By

Dr Jay Shastri
 The forebrain
◦ Neocortex
◦ Basal Ganglia
◦ Limbic System

 The Brain stem

◦ Diencephalon
◦ Mid brain
◦ Hind brain
 The human neocortex can be as large as 2500
square centimeters in area, but its thickness is
only 1.5 to 3.0 millimeters.
 It consists of six layers of cells (gray matter) and
is heavily wrinkled.
 Two nearly symmetrical cerebral hemispheres,
left and right, separated by the longitudinal
fissure and each subdivided into four lobes:
frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
 The frontal lobes are bounded posteriorly by
the central sulcus, inferiorly by the lateral
fissure, and medially by the cingulate sulcus.
 The anterior boundary of the parietal lobes is
the central sulcus, and their inferior boundary
is the lateral fissure.
 The temporal lobes are bounded dorsally by
the lateral fissure.
 On the lateral surface of the brain, no definite
boundaries separate the occipital lobes from
the parietal and temporal lobes.
 A cleft is called a fissure if it extends deeply
enough into the brain to indent the ventricles,
as do the longitudinal and lateral fissures; it
is called a sulcus (plural, sulci) if it is
shallower.
 A ridge is called a gyrus (plural, gyri).
 Their locations and shapes vary somewhat on
the two hemispheres of a person’s brain, and
the location, size, and shape of gyri and sulci
vary substantially in the brains of different
persons.
 Three surfaces
 Superolateral surface: The superolateral
surface is convex & is related to the cranial
vault.
 Medial surface: The medial surface is flat and
vertical. It is separated from the corresponing
surface of the opposite hemisphere by
longitudinal fissure.
 Inferior surface: The Inferior surface is
irregular.
 Four Borders
◦ Superomedical border: It separates the superolateral
surface from the medial surface.
◦ Inferolateral border: It separates the superolateral
surface from the inferior surface.
◦ Medial Orbital border: It separates the medial surface
from orbital surface.
◦ Medial occipital border: It separates the medial surface
from the occipital surface.
 Each cortical lobe is associated with a specific
sense or with movement: vision in the occipital,
audition in the temporal, body senses in the
parietal, and motor functions in the frontal.
 This arrangement makes the posterior cortex
(parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes) largely
sensory and the anterior cortex (frontal lobe)
largely motor.
 Primary Areas
 Primary areas receive projections from the
major sensory systems or send motor
projections to the muscles.
 The motor cortex sends projections to
brainstem and spinal-cord motor systems.
 Nevertheless, the primary projection areas of
the neocortex are small relative to its total
size.
 Secondary Areas
 Secondary areas adjacent to primary areas
and interconnected with them are involved in
elaborating information received from
primary areas or, in the case of the primary
motor area, sending commands to it.
 In vision, for example, secondary areas are
involved in visual aspects that include color,
movement, and form.
 Tertiary Areas
 The majority of cortical areas that lie between the
various secondary areas may receive projections
from them or send projections to them.
 These patches of cortex, referred to as tertiary
areas, or association cortex, encompass all
cortex not specialized for sensory or motor
function.
 Rather, the association areas mediate complex
activities such as language, planning, memory,
and attention.
 Sensory information enters the primary areas and
then is passed to the secondary areas, each of which
has sensory-related functions (e.g., color, form,
motion for vision, and music, words, or other sounds
or audition).
 The tertiary area in the posterior neocortex receives
projections from the secondary areas and forms more
complex associations, including ideas or concepts
through which we represent the world.
 This information is then passed on to frontal tertiary
areas, where it can be formulated into plans of action
that may then be performed by the frontal cortex
secondary and primary areas, respectively.
 Neurons in the neocortex are arranged in six
layers.
 Regional differences among the six layers
include the shapes, sizes, and connections of
cells.
 The layers’ functions relate to information
input and output.
 Inner cortical layers V and VI send axons to other
brain areas. Both layers and the pyramidal
neurons that compose them are particularly large
and distinctive in the motor cortex, which sends
projections to the spinal cord.
 Large size is typical of cells that send information
over long distances.
 Axons in layer IV receive input from sensory
systems and other cortical areas. This layer
features large numbers of stellate neurons,
small, densely packed cells in the primary
areas of vision, somatosensation, audition,
and taste–olfaction that receive large
projections from their respective sensory
organs.
 Cortical areas rich in layer IV neurons are also
called granular cortex, referring to their
grainy appearance.
 Outer layers I, II, and III receive input mainly from
layer IV and are well developed in the secondary
and tertiary areas of the cortex to perform their
integrative functions.
 The regional density of cells in different regions
of the cortex led to the creation of
cytoarchitectonic maps (cell maps) that parcel the
cortex into many subregions.
 An early map, developed by Korbinian Brodmann
(1909) and still in wide use.
 To perform his analysis, Brodmann divided the
brain at the central sulcus and then examined the
