MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities

First Year Engineering

23ASH1106 - Fundamentals of Photonics

Class – F.Y. (SEM-II)

Unit III- Photon detectors and Photovoltaic cells

AY 2024-2025
Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities
First Year Engineering

23ASH1106 - Fundamentals of Photonics

Class – F.Y. (SEM-II), <SoC 02, 03>

Topic 1 - Photodetectors
(3 Lectures)

AY 2023-2024 SEM-II
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Characteristics of General Photodiode

3. Materials used for Photodetector

4. Construction of Photodiodes

5. Working of Photodiodes

6. Applications
 Photodetectors
Tiny marvels powering the tech world
We live in a world where:
• Smoke detector instantly reacts to the faintest flicker of a
flame.
• Fiber optic cables carry information across continents at the
speed of light.
• Cameras capture stunning images even in complete darkness.
• Solar panels silently convert sunlight into clean, renewable
energy.

All these wonders and more are made possible by the

remarkable advancements in photonic detectors and
semiconductor photodiodes. These tiny devices play a crucial
role in countless aspects of modern technology.
 A Photo detector is a key component of an optical receiver in an
optical fiber communication system where the optical signal is
converted to an electrical signal.

 The photo detector receives the transmitted optical pulses containing

information such as Voice, Video or Computer Data impressed on it and
converts it into an Electrical Signal.

 A Photo Detector is basically a Transducer that converts a signal from the

optical domain to electrical domain. This process is called as optical to
electrical (O/E) conversion.
 Photodiode
(A type of photodetector)

 A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that that converts light into

an electrical current.
 Sometimes it is also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and
photo-sensor.
 A photodiode is typically operated in reverse bias, which enhances
its sensitivity to light.

 It works on the principle of the internal photoelectric effect.

 Characteristics of a General Photodiode

 Size Compatibility

 High conversion Efficiency

 High sensitivity at Operating wavelength

 High response speed

 Minimum Noise

 Low sensitivity to temperature

 Types of Photodiodes
Based on the internal Mechanism for multiplying photo-generated carriers,
Photodiodes are classified as
1) Non- Multiplying (PN Photodiode, p-i-n Photodiode)

2) Multiplying Photodetectors (Avalanche Photodiode)

A simple p-n junction A high-performance variant Employs high voltage to

photodiode used in with an intrinsic region amplify weak light
reverse-biased mode. between p and n layers, signals through carrier
The classic diode increasing charge carrier multiplication.
design, offering good
collection efficiency.
sensitivity and wide
spectral range.
 Materials used for Photodetector

The specific properties of the semiconductor material determine its suitability for
different photodetector applications. (Si, GaAs, InP)
• Silicon (Si):
With a bandgap of 1.12 eV, Si readily absorbs visible light, making it first choice for
silicon-based solar cells and low-cost photodiodes. However, it has limited IR response.
• Indium Phosphide (InP):
Possessing a wider bandgap of 1.34 eV, InP extends photodetection into the mid-infrared
range (~2 μm). This makes it invaluable for medical imaging and long-distance optical
communication in challenging atmospheric conditions. InP devices require more complex
fabrication processes and exhibit higher manufacturing costs than Si and GaAs.

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs):

Boasting an even wider bandgap of 1.43 eV, GaAs exhibits efficient absorption of near-
infrared light up to ~0.9 μm. This renders it ideal for high-speed fiber optic
communication and night-vision technologies. It has higher cost compared to Si.
 PLANAR DIFFUSED SILICON PHOTODIODE
CONSTRUCTION :
 Planar diffused silicon photodiodes are simply P-N junction diodes.
 A P-N junction can be formed by diffusing a P-type impurity, such as Boron,
into a N-type bulk silicon wafer. The diffused area defines the photodiode
active area.  The Metal contact pads are
deposited on the front active area
on defined areas, and on the
backside, completely covering the
device.
 The active area is then passivated
with an anti-reflection coating to
reduce the reflection of the light
for a specific predefined
wavelength.
 The non-active area on the top is covered with a thick layer of silicon oxide. By
controlling the thickness of bulk substrate, the speed and responsivity of the
photodiode can be controlled.

