grid-
connected projects under JNNSM, Solar Park Scheme and
grid-connected solar rooftop scheme.
 The company will be renamed to Renewable Energy
Corporation of India (RECI).
 SECI is the Renewable Energy ministry's nodal agency
responsible for conducting wind and solar auctions.
International Solar  The ISA, is an Indian initiative that was launched by the
Alliance (ISA) Prime Minister of India and the President of France on
30th November 2015 in Paris, France on the side-lines of
the Conference of the Parties (COP-21), with 121 solar
resource rich countries lying fully or partially between the
tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn as prospective
members.
 The overarching objective of the ISA is to collectively
address key common challenges to the scaling up of solar
energy in ISA member countries.
 The Government of India has allotted 5 acres of land to
the ISA in National Institute of Solar Energy
(NISE) campus, Gurugram and has released a sum of Rs.
160 crore for creating a corpus fund, building
infrastructure and meeting day to day recurring
expenditure of the ISA up to the year 2021-22.
 Till now, 81 countries of the 121 prospective member
countries have signed the Framework Agreement of the
ISA. Of these, 58 countries have ratified the same.
 The Assembly is the supreme decision-making body of
the ISA, and gives directions on various administrative,
financial and programme related issues.
  During the first Assembly of the ISA, an Indian resolution
to extend the Membership of the organisation to all
countries that are Members of the United Nations was
adopted.
 For building domestic capacity of the ISA member
countries, following programmes have been launched in
1st assembly in 2018.
o STAR C is a Solar Technology Application Resource
Centre project.
o Infopedia is an online platform dedicated to the
dissemination of information, best practices and
knowledge on Solar Energy.
 The ISA sent country missions to eight countries over the
course of 2019 in order to understand the challenges and
issues ‘on the ground’.
 India (represented by the Minister for New and
Renewable Energy and Power) is the President
and France is the Co-President of the ISA Assembly.
Global Solar Council  It is the voice of the world’s solar energy industry, a non-
profit body based in Washington D.C. representing
national, regional and international associations as well as
leading solar sector corporations.
 The International Solar Energy Society (ISES) is a founding
member of the Global Solar Council, launched at the COP
21 climate change meeting in Paris.
 The world’s leading regional and national solar
associations have come together to accelerate the uptake
of solar technology across the globe.
 In 2015, solar accounted for about 1% of global power
generation, GSC is targeting 10% global solar power by
2030.
International Renewable  IRENA is an intergovernmental organisation that
Energy Agency (IRENA) supports countries in their transition to a sustainable
energy future.
 It serves as the principal platform for international
cooperation, a centre of excellence, and a repository of
policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on
renewable energy.
 IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and
sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy.
 It also facilitates knowledge sharing and technology
transfer to provide clean, sustainable energy for the
world’s growing population.
 With more than 180 countries actively engaged, IRENA
promotes renewable resources and technologies as the
 key to a sustainable future and helps countries achieve
their renewable energy potential.
 India is a member agency.
International Energy  Autonomous intergovernmental organization located
Agency (IEA) in Paris.
 Established in 1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis.
 The IEA acts as a policy adviser to its member states, but
also works with non-member countries,
especially China, India, and Russia.
 IEA is a grouping of major oil-importing countries which
was created in 1974 by the members of the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
 All the OECD member states except for Chile, Iceland,
Israel, Mexico and Slovenia are members of IEA.
 India has become an associate member of IEA.
 Presently it has 30 member countries including India.
 The Agency’s mandate has broadened to focus on the
“3Es” of effectual energy policy: energy security,
economic development, and environmental protection.
 The IEA has a broad role in promoting alternate
energy sources (including renewable energy), rational
energy policies, and multinational energy technology co-
operation.
 IEA releases World Energy Outlook.
Renewable Energy Policy  REN21 is a think tank and a multistakeholder governance
Network for the 21st group which is focused on renewable energy policy.
Century (REN21)  REN21's goal is to facilitate policy development,
knowledge exchange, and joint action towards a rapid
global transition to renewable energy.
 REN21 brings together governments, non-governmental
organisations, research and academic institutions,
international organisations, and industry to learn from
one another and advance the adoption of renewable
energy.
 The REN21 Secretariat is based at UN Environment in
Paris, France, and is a registered non-profit
association under German law.
 REN21 convenes International Renewable Energy
Conference.
Biofuture Platform  The Biofuture Platform is a 20-country effort to promote
an advanced low carbon bioeconomy that is sustainable,
innovative and scalable.
 The Biofuture Platform aims to be an action-oriented,
country-led, multistakeholder mechanism for policy
dialogue and collaboration among leading countries,
organizations, academia and the private sector conscious
 of the need to accelerate development and scale up
deployment of modern sustainable low carbon
alternatives to fossil based solutions in transport,
chemicals, plastics and other sectors.
 Mission: to accelerate the transition to a sustainable, low
carbon, global bioeconomy.
 The ultimate purpose of the Biofuture Platform is to help
in the global fight against climate change, nurturing
solutions in low carbon transport and the bioeconomy
that can aid countries to reach their Nationally
Determined Contribution targets (NDCs), as well as to
contribute towards the SDGs.
 India is a member country.

