By Faisal Wadho

1. Force and Motion

i. Displacement
 Every displacement can be considered as distance but every distance cannot be considered as displacement.
 Distance is actual path length covered by a moving particle, whereas Displacement is not actual path length
covered by a moving particle it is direct distance between its initial and final position.
 Distance depends on actual path length and displacement depends on end points for a particle moving one
dimensionally
 For a moving particle, displacement can be equal to zero or less than zero or greater than zero, whereas distance is
always positive.
 If distance of a body is zero then we can say the body was at rest but if displacement is zero then we cannot say the
body was at rest
 In closed path (i.e. circular, rectangular etc) the net displacement of a particle for a trip is always zero
 Its units are meter, centimeter, Yard, Foot, Mile, kilometer, angstrom and light year etc
 Generally the magnitude of displacement is not equal to the distance. Hence value of distance is greater than the value
of displacement always. But in a case, For a given particular direction both are equal
 For a moving particle the distance can never decrease with respect to time but displacement can.

ii. Velocity
 The time rate of variation of position in a particular direction for a given particle is displacement
 For a moving particle, the average speed always greater than zero but not equal to zero or less than zero
 For a moving particle, the average velocity can be equal zero or greater than zero or less than zero
 The negative sign in front of velocity or displacement cannot tell us whether a particle speeding up or speeding down
because these are vector quantities and are studied with respect to a reference coordinate system
 The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first specify this choice before you
assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration
 The average velocity of a moving particle in a closed track or path (i.e. circular or rectangular etc) is always zero for a trip
 When instantaneous and average velocity for a moving particle are equal it corresponds to uniform velocity

iii. Displacement-time graph

 For a body at rest the displacement time graph is a straight line parallel to time axis
 For a body moving with uniform velocity its displacement time graph is always straight line and inclined at an angle
 For a body moving with non-uniform velocity its displacement time graph is curved, and a tangent is drawn at point
where the velocity is ordered to find
 m/s is a bigger unit than all like km/h , mile/h, foot/h, inch/h and yard/h
 The slope or gradient between two point on a graph of displacement and time graph gives velocity whereas the gradient
of Velocity-time graph is acceleration and gradient of acceleration-time graph gives jerk
iV. Acceleration
 The time rate of variation of velocity is acceleration
 If only direction of velocity changes, then the direction of acceleration will be perpendicular or at the right angle to the
direction of velocity
 If only magnitude of velocity changes, then the direction of acceleration may be like-parallel or unlike-parallel to the
direction of velocity
 If magnitude and direction of velocity of a body both change simultaneously then the acceleration has two components,
one is parallel to the velocity and other is perpendicular to the velocity.
 A particle may or may not have acceleration when it is at rest It is very important to note that a particle is at rest it
doesn’t meant that is not accelerated
 Uniform velocity means to zero acceleration and uniform acceleration means to variable velocity
 A particle started from rest, if it follows that displacement is directly proportional to the square of time then it is in
uniform acceleration
 Acceleration can be positive or negative depending on the choice of reference axes coordinate system
 Deceleration can be positive or negative depending on the choice of reference axes coordinate system (follow KPK book)
By Sir Faisal Wadho

V. Displacement-time graph
This graph shows uniform velocity.
There should be a line which must be straight line
must be inclined at an angle.

This is S-t graph

The acceleration will be zero

This graph also shows uniform velocity

There should be a line which must be straight line

But Parallel to time axis.

This is V-t graph

The acceleration will be zero

This S-t graph shows variable Positive velocity.

Positive acceleration.
mathematically 𝑠 ∝ 𝑡 2
 This S-t graph shows variable negative velocity
Negative acceleration

This S-t graph shows positive acceleration.

Upwards concave

This S-t graph shows negative acceleration.

Downwards concave

This shows uniform acceleration

Variable velocity
Velocity and acceleration are positive

Only one peak point therefore there are five peak points Only three peak points therefore
velocity is zero only one point therefore velocity is zero velocity is zero three times.
Five times

Vi. Newton’s Laws of motion

First Law of motion
 Everybody continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a net external force acts on it to
change that state this is called first law of motion
 When the linear momentum of a body remains constant it is referred as in first law of motion
 First law of motion is the type of second law of motion
 First law of motion is only applicable when ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 =0
 First law of motion is also called law of inertia
 The name “INERTIA” was coined out by GALILEO
 The first law of motion is only valid in Inertial frames of references
 The first law of motion was given by Isaac Newton
 Newton’s first law asserts the existence of inertial systems
 First law of motion shows Qualitative definition of FORCE
 First law of motion is valid for a single isolated body without interaction

