1 Vor ouvELorment AND BIO 101 LECTURE NOTES 1 ECOLOG INTERACTIONS Defining Ecology Ecology is the science that attempt to answer questions about how nature works. The term Ecology is gotten from two Greek words: Oikos meaning “house” or “place to live” and Logos. meaning, “study of”. This coining of words was done by a German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. Ecology is study of organisms in relation to their environment. It examines the influence of the organisms on the environment and the reciprocal influence of the environment on the organisms. That is, it is the study of the interactions between organisms and their living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment. Note that the key word is interactions. Organism: Comprises of all living things and can be broadly grouped into two i.e. plants and animals. Some groups of organisms e.g. the Protista cannot be place in either plant or animal kingdom. There are two major types of ecology: Autecology: this deals with the study of individual organisms. the life eycie of anindividual organism as a means of adaptation Synecology: this deals with the study of groups of organisms which occur together. Environment ‘The complete _range of external_conditions in which an organism lives is called its Environment.lt is also said to be the physical and biological influences acting at a place during a particular time. The environment can be divided into: 1. Biotic: Biotic environment comprises all living things with which the organisms interact 2. Abiotic (physical environment): comprises all the non-living things. The abiotic environment can be divided into chemical and the physi | environments.Biosphere and the Ecosphere There are many major parts that play a role in sustaining life. Man is part of what ecologists refer to as the “biosphere” ~ the livin, \d organisms found near the earth surface in parts of the almosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere which makes the physical environment where we study the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions as well as the influences of one organism on the other, Having emphasized the holistic nature of ecology, we can now introduce the basic unit unique to ecology. One system of classifying units of biology is the hierarchical levels expressing the concept of biological scales (Fig. 1). Atmosphere iu Hydrosphere Lithosphere ‘gure |. Organisms interact with the physical environment: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere Atmosphere: This is the shell of gasses around the earth. The shell extends to thousands of kilometers above the surface of the planet. But, most of this skin of gases is so diffuse as to be at near vacuum conditions by human standards. Troposphere: This is the lower part of the atmosphere, and it is about 10 km thick and contains approximately 2/3 of the mass of gas which makes up the whole biosphere. Life is confined to the lower part of the troposphere, below about 6.5 km. Above that altitude the constant temperature ensures that all water is permanently frozen. life is impossible a is the mineral deposits of the earth, This was formed over geologic time Lively taken out of the rapid system of the atmosphere and locked into in the unweathered lithosphere, and such deposits include oil, coal Lithosphere: This periods, carbon was eff various geological depo and limestone. This provides a second vital ingredient for life, as life and water are inseparable Hydrospher because: Living tissue is mostly waterb. Cellular chemical reactions and transport of metabolites cannot be done without water c. Water is also the habitat for many organisms d. Primary producers obtain their nutrients by soil water intake Interactions between the physical environments gives life to the living components, hence; the biosphere is any part of the earth habitable by living things. The biosphere fulfils three (3) primary functions for plants and animals: i. Itprovides a safe “HABITAT” within which an individual organism can complete its life cycle. It provides a stable habitat within which the evolution of species can occur. iii, It forms a self-regenerating system in which energy is provided by the sun and the materials essential for life are recycled from within the system. Different ecosystemscan be found within the biosphere. It is important to know that biosphere (collection of living and dead organisms) do interact with one another and their non-living environment i.e. energy and chemicals throughout the world. The interaction which takes place between the biosphere and non-living environment is known as the “ecosphere” Ecological Levels of Organisation Ecological studies may deal with any of the three levels of the organisation; Individual: The individual level of organisms (plant or animal) is a genetically uniform entity. Together with its limited environment the individual forms an ecological unit. eract and 2. Population: This is a group of individuals of the same species that live, i migrate through the same niche and habitat Species: Species are a group of familiar organisms which interbreed freely among themselves to propagate its type but not with members of any group. Even if they do the hybrid is infertile e.g. a cross between a horse and a donkey which produces a mule (infertile). Community: This is formed when a population of various species aggregate and interact with one another. Therefore, organisms can interact with their biote and abiotic environment at various levels: i, They can interact at the organism level to form organismic systen ii, Orat the population level to form population systems 3iii, Or at the community level to form ecosystems THE ECOSYSTEM Ecosystem consists of communities of organisms which interact among themselves andwith the g abiotic components of the environment to form a self sustaining system that is non-liv dynamic in nature. The ecosystem is a concept often described as the basic unit of ecology and it embracesevery level of organisation. Types of Ecosystem Generally, there are two types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Terrestrial Ecosystems: These are major land ecosystems. They are described by their types of vegetation e.g. forest, grasslands, or deserts. These various types of vegetation are factored by climatic conditions such as temperature and rainfall Aquatic Ecosystems: These are majorly water ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems can be further classified to include ocean, lakes, rivers, estuaries (mouth of river segment or ocean inlets where saltwater and freshwater mix), coastal, and inland wetlands (swamps, marshes). Components of Ecosystems (a) Abiotic or non-livingcomponents: This means without life, which consists of the physical components of the ecosystem. The abiotic elements of an ecosystem comprise of climatic components (Average temperature and temperature range, sunlight and shade, wind and geological components, water level and air in the soil, soil nature and salinity of water, etc). (b) Biotic or living components: These components are related to living components. The biotic elements of an ecosystem consist of plants and animals. These elements are usually classified as: i, Producers: Mainly green plants including algae that can make use of the abiotic components to manufacture food. Consumers: These are mainly animals that depend on the producers. Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi which help to breakdown remains of plants and animals. They are mainly Saprotrophs which eventually release the original elementsto the soil or air. i.e. involved in cycling of materials.HABI' A habitat is a place or locality occupied by living things. Habitats could be Terrestri arboreal OR Aquatie-which include fresh water, marine and estuarine including Microhabit ‘These are specific localized areas within the habitats where organisms live e.g. the underside of a log or leaf. ‘These localized areas are characterized by their microclimate/microenvironment. Macroenvironment: This is an environment influenced by general climate, altitude, and latitude ofa region, rainfall, temperature, wind speed etc. Microenvironment: Is the environments close enough to the surface of an organism or object to be influenced by its, e.g. light quality and quantity which is much more different for herbs beneath a forest canopy than leaves above the canopy. Sometimes environmental influences are regarded as Environmental factors. Environmental factors could be physical i. climate, physiographic (relates to the structure of the earth) or edaphic (related to the soil conditions). Biotic factors are associated with activities of livingthings such as competitionspredation etc. Biotopes: The biotope is a uniform habitat with the same type of environmental conditions, same types of animals with no variation. E.g. of biotopes are small lakes, ponds ete. Ecological niche: The ecological niche describes the position or status of an organism in space and time. it indicates both the habitat (where an organism lives) and what it does. i.e. its entire way of life. It’s profession or functional role (referred to as functional niche) in the community. its behavior, its feeding habits ete. Each species occupies its own niche and notwo species occupy the same niche. Where two or more species compete for the same niche, one has to become extinct or they have to separate into different niches in order to coexist in the community. Ecotypes: These are plant species that grow widely in various habitats with both morphological and physiological variations which correlate with the type of habitat. These variations are both genotypic and phenotypic and are due to natural selection acting on the gene in the gene pool. ‘This concept was developed by Turesson a Swedish bio: (1920-1930) atter workin on plants transplants in his garden. Ecotypes are mosaic population within the species and each ecotype is adapted to a particular habitat due to natural selection, Variation in plants species is discontinuous but where variation is continuous, it is jemati ‘alled Eeodine, cotone: Is a transition area between two different communities where there is an overlap and maximum interaction between the two communi . There is an edge efleet, i.e. more plants and animals are found here than in any (wo communities, there is therefore more species diversity in the ecotone. Example, forests and grassland, mudflat and sandy beach (shore), desert grassland. 5SPECIES INTERACTION IN ECOSYSTEMS worthy to note the different types of species that Having defined what a species is earlier, can be found within an ecosystem: © Native species: species indigenously and/ or naturally found in an area © Immigrant or alien species: They migrate or are deliberately or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans. They may be beneficial while some types are not thereby causing problem within the ecosystem. © Keystone species: these types of species play a key role in the sustenance of other species in an ecosystem. The loss of a keystone species may affect other dependant species in an ecosystem either by sharp population drop or by extraction of other species”. Interaction among living organisms entails the interrelationship that exists between two or more organisms of the same or different species in any given habitat. Living organisms have influence on the changes and regulation of each other’s population density. These interactions can exist between different species (interspecific) or within the same species (intraspecific). Different species interactions exist: A. COMPETITION (-,-) This kind of interaction occurs where two or more organisms utilize the same resources that are limited in supply in the habitat. Organisms tend (o strive to get this limited resources and that leads to completion. Competition for this limited resource may sometime involve direct aggressive interaction between individuals, which can be referred to as interference competition. Competitive interactions can take place among members of the same species (intraspecific competition), or among members of two or more different species (interspecific competition), However, competitive exclu n also oceurs. Competitive exelusion occurs when one species excludes the other from urce use entirely, In all eases, the organi compete for space, food, air, and mating partners. Competing species that live side-by-side at a certain ratio of population sizes may however, reach a stable equilibrium point - species coexistence.Coexisting species that use the same resources tend to minimize competition by using only a portion of the total array of resources - their niche, or ecological role in the community - that they are capable of using, al