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Edited by Gade Pandu Rangaiah

Chemical Process
Retrofitting and
Revamping
Techniques and Applications
Chemical Process
Retrofitting and
Revamping
 Dedication

In memory of my late parents:

Gade Sakuntala Devi and Gade Gopala Swami,
who nurtured and educated me

and

To my dearest wife:
Puvvada Krishna Kumari,
for her selfless support and devotion to our family
 Chemical Process
Retrofitting and
Revamping
Techniques and Applications

Edited by

GADE PANDU RANGAIAH

Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering
National University of Singapore
Singapore
This edition first published 2016 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered office
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chemical process retrofitting and revamping : techniques and applications / edited by G.P. Rangaiah.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-119-01633-5 (cloth)
1. Chemical plants–Remodeling. 2. Chemical plants–Maintenance and repair. 3. Chemical plants–Equipment and
supplies. I. Rangaiah, Gade Pandu, editor.
TP155.5.C5128 2016
660–dc23
2015033565

Cover images: Main image: Courtesy of the editor and authors. Background image: from GettyImages, at http://www.gettyimages
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India.

1 2016
 Contents

List of Contributors xiii

Preface xv

PART I OVERVIEW

1 Introduction 3
G.P. Rangaiah
1.1 Chemical Process Plants 3
1.2 Process Retrofitting and Revamping 4
1.3 Stages in Process Retrofitting/Revamping Projects 6
1.4 Conceptual Process Design for Process Retrofit/Revamp Projects 8
1.5 Research and Development in Process Retrofit/Revamp 9
1.6 Scope and Organization of this Book 12
1.7 Conclusions 16
References 17

2 Project Engineering and Management for Process Retrofitting and

Revamping 19
C.C.S. Reddy
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Key Differences between Revamp and Grassroots Designs 20
2.3 Revamp Design Methodology 20
2.4 Project/Process Engineering and Management of Revamp Projects 24
2.4.1 Revamp Objectives and Pre-Feasibility Study 24
2.4.2 Conceptual Design (Pre-FEED) 24
2.4.3 FEED (Front End Engineering Design) 31
2.4.4 Detailed Engineering, Procurement and Construction 33
2.4.5 Project Completion 35
2.5 Key Elements of Project Management 35
2.5.1 Project Schedule 39
2.5.2 Project Execution and Progress Monitoring 39
2.5.3 Project Cost Control 40
2.5.4 Risk Management 41
2.5.5 Final Project Deliverables 41
2.6 Revamp Options for Process Equipment 41
vi Contents

2.7 Conclusions 53
Acronyms 53
References 54

3 Process Safety in Revamp Projects 57

Raman Balajee and C.C.S. Reddy
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Lessons from Past Process Safety Incidents 59
3.3 Preliminary Hazard Review during Conceptual Design 60
3.3.1 Risk Matrix for Qualitative Judgments 61
3.3.2 What-If and Process Safety Check Lists 62
3.3.3 Plot Plan and Layout Review 63
3.3.4 Area Classification Reviews 65
3.3.5 Pressure Relief System Considerations 66
3.3.6 Fire Safety for Revamp Projects 72
3.4 Process Hazard Analysis (PHA) 74
3.4.1 Process Plant Hazard Review using HAZOP 74
3.4.2 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Tool 79
3.4.3 Instrumented Protective System Design 81
3.4.4 Fault Tree Analysis 82
3.4.5 Event Tree Analysis 84
3.4.6 Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA) 85
3.4.7 Safety Instrumented System (SIS) Life Cycle 88
3.5 Revision of PSI and Operator Induction 88
3.6 Pre-Start-up Safety Review (PSSR) 90
3.7 Management of Change (MOC) 91
3.8 Conclusions 92
Acronyms 93
Exercises 94
References 95

PART II TECHNIQUES FOR RETROFITTING AND REVAMPING

4 Mathematical Modeling, Simulation and Optimization for Process Design 99

Shivom Sharma and G.P. Rangaiah
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Process Modeling and Model Solution 101
4.2.1 Process Modeling 101
4.2.2 Model Solution 103
4.2.3 Model for Membrane Separation of a Gas Mixture 104
4.3 Process Simulators and Aspen Custom Modeler 107
4.4 Optimization Methods and Programs 108
4.5 Interfacing a Process Simulator with Excel 112
4.6 Application to Membrane Separation Process 113
4.7 Conclusions 116
 Contents vii