 Note that the photodiodes, when biased, must be operated in the reverse bias
mode, i.e. a negative voltage applied to anode and positive voltage to cathode.
 Working

 When photons – or light – of sufficient energy fall on the p-n

junction of the photodiode, they break and ionize the covalent
bonds of the immobile atoms.
 This generates new electron-hole pairs. This phenomenon is
called the Internal photoelectric effect.

 The generated electrons are swept toward the n-type material

(because the depletion region of the n-type material is positively
charged). The holes are swept towards the p-type material
(because the depletion region of the p-type material is negatively
charged). This flow of charge leads to photocurrent or simply
current.
 Quantum Efficiency ()

The Quantum efficiency of a photodetector is defined as the number

of electron- hole pairs generated per incident photons

𝒑

𝒊𝒏


The quantum efficiency of a practical photodetector is less than

unity. Optical absorption coefficient is one of the major factor that
determines the quantum efficiency.
Responsivity, R
The responsivity of a photodiode is a measure

Responsivity A / W
of the sensitivity to light, and it is defined as
the ratio of the photocurrent IP to the incident
light power P at a given wavelength:

𝒑 𝒑

𝒊

R=η
hѵ
Here, ‘hѵ’ is the energy of photon; ‘η’ is the quantum efficiency & ‘q’ the charge of
electron.
For instance, the quantum efficiency of a photodiode is 90% at an 800 nm wavelength,
then the responsivity will be 0.58 A/W.

In other words, Responsivity is a measure of the effectiveness of the conversion of the

light power into electrical current.
It varies with the wavelength of the incident light (Fig. 5) as well as applied reverse bias
and temperature.
 Applications

Want to see pictures? Silicon!

Need to feel heat? Gallium Arsenide!
See in the dark? Indium Phosphide!

• Used in charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and

photomultiplier tubes.
• Used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors,
compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in
VCRs.
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the
intensity of light in science & industry.
Applications
Exercise:
1. What is a photodiode? Draw its symbol. [L1,2]

2. Define quantum efficiency for photodiode and write its formula. [L1,2]

3. Define responsivity of a photodiode and write its formula. [L1,2]

4. How does responsivity of a photodiode change with change in incident

wavelength of light? [L2,2]

5. List four applications of photodiodes. [L1,2]

6. Explain different types of photodiodes. [L2,4]

7. Explain the basis of light detection for a photodetector. [L2,4]

8. Calculate the responsivity of a photodetector material (in mA/W) having

quantum efficiency of 2% for a light of wavelength 700nm. For a light of
wavelength 2.1Å what should be the quantum efficiency to keep the
responsivity constant? (11mA/W, 65%) [L2,4]
Exercise:
9. Explain the construction and working of photodiode along with labelled
diagram. [L2,4]

10.Enlist any two materials used for photodetectors along with their
advantages and limitations. [L1,4]

11.State the principle of a photodiode. [L1,2]

Numerical 1:
An industrial automation system uses a silicon photodiode with a responsivity of
0.6 A/W at a wavelength of 850 nm. The incident optical power on the
photodiode is 50 µW.
(a) Calculate the photocurrent generated.
(b) If the system requires a minimum photocurrent of 20 µA to trigger an alarm,
will the alarm be activated?
Numerical 2:
A high-speed fiber-optic communication system employs an InGaAs photodiode
to convert optical signals into electrical current. When an optical power of 200
µW is received at a wavelength of 1550 nm, the photodiode generates a
photocurrent of 0.17 mA. Given these conditions, determine the responsivity of
the photodiode at this wavelength.
Numerical 3:
Solar-powered weather monitoring station uses a photodiode-based light sensor to
measure solar intensity. The sensor has a responsivity of 0.4 A/W at a wavelength of 600
nm. On a bright sunny day, it generates a photocurrent of 0.4 mA. Calculate the incident
optical power on the sensor.
Numerical 4:
A barcode scanner employs a photodiode with a responsivity of 0.5 A/W. During
operation, it receives a reflected laser power of 75 µW.
a) Find the output photocurrent.
(b) If the system has a threshold photocurrent of 30 µA for valid barcode detection, will
the scanner successfully detect the barcode?
Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities
First Year Engineering

