Nuclear energy resource
PBS-CEN-311
10-02-2025
Estiner W. Katengeza, PhD
Uranium
• A common metallic
(silvery-white)
naturally occurring
radioactive
element, found in
rocks and seawater.
• three natural
isotopes: U-234, U-
235 (0.72%) & U-
238 (99%)
Uranium in Ores
The major primary ore mineral is uraninite (UO2) or pitchblende (U3O8)
Types of U deposits [IAEA, 2013]
➢ 15 major types of U deposits based on their geological setting & mainly
named by host rock. A select few are provided below:
1. Intrusive: associated with a variety 5. Volcanic-related: occur in and near
of intrusive rocks e.g. granite. Major volcanic calderas, in acid to
world deposits in Namibia, intermediate volcanic rocks
Greenland, Canada, South Africa. 6. Sandstone
2. Granite-related: includes many vein 7. Surficial uranium deposits are
deposits in granite, deposits in broadly defined as young (Tertiary to
adjacent meta-sedimentary rocks, Recent) near-surface uranium
and also disseminated concentrations in sediments or soils.
mineralisation in granite
3. Carbonate: Deposits are hosted in 8. Lignite-coal: Uranium occurs in
limestone or dolomite lignite or coal mixed with mineral
detritus (silt, clay), and in
4. Metamorphite: Metamorphic-type immediately adjacent carbonaceous
uranium deposits occur in mud and silt/sandstone beds. Pyrite
metasediments and/or content is high.
metavolcanics unrelated to granite.
More details on: https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/geology-of-uranium-deposits
15 major types of U deposits
15 major types of U deposits
Uranium Resources
• Uranium resources are classified by a scheme (based on geological certainty
and costs of production) developed to combine resource estimates from a
number of different countries into harmonised global figures.
• Identified resources (include RAR & IR) refer to uranium deposits delineated
by sufficient direct measurement to conduct prefeasibility and sometimes
feasibility studies.
• For reasonably assured resources [RAR], high confidence in estimates of
grade and tonnage are generally compatible with mining decision-making
standards.
• Inferred resources [IR ]are not defined with such a high degree of confidence
& generally require further direct measurement prior to making a decision to
mine.
Uranium Resources
• Undiscovered resources (include PR & SR) refer to resources that are
expected to exist based on geological knowledge of previously discovered
deposits & regional geological mapping.
• Prognosticated resources [PR] refer to those expected to exist in known
uranium provinces, generally supported by some direct evidence.
• Speculative resources [SR] refer to those expected to exist in geological
provinces that may host uranium deposits.
• Both prognosticated & speculative resources require significant amounts of
exploration before their existence can be confirmed and grades and tonnages
can be defined.
• In situ resources: the estimated amount of uranium in the ground.
Uranium Resources
• Recoverable resources: the potential amount of uranium recovered after
losses from mining & processing are deducted.
• Generally reported as a cost per kg of U e.g. the 2023 IAEA-NEA considered Identified
resources as RAR & IR recoverable at a cost <USD 260/kgU (USD 100/lb U3O8)
• Conventional resources are defined as resources from which uranium is
recoverable as a primary product, a co-product or an important by-product
• Unconventional resources are resources are very low-grade resources or
those from which uranium is only recoverable as a minor by-product or co-
product, such as uranium associated with phosphate rocks, non-ferrous ores,
carbonatite, black shale & lignite
[2022 data]
[2022 data]
Nuclear Fuel production
• Four major processing steps from its raw uranium to usable nuclear
fuel:
• Mining & milling
• Conversion
• Enrichment
• Fuel fabrication
Uranium Mining
• Open pit mining: when uranium ore is found near the surface (<100 m
deep)
• Underground mining: is more economical than mining by open pit when
uranium ore is >120 m below surface
• In-situ leaching: directly dissolves uranium out of the deposit & the
resulting solution is pumped to the surface.
• Uses either weak acid or alkaline solutions to keep the uranium in solution.
• Leached uranium oxide is then recovered from the solution as in a conventional
mill
• Most common method of uranium mining today (≈≥58%)
In-situ leaching
Uranium Milling
• Extracted uranium (ore/solution) is processed near the mine to
produce uranium oxide (“yellow cake”).