Acronyms 116
Appendix 4A: Implementation of Membrane Model in ACM 117
Appendix 4B: Interfacing of Aspen Plus v8.4 with Excel 2013 119
Appendix 4C: Interfacing of Aspen HYSYS v8.4 with Excel 2013 122
Exercises 125
References 125

5 Process Intensification in Process Retrofitting and Revamping 129

D.P. Rao
5.1 Introduction 129
5.1.1 Retrofitting and Revamping 129
5.1.2 Evolution of Chemical Industries and Process Intensification 130
5.1.3 Flow Chemistry 130
5.2 Methods of Process Intensification 130
5.2.1 Intensification of Rates 131
5.2.2 Process Integration 132
5.3 Alternatives to Conventional Separators 132
5.3.1 Rotating Packed Beds (HIGEE) 133
5.3.2 HIGEE with Split Packing 134
5.3.3 Zigzag HIGEE 135
5.3.4 Multi-rotor Zigzag HIGEE 136
5.3.5 Applications of HIGEE for Retrofitting 137
5.3.6 Podbielniak Centrifugal Extractor 138
5.3.7 Annular Centrifugal Extractor 139
5.3.8 Adsorbers 140
5.4 Alternatives to Stirred Tank Reactor (STR) 142
5.4.1 HEX Reactor 142
5.4.2 Advanced-flowTM Reactor (AFR) 143
5.4.3 Agitated Cell Reactor (ACR) 145
5.4.4 Oscillatory-flow Baffled Reactors (OBR) 146
5.4.5 Spinning Disc Reactor (SDR) 147
5.4.6 Spinning Tube-in-tube Reactor (STTR) 148
5.4.7 Stator-rotor Spinning Disc Reactor (Stator-rotor SDR) 150
5.4.8 Reactor Selection 150
5.4.9 Microchannel Devices 151
5.5 Process Integration 151
5.5.1 Heat and Mass Integration 152
5.5.2 Reactive Separations 152
5.5.3 Hybrid Separation 153
5.5.4 Conversion of Crosscurrent into Countercurrent Process 153
5.5.5 Process-specific Integration 154
5.5.6 In-line Processing 157
5.5.7 Twister® - A Supersonic Separator 158
5.6 Fundamental Issues of PI 159
5.7 Future of PI 159
viii Contents

5.8 Conclusions 160

Acknowledgement 160
Appendix 5A: Monographs, Reviews and Some Recent Papers 160
References 163

6 Using Process Integration Technology to Retrofit Chemical Plants for

Energy Conservation and Wastewater Minimization 167
Russell F. Dunn and Jarrid Scott Ristau
6.1 Introduction 167
6.1.1 Heat Integration Networks 168
6.1.2 Water Recycle Networks 169
6.2 Graphical Design Tools for Retrofitting Process for Energy Conservation
by Designing Heat Exchange Networks 170
6.2.1 The Temperature–Interval Diagram (TID) 171
6.2.2 The Heat Pinch Composite Curves (Temperature–Enthalpy
Diagrams) 172
6.2.3 The Enthalpy-Mapping Diagram (EMD) 174
6.2.4 Identifying Heat Integration Matches Using the TID and EMD 174
6.2.5 Graphical Tools Facilitate HEN Design for Large-scale Industrial
Problems 177
6.3 Graphical Design Tools for Retrofitting Processes for Wastewater
Reduction by Designing Water Recycle Networks 179
6.3.1 The Material Recycle Pinch Diagram 179
6.3.2 The Source–Sink Mapping Diagram 181
6.3.3 Suggested Guidelines for Identifying Water Recycle Matches
Using the Material Recycle Pinch Diagram and Source–Sink
Mapping Diagrams 181
6.4 Conclusions 182
Appendix 6A: Illustrating the Water Recycle Network Design Guidelines 183
Exercises 188
References 190