GM CROPS:

Genetically Modified Organism (Transgenic Organism):

 In Genetically Modified Organism, genetic material (DNA) is altered or artificially
introduced using genetic engineering techniques.
 Genetic modification involves the mutation, insertion, or deletion of genes.
 Inserted genes usually come from a different organism (Eg. In Bt cotton, Bt genes from
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are induced).
 Genetic modification is done to induce a desirable new trait which does not occur
naturally in the species.

Benefits of GMO: Concerns or issues involved in GMO:

On Crops: Safety issues:
 Enhanced taste and quality.  Potential human health impact: allergens,
 Reduced maturation time. transfer of antibiotic resistance markers,
 Increased nutrients, yields, and stress unknown effects.
tolerance.  Potential environmental impact:
 Improved resistance to disease, pests, unintended transfer of transgenes
and herbicides. through cross pollination, unknown
 New products and growing effects on other organisms and loss of
techniques. biodiversity.
On Animals:  Criticism against Anti-GM lobby
 Increased resistance, productivity, Access and intellectual property:
hardness, and feed efficiency.  Oligopoly in world food production
 Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk.  Increasing dependence on industrialized
 Improved animal health and diagnostic nations by developing countries.
 Biopiracy — foreign exploitation of natural
methods.
On Society: resources.
 Increased food security for growing Other issues:
 Mixing GM crops with non-GM
population.
On Environment: compounds labeling attempts.
  Friendly bioherbicides and  The ineffectiveness of BT cotton against
bioinsecticides. whitefly attack in Punjab and Haryana.
 Conservation of soil, water and  The ban on GM crops promoting an illegal
energy. market to flourish.
 Bioprocessing for forestry products.  GMO have already entered the food chain.
 Better natural waste management.  Illegal cultivation (Farmer’s rights vs.
Government Regulation)

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE:
 The concept of sustainable agriculture gained prominence since the publication of
the Brundtland Report in 1987.
 Sustainable Agriculture involves the processes that would enable to meet the current and
long-term societal needs for food, fiber and other resources, while maximizing benefits
through the conservation of natural resources and maintenance of ecosystem functions.
 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) will cater to key dimensions of
‘Water use efficiency’, ‘Nutrient Management’ and ‘Livelihood diversification’ through
adoption of sustainable development pathway.
 Some of the methods of Sustainable Agriculture are:
o Crop Rotation: It involves the systematic planting of different crops in a particular
order over several years in the same growing space. It helps in maintaining
nutrients in the soil, reducing soil erosion, and preventing plant diseases and
pests.
o Planting cover crops: Cover crops are planted during lean season times when soils
might otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by
preventing erosion, replenishing soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check,
reducing the need for herbicides.
o Biodynamic agriculture: It considers farm as a living system. The system puts great
emphasis on the integration of animals to create a closed nutrient cycle, effect of
crop planting dates in relation to the calendar, and awareness of spiritual forces
in nature.
o Bio-intensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM): It emphasizes the prevention
of pest problems with crop rotation; the reintroduction of natural, disease-
fighting microbes into plants/soil, and release of beneficial organisms that prey on
the pests. Chemical pesticides are not used.
o LEISA (Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture): It uses low synthetic
fertilizers or pesticides. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on
cultural practices, IPM, and utilization of on-farm resources and management.
o Permaculture: The concept of permaculture was developed by Bill Mollison and
David Holmgren in the 70s and early 80s. It is the design and maintenance of
agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and
resilience of natural ecosystems.
o Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) is a set of farming methods, and also a
grassroots peasant movement, which has spread to various states in India.
 ZBNF is based on 4 pillars:
 o Conservation Agriculture is a farming system that promotes minimum soil
disturbance (i.e. no tillage), maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification
of plant species.
 Three principles of Conservation Agriculture:
o Minimum mechanical soil disturbance - (i.e. no tillage) through direct seed
and/or fertilizer placement.
o Permanent soil organic cover - (at least 30 percent) with crop
o Species diversification through varied crop sequences and associations
involving at least three different crops.