Second Law of motion

 The time rate of change of linear momentum is referred as Second law of motion
 Second law of motion is applicable only when two bodies interact each other
 Second law of motion for a single isolated body is not possible
 Acceleration of a particle at any instant and at a particular location is determined by the force(net) acting on the particle
at the same instant and same location and is not in any way depending on the history of the motion of the particle
 Second law of motion is the Basic law
 Second law of motion states that acceleration for every constituent of the body always remain constant, suppose a train
with 5 buggies each of which having the same acceleration despite they are loaded by different loads.
 Second law of motion is also called the law of acceleration
 Second law of motion produces first law motion
 Second law of motion is only valid in inertial frames of reference
 Second law of motion is not valid in non-inertial frame of reference
 Second law of motion show Quantitative definition of FORCE
 Since, inertia is a property of body that determines its resistance to acceleration or change in motion when that body
interacts with another body. The Quantitative measure of INERTIA is called MASS
 Newton’s second law of motion holds good only in inertial frames of reference
 According to Newton’s second law of motion, it is important to keep in mind that the force arises because of interaction
or simply stands for an interaction. No acceleration could ever be produced without an interaction
 Newton’s second law of motion is valid only when we deal the objects having speed very small as compared to the
speed of light.
 Force can’t change the momentum along a direction normal to it

Third Law of motion

 Whenever a body exerts a certain force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the
first body. This is called third law of motion
 According to Newton’s third law of motion forces always exist in pairs and such forces are result interactions. No
isolated single force is possible in universe
 Newton’s third law motion is valid in Law of conservation of linear momentum
  According to Newton’s third law of motion, A single force without its partner somewhere else is an impossibility. We can
never have an isolated object having acceleration. An object with acceleration must have a counterpart somewhere else
with opposite acceleration that is inversely proportional to mass
 Third law of motion is only valid when two bodies interact with each other
 Third law of motion for an isolated body in the universe is not possible
 Third law of motion plays everywhere in the universe
 Third law of motion is also called law of action reaction
 Action and Reaction are always of same type
 Action and Reaction are always of same nature
 Action and Reaction are always in opposite directions
 Action and Reaction are equal and opposite but THEY DO NOT ALWAYS NECESSARILY HAVE THE SAME LINE OF ACTION.
 Action is done by first body on second body and Reaction is done by second body on first body
 There Must by two different bodies for exhibiting action reaction
 Action Reaction pair is only for two different bodies
 Action produces Reaction. Without action there is no Reaction
 The angle between action and Reaction is 1800
 The Action and Reaction can never balance each other
 The Centripetal and Centrifugal forces are not action and reaction pair
 The Weight of object lied on smooth horizontal table and Normal reaction are not action reaction pair
 Swimming is the example of action and reaction
 Action and reaction always happen at single point

Vii. Linear momentum

 The quantity of motion possessed by a body depends on mass of body as well as velocity of body is called momentum
 The simple product of mass and velocity of body is called momentum
 The work momentum is taken from Latin language “Movimenta” means motion ability.
 Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body’s momentum is equal to the net
force acting on it.
 Momentum depends on the frame of reference but in any inertial frame it is a conserved quantity.
 If a closed system is not affected by external forces, its total linear momentum does not change. This is called law of
conservation of translational momentum
 Linear momentum is conserved in special relativity
 Linear momentum is conserved in electrodynamics (Modified form)
 Linear momentum is conserved in Quantum mechanics (Modified form)
 Linear momentum is conserved in Quantum field theory (Modified form)
 Linear momentum is conserved in general relativity
 Linear momentum and its conservation principle is one of the fundamental symmetries of space and time.(Translational
symmetry)
 Momentum is a measureable quantity and the measurement depends on the frame of reference. For example in an
aircraft of mass m kg is flying through air at a speed of 50m/s it momentum can be calculated to be 50m kgm/s. If the
aircraft is flying into a headwind of 5m/s its speed relative to the surface of earth is only 45m/s and its momentum can
be calculated to be 45 m kgm/s. Both calculations are equally correct. In both reference frames. Any change in
momentum will be found to be consistent with the relevant laws of physics.
Viii. Elastic collision
 A collision occurs when two objects come in direct contact with each other. It is the evident in which two or more bodies
exert forces on each other in about a relatively short time. There are two types of collision Elastic and Inelastic
 An elastic collision is one where there is no net loss of kinetic energy in the system due to the collision.
 In Elastic collision momentum and kinetic energy both remain constant always
 When a ball at a billiard table hits another ball, it is an example of elastic collision
 When you throw a ball on the ground and it bounces back to your hand, there is no net change in the kinetic energy and
hence, it is an example of elastic collision
 Compton effect collisions can be viewed as elastic collisions between a photon and an electron. These elastic collisions
become predominant when the photon energy becomes large compared to the energy that holds the electron in an
atom, its binding energy
 In an ideal, perfectly elastic collision, there is no net conversion of kinetic energy into other forms such as heat noise or
potential energy
 Collisions of atoms are elastic collision for example Rutherford backscattering
 All collisions of gas molecules are perfectly elastic collision
 Cloud to cloud collision are by nature elastic collision
 The normal collision between Alpha particles and atomic nuclei are known from scattering experiments to be
approximately Elastic collision