7 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofitting: Alternative Solutions via

Multi-objective Optimization for Industrial Implementation 193
B.K. Sreepathi and G.P. Rangaiah
7.1 Introduction 193
7.2 Heat Exchanger Networks 196
7.2.1 Structural Representation 198
7.3 HEN Improvements 199
7.4 MOO Method, HEN Model and Exchanger Reassignment Strategy 203
7.4.1 Multi-objective Optimization 203
7.4.2 HEN Model 205
7.4.3 Exchanger Reassignment Strategy (ERS) 206
7.5 Case Study 208
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 Contents ix

7.6 Results and Discussion 208

7.6.1 Simple Retrofitting 209
7.6.2 Moderate Retrofitting 211
7.6.3 Complex Retrofitting 214
7.6.4 Comparison and Discussion 216
7.7 Conclusions 218
Appendix 7A: Calculation of Nodal Temperatures 218
Exercises 221
References 221

8 Review of Optimization Techniques for Retrofitting Batch Plants 223

Catherine Azzaro-Pantel
8.1 Introduction 223
8.2 Batch Plant Typical Features 224
8.3 Formulation of the Batch Plant Retrofit Problem 228
8.3.1 Design versus Retrofitting Problem 228
8.3.2 Design/Retrofit Problems: A Four-Level Framework 229
8.4 Methods and Tools for Retrofit Strategies 230
8.4.1 General Comments 230
8.4.2 Key Approaches in Batch Plant Retrofitting: Deterministic vs
Stochastic Methods 238
8.4.3 New Trends in Batch Plant Retrofitting: Steps for More
Sustainable Processes 242
8.5 Conclusions 243
References 244

PART III RETROFITTING AND REVAMPING APPLICATIONS

9 Retrofit of Side Stream Columns to Dividing Wall Columns, with Case

Studies of Industrial Applications 251
Moonyong Lee, Le Quang Minh, Nguyen Van Duc Long, and Joonho Shin
9.1 Introduction 251
9.2 Side Stream Column 254
9.2.1 Side Stream Configuration 254
9.2.2 Heuristic Rules for the Use of SSCs 256
9.2.3 Pros and Cons of SSC 257
9.2.4 Design of SSC 257
9.3 Dividing Wall Column 258
9.3.1 Introduction 258
9.3.2 Design and Optimization of DWC 259
9.4 Retrofit of an SSC to a DWC 260
9.4.1 Introduction 260
9.4.2 Design and Optimization of Retrofitted DWC 260
9.4.3 Column Modification and Hardware 263
x Contents

9.5 Case Studies of Industrial Applications 266

9.5.1 Acetic Acid Purification Column 266
9.5.2 n-BuOH Refining Column 271
9.6 Other Case Studies 275
9.6.1 Ethylene Dichloride (EDC) Purification Column 275
9.6.2 Diphenyl Carbonate (DPC) Purification Column 276
9.6.3 Other SSCs 277
9.7 Conclusions 277
Acknowledgements 278
Nomenclature 278
References 279

10 Techno-economic Evaluation of Membrane Separation for Retrofitting

Olefin/Paraffin Fractionators in an Ethylene Plant 285
X.Z. Tan, S. Pandey, G.P. Rangaiah, and W. Niu
10.1 Introduction 285
10.2 Olefin/Paraffin Separation in an Ethylene Plant 287
10.3 Membrane Model Development 289
10.3.1 Membrane Modeling 289
10.3.2 Assumptions for Membrane Separation Simulation 291
10.4 Retrofitting a Distillation Column with a Membrane Unit 292
10.4.1 HMD Modeling and Simulation 292
10.4.2 Techno-economic Feasibility of Retrofit Operation 296
10.5 Formulation of Multi-objective–Optimization Problem 300
10.6 Results and Discussion 304
10.6.1 Case 1: HMD System for EF (Assuming Credit for Reboiler
Duty) 304
10.6.2 Case 2: HMD System for EF (Assuming Reboiler Duty as
Cost) 306
10.6.3 Case 3: HMD System for PF 308
10.7 Conclusions 310
Appendix 10A: Membrane Model Validation 310
Appendix 10B: Costing of HMD System 312
Exercises 315
References 315