• Mined U ore is crushed in a mill →ground to a fine slurry.
• Slurry is leached in sulfuric acid (or a strong alkaline solution) to separate
uranium from the waste rock.
• U is then recovered from solution & precipitated as uranium oxide (U3O8)
concentrate.
• After drying, & usually heating, the U3O8 is packed in 200-L drums as a
concentrate, sometimes referred to as 'yellowcake’.
• The U3O8 concentrate contains >80% U compared to the original ore (0.1% U)
• U3O8 is the uranium product which is sold & ≈200 tonnes of U3O8 is required to
keep a large (1000 MWe) nuclear power reactor generating electricity for 1 year.
Uranium Conversion
• Pure yellow cake only has up to 0.7% of 235U with most of the rest being
238U.
• 238U is inadequate for most nuclear fission power plants (requires fuel
to be 3-5% 235U).
• For types of reactors that do not require enriched uranium, i.e., reactor
designs that run on natural U, e.g., CANDU:
• The U3O8 is first refined to uranium dioxide (UO2), which can be used as the fuel .
• For typical reactors, the concentration of 235U must be enriched
• Isotope separation is the physical process to concentrate (‘enrich’) one
isotope relative to others
• For U, a gaseous form is required.
• Yellow cake is converted into UF6 and this compound is enriched
Uranium Enrichment
• Gaseous diffusion: forces UF6 gas through a series of membranes
so that the lighter 235U passes through the membranes separating
some of the heavier 238U out & producing a more 235U-
concentrated UF6 gas.
• Gas centrifuges rapidly spin cylinders of UF6, drawing the heavier
238U toward the outside of the centrifuge, while a slightly higher
concentration of 235U remains at the centre. This centre part of the
gas is siphoned off. The process is repeated many times.
• The enriched UF6 is reconverted to produce enriched UO2.
• 27 tonnes of fresh enriched fuel is required each year by a 1000
MWe reactor.
Uranium Categories by Enrichment
• Natural Uranium – contains a 238U concentration of 99.27%, 235U
concentration of 0.711 % and very little 234U.
• Low Enriched Uranium – contains a 235U concentration between 0.711%
percent and 20%. Most commercial reactor fuel uses low enriched uranium
(LEU) enriched to between 3 – 5% 235U. Uranium between 3 – 5% 235U is
sometimes referred to as “reactor-grade uranium.”
• Highly Enriched Uranium – contains a 235U concentration greater than 20%.
Highly enriched uranium (HEU) is used in naval propulsion reactors, nuclear
weapons & in some research reactors.
• Depleted Uranium – contains a 235U concentration of 0.711% or less. It is a
co-product of the enrichment process.
Nuclear Fuel Fabrication
• The enriched UF6 is converted into UO2 powder, which is then
made into fuel pellets.
• Press either natural or enriched UO2 powder into small cylindrical
shaped pellets (10 – 13 mm long & 8 – 13.5 mm diameter )
• Pellets are baked at 1600 – 1700°C, making them stronger & denser
• Pellets’ surface areas are then ground & finished to precise
dimensions
• Fuel pellets (≈20 g each) are collected into long (~3.65 m)
tubes called rods.
• The fuel rods are assembled into bundles (~200 rods per
bundle and ~175 bundles in the core), i.e., fuel assembly.
Nuclear Fuel Fabrication
Image: https://cna.ca/reactors-and-smrs/nuclear-fuel/#:~:text=Nuclear%20fuel%20is%20very%20energy,weight%20of%20a%20AA%20battery).
Nuclear Fuel Fabrication
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Nuclear fuel cycle: uranium’s
transformation from ore into
nuclear fuel and the handling of
waste products.
In 2024, there were about 440 commercial nuclear power reactors operable
in about 30 countries, with about 390 GWe of total capacity.
Peak Uranium
• The world's known uranium resources increased by at least one-
quarter in the last decade due to increased mineral exploration
• Uranium is a depletable fossil fuel.
• Peak uranium is the point in time that maximum production rate is
reached.
• There hasn’t been much analyses on peak uranium done so far
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.05.049