niche, a. The full niche of a species is called its fundamen b. An indi dual that plays only part of its role because of competition or other species interactions is said to be displaying a realized niche. Over time, competing species may evolve to use slightly different resources or to use their shared resources in different ways; this is resource partitioning, B. EXPLOITATIVE INTERACTION (+ ,-) Exploitation occurs when one member of an interaction take advantage of another for its own gain. This form of interaction is such that it enhances the fitness of one individual, while reducing the fitness of the exploited individual. This common thread can as well be seen in the following forms of interactions which are grouped under exploitative interaction. Predation Predators kill and consume other organisms (prey). Typical predators are animals that feed on other animals, Predation is the process by which an individual of one species, a predator, hunts, captures, kills, and consumes an individual of another species, its prey. Predation can sometimes drive population dynamics, causing cycles in population sizes. Predation also has evolutionary implications. That is to say that more adept predator will leave more and healthier offspring, leading to the evolution of adaptations that make them better hunters. Here, good predators will be healthier to withstand other pressures. During a competitive situation on a limited resource, they will be able to survive thus, passing their gene to the next generation. The same selective pressure acts on prey species that evolve defenses against being eaten. b. Parasitism Parasites live on the tissues of their host, often reducing the fitness of the tissues of their host, but ism not generally killing it. Para a relationship in which one organism, the parasite, depends ‘on another, the host , for nourishment (food) or some other benefit such as shelter while simultaneously doing the host harm. It is an interspecific interaction. Parasitism usually does notresult in an organism's immediate death, Many parasites live in close contact with their hosts, such as disease pathogens, tapeworms, ticks, and lamprey. Other types of parasites are free- , nest parasites such as living and come into contact with their hosts only infrequently (¢, cuckoos and cowbirds). Some parasites cause little harm, but others may kill their hosts to survive, called parasitoids. A parasitoid is an insect whose larva consumes its host and kills it in the process; parasitoids are functionally equivalent to predators.lt is however important to note that not all predators are animals, a few plants, some are fungi, and many are protozoans.Parasitism is responsible for numerous plant and animal diseases since it weaken the host’s system and make it less productive There are different types of parasites which include: i. Ectoparasites: These are parasites that live on the body of the host e.g. aphids on citrus plants, mistletoe on trees, lice, bugs and flea live on the skin of animals. Endoparasites: Parasite that inhabit internal tissues and organs of plants and animals e.g. Nematode in tomato roots, plasmodium in human blood, Ascaris, hook worms and tape worms in the intestine of animals. Facultative parasite: They are organisms that can live as parasites as well as being free living organisms. iv. Obligate parasites: They are parasites that can survive only on or in a host. It cannot live freely if the host dies the die together with the parasite. E.g. Plasmodium. Parasites that cause diseases are called pathogens, c. Herbivory Herbivores exploit plants, Herbivores are basically animals that feed on plants. Herbivory therefore occurs when animals feed on the tissues of plants. Here, herbivory does not kill the plant, but can affect growth and reproduction. C, MUTUALISM (+ , +) Mutualism is an interaction that exists between individuals of different species that benefit both can live without their partners. Examples are legumes and nitrogen fixing bacteria, Some spec mutualistic partners and so the relationship is called facultative mutualism, Other species are sodependent upon the mutualistic relationship that they cannot live in absence. Such a relationship is an obligate mutualism, Many mutualistic relationships like many parasitic relationships occur between organisms of different species that live in close physical contact; this is called symbiosis. The interaction may be complex involving physiological, structural, nutritional or morphological modifications. Free-living organisms such as bees and flowers also engage in mutualism in the process of pollination. Some interactions have no effect on some participants D. AMENSALISM (- , 0) Thisis a relationship in which one organism is harmed and the other is unaffected. This is a non obligatory relationship where the action of one organism purposely harms or inhibits other species. For example, a lactobacillus bacterium secretes lactic acid to inhibit the growth of other microbes. E. COMMENSALISM (+ , 0) It is an interspecific relationship in which one partner gains and the other neither gains nor loses. Example: i. Epiphytes in forest region use trees or branches of trees for support without harm or benefit from the tree, epiphytes obtains more light and air in this manner. ii, Remora and shark; they remora attach itself to the body of the shark and is transported everywhere and eat food crump from left-over of the shark's meal. ili, Cattle egret (White colored heron) in association with cattle feed on insects around the cattle. F, SAPROPHYTISM ‘This is a sit ation in which organisms live on dead organic matter and obtain their nourishment by secreting digestive enzyme on to the organic matter and absorbing the digested material. Plants that feed this way are called saprophytes e.g. fungi, while animals are called Saprozoids c.g. some ciliates, flagellates and houseflies. Saproph ytes are responsible for the decompositionof organic matter. ‘They are also called detritus feeders that can cause decay and are active in reducing food chains. They are of utmost ecological importance because they cause putrification or decay of dead organic matter and clear the environment releasing gases, organic acid and nutrients in nutrient cycle. They also release nitrate into the soil as a result of their activities which is used for the growth of primary producers.