11 Retrofit of Vacuum Systems in Process Industries 317

C.C.S. Reddy and G.P. Rangaiah
11.1 Introduction 317
11.2 Vacuum-generation Methods 318
11.3 Design Principles and Utility Requirements 320
11.3.1 Suction Load of Vacuum System 320
11.3.2 Steam Jet Ejectors 323
11.3.3 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps 325
11.3.4 Dry Vacuum Pumps 326
 Contents xi

11.4 Chilled-water Generation 326

11.5 Optimization of Vacuum System Operating Cost 328
11.6 Case Study 1: Retrofit of a Vacuum System in a Petroleum Refinery 332
11.6.1 Analysis of the Results 335
11.7 Case Study 2: Retrofit of a Surface Condenser of a Condensing Steam
Turbine 341
11.8 Conclusions 342
Nomenclature 343
Exercises 344
References 345

12 Design, Retrofit and Revamp of Industrial Water Networks using

Multi-objective Optimization Approach 347
Shivom Sharma and G.P. Rangaiah
12.1 Introduction 347
12.2 Mathematical Model of a Water Network 350
12.3 Water Network in a Petroleum Refinery 352
12.4 Multi-objective Optimization Problem Formulation 352
12.5 Results and Discussion 355
12.5.1 Water Network Design 355
12.5.2 Retrofitting Selected Water Networks for Change in
Environmental Regulations 358
12.5.3 Retrofitting Selected Water Networks for Increase in
Hydrocarbon Load 363
12.5.4 Revamping Selected Water Networks for Change in
Environmental Regulations 365
12.5.5 Revamping Selected Water Networks for Increase in
Hydrocarbon Load 367
12.5.6 Comparison of Retrofitting and Revamping Solutions 369
12.6 Conclusions 369
Acknowledgement 370
Nomenclature 370
Exercises 371
References 372

13 Debottlenecking and Retrofitting of Chemical Pulp Refining Process for

Paper Manufacturing – Application from Industrial Perspective 375
Ajit K. Ghosh
13.1 Introduction 375
13.2 Fundamentals of Chemical Pulp Refining 376
13.2.1 Refining Effects on Various Chemical Pulp Types 377
13.2.2 Effects of Refining on Pulp and Paper Properties 378
13.3 Theories of Chemical Pulp Refining 380
13.3.1 Specific Edge Load Theory 381
13.3.2 Specific Surface Load Theory 382
xii Contents

13.3.3 Frequency and Intensity or Severity of Impact 382

13.3.4 The ‘C’ Factor 383
13.4 Types of Commercial Refiners 384
13.5 Laboratory and Pilot-scale Refining Investigation 384
13.6 Case Studies of Retrofitting Refining Process for Paper Mills 386
13.6.1 Case A: Retrofitting of Existing Refiners to Debottleneck
Output of a Modern Paper Machine 386
13.6.2 Case B: Retrofitting of Existing Refiners of a Paper Machine
to Switch from ‘Flat’ to ‘Semi-extendable’ Sack Kraft Papers 402
13.7 Conclusions 406
Exercises 407
References 408

Index 410
 List of Contributors

Catherine Azzaro-Pantel, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Université de Toulouse,

Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, LGC UMR CNRS 5503, France (email: catherine
[email protected])

Raman Balajee, Process Safety Lead – Asia, Air Products Singapore Private Limited,
Singapore (email: [email protected])

Russell F. Dunn, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt

University, Nashville, USA
and Polymer and Chemical Technologies, LLC, Nashville, USA (email: russell.dunn@
vanderbilt.edu)

Ajit K. Ghosh, AKG Process Consulting, 33 McFarlane Court, Highett, Australia (email:
[email protected])

Moonyong Lee, School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Republic of Korea

(email: [email protected])

Nguyen Van Duc Long, School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Republic
of Korea (email: [email protected])

Le Quang Minh, School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Republic of

Korea (email: [email protected])

W. Niu, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of

Singapore, Singapore (email: [email protected])