front and back halves separately, numbering new
conformations of cells as he found them but
without following a methodical path over the
surface.
 Thus, the numbers of Brodmann’s map have no
special meaning. He simply named areas 1 and 2
in the posterior section and then switched to the
anterior section and named areas 3 and 4 and
then switched back again and then looked
somewhere else.
 Nevertheless, Brodmann’s regions correspond
quite closely to regions discovered later with
the use of noncytoarchitectonic techniques,
including electrical stimulation, tract tracing,
and analysis of brain injury.
 Newer, more powerful analytical techniques,
show that many Brodmann areas can be
further subdivided, and new maps, although
adhering to Brodmann’s outline, further
subdivide many of his areas and label them
using newer nomenclature.
 Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3 – Primary
somatosensory cortex
 The primary somatosensory cortex is
responsible for processing sensations of the
body. Receptors throughout the body pick up
these sensations, responsible for detecting
touch, pain, temperature, and localization of
touch.
 This region is also important for skilled and
coordinated movements as well as motor
learning.
 Brodmann area 4 – Primary motor cortex
 The primary motor cortex is essential for
initiating motor movements as well as
coordinating these movements. Each area of
the motor cortex corresponds precisely to
specific body parts on the contralateral side
of the body.
 E.g., in order to move the left leg, part of the
primary motor cortex in the right hemisphere
is stimulated.
 Brodmann area 9 – Dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex
 The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is located
in the frontal lobe and is essential for ‘higher’
cognitive functions such as working memory,
planning, abstract reasoning, motor planning,
and organization.
 Due to its importance for many executive
functions, this area has multiple connections
between cortical and subcortical areas of the
brain.
 Brodmann area 17 – Primary visual cortex
 The primary visual cortex, located in the
occipital lobes, is a structure essential to the
processing of visual stimuli.
 This area is the most widely studied visual
area of the brain and is highly specialized for
the processing of static and moving objects,
as well as being good at recognizing
patterns.
 Brodmann area 21 – Middle temporal gyrus
 The middle temporal gyrus is one of the main
gyri (ridge) on the surface of the temporal
lobes.
 This area is believed to be involved in
functions such as sound recognition and
semantic retrieval, as well as semantic
memory, language processing, and
processing of verbal and mental arithmetic.
 Brodmann area 22 – Superior temporal gyrus
 The superior temporal gyrus is also located
within the temporal lobes and has a role in both
verbal and non-verbal communication.
 This area has been found to be important for
contributing to the processing of both object and
space-related information, and processing non-
verbal social cues.
 As well as this, this area is involved in auditory
short-term memory and the production of
speech. Wernicke’s area is also considered to be
located in this area, a region associated with
language comprehension and the production of
language.
 Brodmann areas 23, 24, 28 and 33 – Cingulate
gyrus
 The cingulate gyrus is a large arched fold above
the corpus callosum. It is an important part of
the limbic system, helping to regulate emotions
and pain.
 This gyrus is believed to directly drive the body’s
conscious response to unpleasant experiences,
as well as being involved in fear and avoidance of
negative stimuli. As the cingulate gyrus learns to
avoid negative consequences, it also plays a role
in memory.
 Brodmann areas 44 and 45 – Broca’s area
 Located within the frontal lobes, Broca’s area is
an essential region for the production of
language. This area is able to put together the
elements of language, select information from a
variety of sources and help to produce
information about the motor movements
required for spoken and written language.
 Similarly, Broca’s area can help control
mechanisms for syntactic processing and
construct complex sentences and speech
patterns.
 Given the cortex’s regional functional
specialization, the connections between and
among its regions go a long way toward
explaining how higher-level functions are
produced.
 Four types of axon projections interconnect
neocortical regions:
◦ 1. Long connections between one lobe and another
◦ 2. Relatively short connections between one part of a
lobe and another
◦ 3. Interhemispheric connections (commissures) between
one hemisphere and the other (Corpus Callosum &
Anterior Commisure)
◦ 4. Connections through the thalamus
 The National Institutes of Health launched the
Human Connectome Project to map brain
pathways.
 Using brain-imaging techniques to identify nerve
fibers selectively, the project uses three-
dimensional imaging to visualize the overall
organizational “connectome” of the cortex.
 The idea behind the project is that definitively
identifying the brain’s pathways, and variations
of those pathways in individuals, will lead to
understanding the overall function of the cortex.
 Lying mainly beneath the anterior regions of the
cortex, the basal ganglia (“lower knots,” referring
to “knots below the cortex”) are a collection of
nuclei that form a circuit with the cortex.
 The ganglia, include the putamen (“shell”), the
globus pallidus (“pale globe”), and the caudate