23ASH1106 - Fundamentals of Photonics

Class – F.Y. (SEM-II), <SoC 23>

Topic 2 - Photoconductors
(1 Lecture)

AY 2023-2024 SEM-II
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Mechanism of Photoconductivity

3. Factors Influencing Photoconductivity

4. Construction & Working of Photoconductors

5. Difference from Photodiode

6. Applications of Photoconductors
 Photoconductivity
The term photoconductivity is derived from two words:
•"Photo" – Meaning light or photon
•"Conductivity" – Referring to the movement of charge carriers in a material

 Thus, photoconductivity refers to the phenomenon in which a material's

electrical conductivity increases when exposed to light.
This effect is observed in semiconductors, where incoming light generates free
charge carriers that contribute to current flow.

What is a Photoconductor?
A photoconductor is a device whose electrical conductivity increases due to
incident light.
It operates based on the principle of photoconductivity and is widely used in
optoelectronic applications.
 Mechanism of Photoconductivity
 Photoconductivity occurs prominently in semiconductor materials.

 When a photon with energy greater than or

equal to band gap energy (Eg) strikes the
semiconductor, it excites an electron from the
valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB).
 This excitation creates an electron-hole pair,
increasing the number of charge carriers.

 The excited electron in the CB and the hole in the VB act as free charge carriers,
increasing the material's conductivity.
 When an external voltage is applied, these charge carriers move in opposite
directions, creating a photocurrent. The photoconductive effect continues until
electron-hole recombination occurs through radiative (light-emitting) or non-
radiative processes.
 Characteristics of a Good Photoconductor

1. High Responsivity: The photoconductor should generate a significant photocurrent for a

given optical power.

2. Low Dark Current: Minimal current should flow in the absence of light to reduce noise.

3. Fast Response Time: The photoconductor should react quickly to changes in incident
light.

4. Wide Spectral Response: It should operate over a broad range of wavelengths.

5. Stable Performance: The material should not degrade over time under continuous
exposure.
 Factors Influencing Photoconductivity
1. Material Properties:
• Bandgap energy (Eg): Determines the threshold photon energy for
photoexcitation.
• Carrier mobility (μ): Influences the ease of charge carrier transport.
• Defect density: Traps can act as recombination centres, reducing carrier
lifetime.

2. Incident Light:
• Intensity (I): Higher I increases photoexcitation rate and carrier density.
• Wavelength (λ): Must be shorter than or equal to the material's absorption
edge.

3. Temperature (T):
• Thermal generation of carriers increases with T, but recombination rates also
rise.
Responsivity of a Photoconductor
Responsivity of a photoconductor is parameter that
quantifies the effectiveness of converting incident
optical power into an electrical signal.
It is defined as the ratio of the output photocurrent
to the incident optical power

The unit of responsivity is amperes per watt (A/W).

Factors Affecting Responsivity:

1.Wavelength of Incident Light: Responsivity varies with wavelength as the material absorbs
light differently at different wavelengths.
2.Quantum Efficiency (η): The percentage of photons that generate charge carriers.
3.Carrier Lifetime: Longer lifetimes lead to more charge carriers, increasing responsivity.
4.Temperature: At higher temperatures, dark current increases, which may reduce
responsivity.
 Photoconductive Cell
 A Photoconductive Cell is also called as a photoresistor, or light-dependent
resistor (LDR) and is a passive electronic component.