S. (Shruti) Pandey, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National

University of Singapore, Singapore (email: [email protected])

G.P. (Gade Pandu) Rangaiah, Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering,

National University of Singapore, Singapore (email: [email protected])
xiv List of Contributors

D.P. Rao, Formerly Professor of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,

Kanpur, India
and Managing Partner, Process Intensification Consultants, India (email: [email protected])

C.C.S. Reddy, Lead Process Design Engineer, Singapore Refining Company Private Lim-
ited, Singapore (email: [email protected])

Jarrid Scott Ristau, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt

University, Nashville, USA
and Polymer and Chemical Technologies, LLC, Nashville, USA (email: jarrid.s.ristau@
vanderbilt.edu)

Shivom Sharma, Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, National Univer-

sity of Singapore, Singapore (email: [email protected])

Joonho Shin, Basic Materials & Chemicals R&D, LG Chem, Moonji-dong, Yuseong-gu,
Republic of Korea (email: [email protected])

B.K. (Bhargava Krishna) Sreepathi, Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineer-

ing, National University of Singapore, Singapore (email: [email protected])

X.Z. Tan, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of

Singapore, Singapore (email: [email protected])
 Preface

New chemical plants are continually being built around the world to produce useful and
valuable products for society’s well-being and development. They add to the numerous
plants already in operation. Performance of the existing processes in these plants must
be monitored regularly, and process improvements have to be made for their continued
economic and environmental sustainability. Hence, process retrofit and revamp, which
refer to changes in existing process equipment and/or structure, are essential to improve
the operation of existing chemical plants. Process retrofitting and revamping are likely to
have been occurring since the first chemical plant was built. However, there are only a few
books dedicated to process retrofit and revamp.
The main stages in the industrial retrofit/revamp projects are: (1) establishing objec-
tives and basis for retrofit/revamp, (2) conceptual process design, (3) front-end engi-
neering design (FEED), (4) engineering, procurement and construction (EPC), and
(5) commissioning/start-up and completion. Conceptual process design for a retrofit/revamp
develops an improved process using the existing equipment as much as possible. This is
different from the conceptual process design for a new plant, where the process flowsheet
is developed first followed by equipment design in two sequential steps. The require-
ment of using existing process equipment and structure substantially increases constraints
and potential combinations, thus making the conceptual process design of retrofit/revamp
projects much more challenging. Most of the research on process retrofit/revamp as well as
many chapters in this book are focused on this stage of conceptual process design, which
requires techniques and tools for process simulation, optimization and control. Stages (3)
to (5) in industrial retrofit/revamp projects are similar to those in the engineering, con-
struction and commissioning of new plants. However, activities in these stages should
consider existing plant layout, safety, utilities and other facilities as well as the impact of
the retrofit/revamp on them. The retrofit/revamp should have no or minimal impact on the
existing plant operation.
This book on process retrofitting and revamping is divided into three parts. The first part
has three chapters, starting with the Introduction chapter to provide an overview of process
retrofitting and revamping. The next two chapters in the first part are on project engineering,
management and safety aspects of process retrofitting and revamping, which are important
in industrial implementation. The focus of the second part of the book, Chapters 4 to 8, is
on computational techniques for solving process retrofit/revamp problems. One of them is
on process intensification technology for retrofitting/revamping of chemical processes. The
techniques described in Chapters 4 to 8 can be employed for retrofit/revamp in a variety of
process industries. Chapters 9 to 13 form the third part of the book and cover retrofit/revamp
applications in different chemical process industries. They describe the options considered
xvi Preface