nucleus (“tailed nucleus”).
 The caudate nucleus receives projections
from all areas of the cortex and sends its own
projections through the putamen and globus
pallidus to the thalamus and from there to
frontal cortical areas.
 The basal ganglia also have reciprocal
connections with the midbrain, especially
with the substantia nigra in the midbrain
tegmentum.
 The basal ganglia are associated with
movement and with learning.
 Much of what is known about the basal ganglia’s
function comes from studying two general kinds
of diseases that occur after they are damaged.
 These diseases are characterized either by a
general loss of movement or by exaggerated
movements.
 They are not disorders of producing movements,
as in paralysis. Rather, they are disorders of
controlling movements.
 The basal ganglia, therefore, must play a role in
controlling and coordinating movement patterns,
not in activating the muscles.
 In Huntington’s disease, a genetic disorder, basal
ganglia cells die progressively, and associated with
this cell death, many involuntary body movements
occur almost continuously.
 These abnormal movements have a “dancelike”
quality and collectively were once referred to as
chorea, which means “dance” in Latin.
 The most frequent symptoms in Tourette’s syndrome
are involuntary motor tics, especially of the face and
head, and complex movements such as hitting,
lunging, or jumping. Tourette’s is also characterized
by involuntary vocalizations, including curse words
and animal sounds.
 Both diseases are associated with loss of neurons
within the basal ganglia.
 Parkinson’s disease is characterized by many
symptoms, among which difficulty in initiating
movement and muscular rigidity are
predominant.
 A patient may have trouble getting up from a
chair, will walk with a shuffling gait, and have
difficulty in reaching for an object.
 A patient may also display rhythmic tremors of
the hands and legs when otherwise resting.
 Parkinson’s disease is associated with loss of
connections into and out of the basal ganglia,
especially connections from the substantia nigra
of the midbrain.
 The second function of the basal ganglia is
supporting associative learning, also referred to
as stimulus–response or habit learning, which
involves learning relationships between stimuli
and their consequences.
 Many of our actions are responses to sensory
cues—for example, flicking a light switch to turn
on a light or turning the handle on a door to
open it.
 People with basal ganglia disorders can have
difficulty performing such stimulus–response
actions.
 The main objects of primitive life are food &
procreation.
 Food is necessary for survival of the
individual and procreation for survival of the
species.
 The primitive brain is, therefore, adapted to
control & regulate behavior of animal with
regards to seeking & procuring of food,
courtship, mating, housing, rearing of young,
rage, aggression & emotions.
 The parts of the brain controlling such
behavioral patterns constitute the Limbic
System.
 Structures comprising limbic system form a
ring along medial wall of cerebral
hemisphere. They are interposed between
hypothalamus and neocortex.
 The Limbic System aid in understanding the
behavioural consequences of our deeds with
help of frontal lobe.
 Among its principal structures, are the amygdala
(“almond”), nuclei in the base of the temporal
lobe that participate in emotion, and the
hippocampus (“seahorse”), a structure lying in
the anterior medial region of the temporal lobe
that participates in personal memory (“what I did
and when I did it”), and spatial navigation.
 The cingulate (“girdle”) cortex, a three-layered
strip of limbic cortex that lies just above the
corpus callosum along the medial walls of the
cerebral hemispheres, is involved in sexual
behavior, among other social interactions.
 James Papez suggested that emotion, which at
the time had no known anatomic substrate, is a
product of the limbic lobe, which had no certain
function.
 Papez proposed that the emotional brain consists
of a circuit in which information flows from the
mammillary bodies in the hypothalamus to the
anterior thalamic nucleus to the cingulate cortex
to the hippocampus and back to the mammillary
bodies.
 Input could enter this circuit from other
structures to be elaborated as emotion.
 It controls food habits necessary for survival of
the individual. Regulates autonomic functions &
endocrine glands.
 It controls sex behaviour necessary for survival of
the species. Controls the endocrine glands.
 It controls emotional behaviour expressed in
form of joy & sorrow, fear, fight & friendship,
liking & disliking, associated with a variety of
somatic & autonomic bodily alterations. This
requires integration of olfactory, somatic &
visceral impulses related to memory & learning.
 The brainstem begins where the spinal cord
enters the skull and extends upward into the
lower areas of the forebrain.
 The three main regions of the brain stem are:
the diencephalon, the midbrain, and the
hindbrain.
 A distinctive part of the brainstem comprises
the many cranial-nerve nuclei that converge
at its core and send their axons to the head
muscles.
 The brainstem core consists of those cranial
nerve nuclei and other nuclei that mediate a
variety of regulatory functions.
 Additionally, bundles of sensory nerve fibers
from the spinal cord pass through posterior
regions of the brainstem on their way to the
forebrain, and motor fibers from the
forebrain pass through anterior regions of the
brainstem on their way to the spinal cord.
 Cerebellum