ix. Inelastic collision

 The one dimensional collision in which kinetic energy after the collision is converted into another form
 In Inelastic collision momentum is conserved but not kinetic energy
 The ball dropped from a certain height and it is unable to rise to its original height is an example of inelastic collision
 When a soft mud ball is thrown against the wall, it will stick to the wall. This is example of inelastic collision
 The accident of two vehicles is an example of inelastic collision
 A car hitting a tree is an example of inelastic collision
 The ballistic pendulum is a practical device in which an inelastic collision takes place. (see problem no:12 in Sindh text)

x. Projectile motion
 Projectile motion is a form of motion experienced by an object or particle (a projectile) that is projected near the Earth’s
surface and moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only.
 The projectile motion follows a curved path, this curved path was shown by Galileo to be a PARABOLA, but may also be a
straight line in special case when it is thrown directly upwards. The study of such motions is called ballistics and such a
trajectory is a ballistic trajectory.
 In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent of each other, that is, neither
motion affects the other. This is the principle of compound motion established by Galileo in 1638A.D and used by him
to prove the parabolic from of projectile motion.
 The trajectory of a projectile is a parabola with homogeneous acceleration But at higher speeds the trajectory can also
be circular, parabolic or hyperbola.
 The maximum reachable height of projectile is at 900 of projection
 The maximum range of projectile is at 450 of projection
 The height at 900 is double than height at 450
 The height at 600 is triple that height at 300
 The height and range are equal at about 760
 The range at any two complementary angles is same
 The trajectory of projectile at 900 is straight line, height is maximum and range is minimum
 The trajectory of projectile is straight line when one projectile sees other projectile
 The trajectory of projectile is straight line in absence of gravity. (It is special case of projectile motion treated ideally)
 The range at (900 −∝)𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝ is always same because these two angles are complementary
 The range at (450 −∝)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (450 +∝) is always same because these two angles are complementary
 (450 −∝)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (450 +∝) will show same range but former will be high trajectory and later will be flat
 Maximum height is directly proportional to square of initial velocity. If velocity is increased by √2 times then height will
be doubled.
 Maximum rangeis directly proportional to square of initial velocity. If velocity is increased by √2 times then range will be
doubled.
 The only one point on trajectory at which gravity and velocity are at 900 is maximum vertical distance
 The horizontal motion of projectile is constant. Therefore projectile motion only possesses vertical acceleration not
horizontal acceleration
 At 450 the height is four times lesser than its range
3𝐸
 At 300 the kinetic energy of projectile at maximum vertical distance is 4
and potential energy 𝐸/4
𝐸
 At 450 the kinetic energy of projectile at maximum vertical distance is 2 and potential energy 𝐸/2
3𝐸
 At 600 the kinetic energy of projectile at maximum vertical distance is E/4 and potential energy
4
 The path of the projectile will be Elliptical if the total energy (absolute gravitational potential +kinetic) is less than 0.
 The path of the projectile will be Parabola if the total energy (absolute gravitational potential +kinetic) is equal to 0.
 The path of the projectile will be Hyperbola if the total energy (absolute gravitational potential +kinetic) is greater than
0.
 If an object is projected at a velocity greater than escape velocity then its trajectory will become Hyperbola
1
 The motion of projectile is described by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 2 𝑏𝑥 2 . The range of projectile is 𝑎/𝑏
 For a projectile fired with a certain velocity, the maximum possible range 𝑅 and the maximum height attainable 𝐻 are
related as 𝑅 = 2𝐻
1
 The motion of projectile is described by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 2 𝑏𝑥 2 .The maximum height attained is 𝑎2 /4𝑏

By Faisal Ali Wadho

He has obtained a great appreciation from professors of department of physics of university of sindh 2017
and professors of department of physics and electronics of Shah Abdul Latif university 2018.
He discovered new teaching techniques
He made his profession as his Passion
He is self energetic, self motivated
He is the Director of Famous center The Genius Academy of physics Larkano
He is the Director of Famous center The Science Inn Larkano

He has written 12 books in form of notes, named

volume 1,2,3,4,5,6 for Xi and Xii

His new book is for iX and X

He made theoretical notes in 2017
from which he gotten a huge popularity