ORGANIC FARMING:
 It is a type of farming which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such
as fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock
additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection.
 India's first 100% organic state Sikkim has won the 'Oscar for best policies', conferred by
the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) for the world's best policies promoting agro-
ecological and sustainable food systems.

Key characteristics:
 It relies on traditional techniques
such as crop rotation, green
manure, compost and biological.
 It protects the long-term fertility
of soils by maintaining organic
Matter levels and encouraging soil
biological activity. It often
involves vermiculture and
vermicomposting too.
 The biological processes, driven
by mycorrhiza, allow the natural
production of nutrients in soil
throughout growing season.
 Legumes are planted to fix nitrogen into the soil. It allows nitrogen self-sufficiency
through biological nitrogen fixation.

Benefits of Organic Farming:

 Disease and Pest Resistance, Weed Competitiveness, Lower Input Costs, Drought
Resistance, Added Value.

Limitations:
 Organic manure is not abundantly available.
 On plant nutrient basis it may be more expensive than chemical fertilizers if organic inputs
are purchased.
 Production in organic farming declines especially during first few years, so the farmer
should be given premium prices for organic produce.
 The guidelines for organic production, processing, transportation and certification etc are
beyond the understanding of ordinary Indian farmer.
 Marketing of organic produce is also not properly streamlined.

Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):

 It is a traditional farming improvement programme, launched in 2015.
 Is an elaborated component of Soil Health Management (SHM) of major project National
Mission of Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
 PKVY aims at supporting and promoting organic farming, reduction in dependence on
fertilizers and agricultural chemicals, in turn, resulting in improvement of the soil health
while increasing the yields. Organic food, thus produced will be linked with modern
marketing tools and local markets.
 PKVY is being implemented by the Organic Farming cell of the Integrated Nutrient
Management (Division) of Department of Agriculture; Cooperation and Farmers Welfare
(DAC&FW).
 Under PKVY Organic farming is promoted through adoption of organic village by cluster
approach and PGS certification.

National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP):

 NPOP grants organic farming certification through a process of third party certification.
 It involves the accreditation programme for Certification Bodies, standards for organic
production, promotion of organic farming etc.
 It is implemented by Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development
Authority (APEDA), Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
 The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by
the European Commission, Switzerland and USA as equivalent to their respective
accreditation systems.

Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS):

 PGS is another process of certifying organic products.
 The certification is in the form of a documented logo or a statement.
 It is implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare.
 The organic farmers have full control over the certification process.
 PGS certification is only for farmers or communities that can organise and perform as
a group. Individual farmers or groups of farmers smaller than five members are not
covered under PGS.
 PGS is applicable to on-farm activities comprising of crop production, processing and
livestock rearing and and off-farm processing of their direct products under their
supervision.
 Off-farm processing activities such as storage, transport and value addition activities by
persons/agencies other than PGS farmers away from the group are not covered under
PGS.
 Organic foods are also required to comply with the requirements of labelling of FSSAI in
addition to that of NPOP or PGS-India.