 Pons

 Medulla Oblongata
 The most distinctive hindbrain structure is
the cerebellum.
 It protrudes above the brainstem core, and its
surface is gathered into narrow folds, or folia,
like the gyri and sulci of the cortex, but
smaller.
 At the base of the cerebellum are several
nuclei that send connections to other parts of
the brain.
 It contains about four times more neurons
than the cerebral cortex, but they are much
more densely packed, rendering its size much
smaller.
 The weight of cerebellum in about 150
grams.
 The cerebellum does not initiate movements,
but it contributes to coordination, precision &
accurate timing.
 It is situated in the posterior cranial fossa

behind pons & medulla.

 Anteriorly: Fourth Ventricle, pons & Medulla

 Posteroinferiorly: Squamous occipital bone

 Superiorly: Tentorium Cerebelli

 The cerebellum consists of two cerebellar
hemispheres that are united to each other
through a median vermis.
 It has two surface- superior & inferior. The
superior surface is slightly convex.
 The anterior aspect of the cerebellum is
marked by a wide and deep notch in which
the pons & medulla are lodged.
 Posteriorly there is narrow & deep notch in
which the falx cerebelli lies.
 Each hemishepre is divided into three lobes.
 The anterior lobe lies on the anterior part of
the superior surface. It is separated from the
middle lobe by the fissure prima.
 The Middle lobe is the largest of the three
lobes situated on both the surfaces. It is
limited on the inferior surface by
posterolateral fissure.
 The flocculonodular lobe is the smallest lobe
of the cerebellum, situated on the inferior
surface.
 The fibers entering or leaving the cerebellum
are grouped to form three peduncles (small
foot) which connects the cerebellum to the
midbrain, pons and medulla.
 The middle & inferior peduncles are chiefly
afferent to the cerebellum & that the superior
cerebellar peduncle is chiefly efferent in
nature.
 The grey matter of the cerebellum consists of
cerebellar cortex & 4 pair of cerebellar nuclei.
 The structure of cerebellum is uniform
throughout, i.e. homotypical. In contrast, the
structure of cerebral cortex varies in different
areas, i.e. heterotypical.
 There are five types of neuron in which four
types, i.e. Purkinje, basket, stellate, and Golgi are
inhibitory. Only granular cells are excitatory.
 Cerebellum controls the same side of the body.
Its influence is ipsilateral.
 The cerebellum plays a role in motor
coordination and motor learning and may
participate in coordinating other mental
processes.
 Damage to it results in equilibrium problems,
postural defects, and impairments of skilled
motor activity.
 The parts that receive most of their impulses
from the vestibular system (sensory receptors for
balance and movement located in the middle ear)
help maintain bodily equilibrium.
 Cerebellar parts receiving impulses mainly from
sensory receptors in the body’s trunk and limbs
control postural reflexes and coordinate
functionally related muscle groups.
 Pons is a part of the brainstem, situated
between the medulla below and midbrain
above.
 It lies in the posterior cranial fossa on the
clivus, anterior to the cerebellum.
 Pons, in a literal sense, means “the bridge” is
2.5 cm long and is also called
metencephalon.
 It is named “the bridge” because it acts as a
conduit for the passage of fibres from one
side of the cerebellum to the other by its
transverse fibres constituting the middle
cerebellar peduncle.
 Nuclei of the cranial nerves, V (trigeminal), VI
(abducent), VII (facial), and VIII
(vestibulocochlear) lie in the pons.
 Pons shows a convex anterior surface,
marked by prominent transversely running
fibres.
 Laterally, these fibres collect to form a
bundle, the middle cerebellar peduncle.
 These fibres intermingle with corticospinal
and corticonuclear fibres, which are