“The photoconductive cell works by altering its electrical resistance based on

the amount of light that strikes its surface, a property known as
photoconductivity”

 They are made up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. Common materials used
include: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) , Indium Antimonide (InSb), Cadmium
Sulphonide (CdSO₄).
 Construction
 The LDR is built on an insulating substrate, typically made of ceramic.
 A thin layer of photoconductive material is deposited on the ceramic substrate in a
zigzag pattern to: Increase the effective length of the conductive path and light
absorption efficiency of the device.
 Metallic contacts are placed at both ends of the photoconductive layer to allow
electrical connection.
 A transparent protective coating is made to shield the delicate photoconductive
material from moisture, dust, and mechanical damage.
 Working
When light having enough energy strikes on the device, the electrons in the
valence band of the Photoconductive material are excited to the conduction
band.
Therefore, free charge carriers like holes & electrons can be created within the
material, its resistance will be decreased. This is called the Photoconductive
effect.
Intensity of light is increased, the resistance of the LDR drops and current
starts increasing.

Electrode contacts
(for charge collection)
 Differences Between Photoconductors & Photodiodes
1. Operating Mechanism:
 Photoconductors: Rely on the increased conductivity of the material when
exposed to light. Light excites electrons from their valence band to the
conduction band, creating more mobile charge carriers, resulting in a higher
current.
 Photodiodes: Utilize a p-n junction, like in a diode. When light strikes the
junction, it generates electron-hole pairs. Due to the built-in electric field of the
junction, these carriers are separated and collected as a photocurrent.

2. Internal Gain:
 Photoconductors: Do not have internal gain. The photocurrent directly follows
the intensity of the incoming light.
 Photodiodes: Some types, like avalanche photodiodes, exhibit internal gain. The
separated electron in the junction gains energy and ionizes other atoms, creating
multiple electron-hole pairs, amplifying the initial photocurrent.
 Differences Between Photoconductors & Photodiodes
3. Bias Voltage:
 Photoconductors: Can operate without bias voltage, but applying one can
slightly control the conductivity.
Examples of materials used : Germanium, Silicon, Indium gallium arsenide &
Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide.
 Photodiodes: Require a reverse bias voltage to create the depletion region
where electron-hole separation occurs. The applied bias can significantly
influence the photocurrent and responsivity.
Examples of materials used : selenium, conductive polymer polyvinyl carbazole.

4. Response Speed:
 Photoconductors: Generally, have a slower response time due to the reliance on
diffusion of charge carriers. Their response speeds can range from microseconds
to milliseconds.
 Photodiodes: Offer faster response times (nanoseconds to picoseconds) due to
the drift of carriers in the electric field within the junction.
Applications

Photodetectors (photoresistors or LDRs); Light-activated switches

Imaging sensors; Optical communication systems; Spectroscopy
Exercise:
1. What is photoconductivity and what is a photoconductor? [L1,2]

2. State the principle of a photoconductor. [L1,2]

3. Give four applications of photoconductors. [L1,2]

4. Explain, in detail, the mechanism of photoconductivity. [L2,4]

5. State the factors influencing photoconductivity? [L1,4]

6. Explain the construction and Working of a photoconductor along with a

labelled diagram. [L2,4]

7. Outline four differences between photoconductors and photodiodes. [L2,4]

8. State Characteristics of a good Photoconductor. [L1,2]

9. Define Responsivity of a photoconductor. State & Explain factors affecting

Photoconductivity. [L2, 4]
Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities
First Year Engineering

23ASH1106 - Fundamentals of Photonics

Class – F.Y. (SEM-II), <SoC 23>

Topic 3 –Photovoltaic Cells

(2 Lectures)

AY 2023-2024 SEM-II
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Construction of Photovoltaic Cell
3. Working of Photovoltaic Cell
4. Factors Influencing Efficiency
5. Types of solar cells
6. V-I Characteristics
7. Applications
 Photovoltaic Cells
Harnessing the Power of the Sun

“The photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor device that converts light

energy into electrical energy”
Most commonly used photovoltaic cells are made of crystalline
silicon and have energy conversion efficiency of around 12-24%.
(Hence a lot of improvement in this field is the need of the hour for
our energy deficit world).
 Construction