responsible for voluntary movements of the
body.
 The anterior surface of the pons is marked, in
the midline, by a shallow groove, the sulcus
basilaris, which lodges the basilar artery.
 The posterior aspect of the pons forms the upper
part of the floor of the fourth ventricle & is
hidden by the cerebellum.
 Pons has two borders – Superior & Inferior.
 Superior border: Crus cerebri are attached here,
III &IV nerves are also seen.
 Inferior border: Lies at the junction of pons &
medulla VI, VII & VIII nerves lie at this border.
 Cranial nerve nuclei: Sensory nuclei of
trigeminal nerve, motor nucleus of trigeminal
nerve; nucleus of the abducens nerve;
nucleus of facial nerve; superior salivatory
(salivary) nucleus; inferior salivatory (salivary)
nucleus; vestibular nuclei; cochlear nuclei;
solitary nucleus (general sensory input from
the tounge, palate & pharynx).
 Pontine nuclei,
 Nucleus of lateral lemniscus (involved in the
coordination of auditory and visual responses.),
 Nuclei of pontine reticular formation (Sleep &
wakefulness).
 Pedunculopontine nucleus (Serve to initiate and
modulate gait & other repetitive body
movements).
 Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (thought to play
a role in processes such as arousal, eye
movements and sleep-wake cycle).
 Locus coeruleus (It plays a role in the wake-sleep
cycle, attention and stress response).
 Transverse tracts: fibers of cochlear nuclei,

transverse pontine (pontocerebellar) fibers.

 Ascending tracts: medial lemniscus, lateral

lemniscus, spinal lemniscus (spinothalamic

tract), trigeminal lemniscus (trigeminothalamic

tract), and superior cerebellar peduncle.

 Descending tracts: corticospinal, corticobulbar
(corticonuclear) and corticopontine tracts.
 Complex tracts: Medial longitudinal fasciculus
(plays a role in coordinating conjugate eye
movements and associated movements of the
head and neck)., Central tegmental tract
(serves as a pathway for connections between
the midbrain to the cerebellum).
 Innervation of the face, head and neck,
 Mastication
 Eye movement
 Hearing & balance
 Breathing regulation (respiratory center)
 Regulation of sleep
 Transmission of major sensory (ascending)
input and motor (descending) output
pathways
 Medulla oblongata is the terminal part of the
brainstem.
 It sits in the posterior cranial fossa, below
the tentorium cerebelli.
 The rostral medulla is continuous with the
pons superiorly, with which it forms the
pontomedullary junction.
 The caudal medulla continues onto the spinal
cord inferiorly, just above the origin of the
first pair of the cervical spinal nerves.
 Along the midline of the ventral surface of the
medulla is the anterior median fissure. This is a
continuation of the anterior median fissure of the
spinal cord.
 On either side of the fissure is a vertical
protuberance known as the medullary pyramid,
formed by the fibers of the corticospinal tract.
 Below the base of the pyramids, the median
fissure is interrupted by the fascicles of the
corticospinal tract that decussate and form
the pyramidal decussation in the midline.
 Each half of the ventral medullary surface
shows two sulci: anterolateral sulcus and
posterolateral sulcus.
 Between the sulci, and just lateral and posterior
to each pyramid is another oval structure known
as the olive.
 The olive is formed by the presence of the
inferior olivary nucleus in the medulla.
 The sulci themselves serve as exit points of
certain cranial nerves:
 The hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) exits the
medulla through the anterolateral sulcus, just
medial to the olive.
 Going from rostral to caudal, the
glossopharyngeal (CN IX), vagus (CN X) and
accessory nerve (CN XI) exit the medulla
through the posterolateral sulcus, lateral to
the olive.
 Cranial nerve nuclei (IX-XII):

 Inferior salivatory nucleus,

 Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve,

 Solitary nucleus,

 Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve (parasympathetic innervation to

the smooth muscles of the digestive tract, lungs, and all the

viscera of the abdomen and thorax),

 Nucleus of accessory nerve & Nucleus of Hypoglossal nerve.

 Relay nuclei:
◦ Cuneate (This nucleus receives sensory information
about light touch, proprioception, and vibration from the
ipsilateral Upper limb), and Olivary nuclei (These nuclei
connect with the cerebellum to aid motor coordination).
 Reticular nuclei:
◦ Raphe nuclei (They are the main source of the
neurotransmitter serotonin and are also involved in
modulation of mood, pain, wakefulness/arousal states
and thermoregulation).
◦ Perihypoglossal (Roller’s) nucleus (is a part of complex
circuits involving eye movements, such as visual
pursuit).
◦ lateral reticular nucleus and many other small clusters of
neurons distributed throughout the base of the medulla.
 Corticospinal (pyramidal) tract (Voluntary
motor tract)
 Cuneate fascicle
 Gracile fascicle Somatosensory from body
 Medial lemniscus
 Spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve (Facial
senation)
 Spinothalamic tract (Pain & temperature)
 Spinocerebellar tract (Proprioception)
 Inferior cerebellar peduncle
 Medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF)
 Innervation to the viscera of the head, thorax

and abdomen,

 Heart rate and blood pressure regulation

(vasomotor center),

 Breathing regulation (respiratory center)

 Via the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX):
swallowing, salivation, and visceral, general and
taste sensation in the oral cavity.
 Via the vagus nerve (CN X): parasympathetic
supply to the head, thorax and abdomen, gland
secretion control, peristalsis, phonation, taste,
visceral and general sensation of these regions.
 Via the accessory nerve (CN XI): phonation and
movements of the head and shoulders.
 Via the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII): movements of
the tongue, speech and swallowing.
 Vascular insults to the medulla can give rise to a
condition known as the lateral medullary syndrome of
Wallenberg.
 It is caused by an obstruction of the vertebral artery or
the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA), which
supply the dorsolateral part of the medulla. This results
in several symptoms, including:
 Nystagmus (eye twitching), vomiting, nausea, and
vertigo (dizziness)
Insensitivity to pain and temperature (hypoesthesia) on
the ipsilateral side of the face
 Dysarthria– inability to articulate words
 Dysphagia – difficulty swallowing
 Decreased or absent voluntary coordination of
movement with respect to gait and movement on the
same side
 The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is the most rostral
part of the brainstem that connects the pons and
cerebellum with the forebrain.
 For most of its part, the midbrain sits in the posterior
cranial fossa.
 The midbrain lies between the thalamus (rostrally) and
pons (caudally).
 Lateral sides of the midbrain are covered and hidden by
the hippocampal gyri of the brain.
 The midbrain has two main subdivisions:
◦ a posterior sensory component, the tectum (“roof”), the roof
of the third ventricle,
◦ located anteriorly, a motor structure, the tegmentum, the
“floor” of the third ventricle.
 The tectum receives a massive amount of sensory
information from the eyes and ears.
 Its two sets of bilaterally symmetrical nuclei, the
superior colliculi (“upper hills”), receive projections
from the retina of the eye. The inferior colliculi
(“lower hills”) receive projections from the ear.
 Behaviors mediated by the colliculi include locating
objects in surrounding space and orienting to those
objects, be they visual or auditory.
 The nuclei that comprise the tegmentum are
related to motor functions.
 The red nucleus controls limb movements, and
the substantia nigra (black substance) connects
to the forebrain, a connection important for
rewarding behaviors such as approaching desired
objects & voluntary movements.
 The periacqueductal gray matter (PAG), made up
of cell bodies that surround the cerebral
aqueduct, contains circuits for controlling
species-typical behaviors (for example, sexual
behavior) and for modulating pain responses.
 The nucleus of oculomotor nerve is a general somatic
efferent nucleus. This is a motor nucleus that
provides the fibers for the innervation of manyl
extraocularmuscles.
 The accessory oculomotor nucleus (Edinger-
Westphal) is a general visceral efferent nucleus. These
nuclei play an important role inpupillary light refelx &
accomodation of the eye.
 The nucleus of trochlear nerve is a general somatic
efferent nucleus, and its function is to innervate the
superior oblique muscle.
 The mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve is a
general somatic afferent nucleus. The function of this
nucleus is to receive the proprioceptive information
from the muscles of the face.
 The midbrain provides the passage for the main
descending pathways of the cerebral cortex.
Namely, the corticospinal and corticobulbar
tracts that enable us with the voluntary
movement of the head and body.
 It acts as a conduit for the main ascending
pathways from the spinal cord which carry the
sensory stimuli from the body and head to the
brain. Namely, these are the medial, lateral,
spinal, and trigeminal lemnisci.
 It houses the mesencephalic portion of
the reticular formation which, together with other
parts of the brainstem, controls the pain, mood,
and breathing.
 Promotes survival instincts by facilitating the
recognition of potentially dangerous behaviors.
 Housing the substantia nigra, it contains a part of
the extrapyramidal motor system and thus is
involved in the control of the voluntary
movements.
 It enables the movements of the eye by housing
the nuclei of the oculomotor and trochlear
nerves. Moreover, it facilitates the coordinated
functioning of these nuclei.
 Connecting with the auditory and visual nuclei, it
enables the auditory and ocular reflexive
movements.
 It is the caudal part of the forebrain
(prosencephalon) that occupies the central
region of the brain. The diencephalon is
comprised of the:
 Epithalamus
 Thalamus Dorsal
 Metathalamus
Subthalamus