 A very thin layer of n-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively thicker p-type

semiconductor.
 A PN junction diode is sandwiched between the P-type and N-type materials.
 The cell's surface is coated with an anti-reflective layer to minimize light loss.
 A contact layer exists on the cell's top and bottom to complete the circuit and
carry the current to an external location.
 Working
1. Photon Absorption:
• Sunlight hits the top layer of the cell, typically made of silicon.
• Only photons with enough energy (specific wavelength) are absorbed.
• These absorbed photons interact with atoms in the material, exciting
electrons and excitation them to higher energy levels.
2. Electron-Hole Pair Creation:
• The excited electrons leave behind empty spaces called holes.
• This creates electron-hole pairs.
 Working
3. Charge Carrier Separation:
• The cell has a built-in electric field due to arrangement of different
semiconductor layers (p-type and n-type).
• This electric field acts like a one-way door, pushing the negatively charged
electrons towards the n-type layer and the positively charged holes towards
the p-type layer.

4. Current Generation:
• The separated electrons and holes travel through the cell and reach the
metal contacts on opposite sides.
• This flow of charged particles through the external circuit connected to the
contacts constitutes an electric current.

5. Electricity Harvesting:
• The generated current is the usable electricity produced by the solar cell.
• The amount of electricity depends on factors like the intensity of
sunlight, the cell's efficiency, and the area of the cell.
Working
 V-I Characteristics

Current (I) Voltage (V)

 The maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the
maximum current at closed circuit.
 Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power,
but there must be a point somewhere in between where the solar cell
generates maximum power.
• There is one particular combination of I and V for which the power reaches
its maximum value, at Imp (Maximum point current) and Vmp (Maximum point
Voltage). The point at which the cell generates maximum electrical power.
This is the “Maximum Power Point” or MPP (It is working power).
 Fill Factor

 The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current
and voltage respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating
points, the power from the solar cell is zero.

 The Fill Factor (FF) is a key performance parameter of a solar cell that indicates how
efficiently it converts available power into useful electrical power.

It is calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical/ideal power.

 Factors Influencing Efficiency
• Material Properties: The semiconductor material used in solar cells significantly
impacts their efficiency. Properties such as bandgap, carrier mobility, and absorption
coefficient determine how effectively the material converts sunlight into electricity.
• Absorption Spectrum: Solar cells must efficiently absorb sunlight across the entire
solar spectrum. Materials with broader absorption spectra can capture more
photons and convert them into electricity.
• Reflection and Transmission Losses: Anti-reflection coatings reduce surface
reflections, while transparent conductive coatings minimize transmission losses.
These coatings improve light absorption and transmission within the solar cell.

• External Quantum Efficiency (EQE): The External Quantum Efficiency (EQE)

characterizes how efficiently a solar cell converts absorbed photons into charge
carriers. Maximizing EQE across different wavelengths enhances overall cell
efficiency.
• Temperature: Solar cell efficiency decreases with increasing temperature due to
increased electron-hole recombination rates. Cooling systems or designs that
minimize temperature rise can improve efficiency.
 Applications
 Photovoltaic cells are extensively used in
residential settings to generate electricity for
homes.
 Commercial and industrial facilities utilize
photovoltaic cells to generate renewable electricity
onsite.
 Photovoltaic cells are crucial components of off-
grid power systems, providing electricity to remote
areas without access to the utility grid.

 Photovoltaic cells are integrated

into portable and mobile devices to
provide power for various
applications.
Exercise:
1. What is a photovoltaic cell? Draw its symbol. [L1,2]
2. List any four applications of photovoltaic cells? [L1,2]
3. Describe the construction of a photovoltaic cell? [L2,4]
4. Using the V-I characteristic of a photovoltaic cell explain maximum
current, maximum voltage and maximum power point for a solar cell.
[L2,4]
5. Summarise the factors that influence the efficiency of a photovoltaic
cell? [L2,4]
6. Describe the working of a photovoltaic cell. [L2,4]
7. Write a note on Fill factor of a Solar Cell. [L1, 2]