Ventral
 Hypothalamus
 The largest structure in the diencephalon, the
thalamus, is composed of 20 nuclei, each
projecting to a specific area of the cerebral
cortex.
 Almost all the information the cortex receives is
first relayed through the thalamus. It serves as a
“hub,” interconnecting many brain regions.
 1. One group of thalamic nuclei relays information
from sensory systems to their appropriate targets.
For example, the lateral geniculate body (LGB)
receives visual projections; the medial geniculate
body (MGB) receives auditory projections; and the
ventrolateral posterior nuclei (VLP) receive touch,
pressure, pain, and temperature projections from the
body. In turn, these areas project to the visual,
auditory, and somatosensory regions of the cortex.
 2. Some thalamic nuclei relay information between
cortical areas. For example, visual areas of the cortex
interconnect with other brain regions through the
pulvinar nucleus (P).
 3. Some thalamic nuclei relay information between
the cortex and a number of brainstem regions.
 The epithalamus is a collection of nuclei at
the posterior of the diencephalon.
 Pineal gland it secretes the hormone
melatonin, which influences daily and
seasonal body rhythms. Melatonin release
during the dark portion of the day–night cycle
contributes to the feeling of tiredness
associated with our motivation to sleep.
 Another structure, the habenula, regulates
hunger and thirst.
 The metathalamus consists of two oval
eminences (the geniculate bodies) on the caudal
surface of the diencephalon, just inferior to the
caudal end of the dorsal thalamus.
 The lateral and medial geniculate bodies function
as primary thalamic relay stations for
the auditory and optic system, respectively.
 The subthalamus refers to the part of the
diencephalon that lies below the posterior part of
the thalamus just behind and lateral to the
hypothalamus.
 The subthalamus is continuous with the upper
ends of the red nucleus and substantia nigra of
the tegmentum of the midbrain inferiorly.
Laterally it reaches the lowest part of the internal
capsule.
 Through its various connections it plays role in
vision & eye movements, visceral activities such
as sexuality, hydration and food intake as well as
cardiovascular activity.
 Although only about 0.3 percent of the
brain’s weight, the 22 small nuclei and fiber
systems that pass through the hypothalamus
take part in nearly all aspects of motivated
behavior—feeding, sexual behavior, sleeping,
temperature regulation, emotional behavior,
and movement.
 The hypothalamus connects to and interacts
with the pituitary gland to control many
endocrine functions.