and/or analysis employed for the retrofit/revamp of the process studied, which are useful
for related applications.
The current book will be useful for researchers, practitioners and postgraduate students
interested and working in process retrofit and revamp. Researchers and practitioners can
adapt and apply available techniques in the chapters to their processes or specific problems.
Chapters of this book can be used for projects in advanced courses on separation processes,
modeling and optimization for senior undergraduate and postgraduate students. In general,
readers can choose chapters of interest and read them independently.
Industrial projects on process retrofit and revamp continue to occur and are likely to
increase. As a result, research on process retrofit and revamp is expected to grow and be an
active area in chemical engineering. I hope that this book will contribute to further devel-
opments in techniques and tools for process retrofit and revamp including their successful
implementation in industrial projects.
I am grateful to all the contributors and reviewers for their cooperation in meeting
the requirements and schedule to finalize this book on process retrofit and revamp. In
particular, I would like to thank Prof. S.K. Gupta, Prof. A.F.A. Hoadley and Prof. K. Mitra
for their timely help in organizing the review of some chapters co-authored by me. My
deep appreciation goes to Shivom Sharma, Sreepathi Bhargava Krishna and C.C.S. Reddy
for all their help and suggestions in the preparation of this book. Finally, I am grateful to
the Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering at the National University of
Singapore for all the facilities, support and freedom to publish the present book and my
previous four books on process optimization and control.
I have had the idea to prepare this book on process retrofit and revamp for many years. I am
very happy that it has materialized now, partly helped by the enthusiastic and productive
research of my recent graduate students – C.C.S. Reddy, Sreepathi Bhargava Krishna,
Shivom Sharma, Shruti Pandey and Wendou Niu.
In the early stage of this book’s preparation, I was affected by sciatica, which made it
difficult to walk or stand for more than five minutes. This cast dark clouds on the preparation
and completion of this book. The three ladies in my adult life (my dearest wife, Krishna
Kumari and loving daughters – Jyotsna and Madhavi) took care of me and advised me on
the best treatment and management. Thanks to their efforts, the effects of sciatica have
gradually diminished and are now almost absent. I am grateful to all my family members
for their deep affection and unwavering support to me.

Gade Pandu Rangaiah

National University of Singapore
Singapore

September 2015

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 1
Introduction

G.P. Rangaiah
Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore

1.1 Chemical Process Plants

There are a wide range of chemical process industries such as agrochemicals, ceramics,
cement, cosmetics, fragrances and flavors, food and drinks, glass, industrial gases, indus-
trial/inorganic chemicals, leather, mineral processing, nuclear, oil and gas, paper and pulp,
paints and pigments, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, polymers, rubber, soap and deter-
gent, specialty chemicals, synthetic fibers, sugar, vegetable oils and water. Many of these
involve continuous processes whereas some are batch processes. New process plants con-
tinue to be designed and built, relatively more in developing countries, to produce useful
and valuable products required by the society. These are usually designed and their eco-
nomic viability assessed assuming a plant life of 10 to 20 years. However, chemical plants,
once built, continue to operate for very much longer than this assumed plant life.
Thus, chemical process plants in operation have been increasing steadily in the world.
They were designed in the past few years or even decades, perhaps optimally for the
economic, technological and societal conditions at that time. Obviously, technological
knowledge has been advancing since the existing plants were designed. In addition, eco-
nomic and societal conditions are dynamic and change over time for one reason or other. For
example, energy prices and global warming concerns have increased substantially; new and
better technologies (such as catalysts, process equipment and their internals), separation
processes and intensified processes as well as simulation and optimization techniques are
being continually developed and improved through research and industrial implementation.

Chemical Process Retrofitting and Revamping: Techniques and Applications, First Edition.
Edited by Gade Pandu Rangaiah.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
4 Chemical Process Retrofitting and Revamping

Hence, it is imperative to review regularly the performance of the existing plants and
assess the possibilities for their improvement. This can be for one or more of the following
objectives (Grossmann et al., 1987; Rong et al., 2000).

• To reduce energy required and/or operating cost

• To improve conversion and/or selectivity of reactions
• To increase production/throughput of the process
• To use feed of different quality and/or alternative feed
• To meet new specifications of product(s)
• To produce new products
• To enhance the control of the process
• To improve the safety, reliability and flexibility of the process
• To reduce the adverse impact of the process on the environment.

The first and relatively simple step is to optimize and set the operating conditions such
as temperature, pressure and flow rate in the existing process for the chosen objective
(for example, energy required and operating cost). This is often referred to as operation
optimization, and involves analysis of the process and use of optimization techniques. In
operation optimization, there is no change in process configuration or equipment. It can be
performed off-line or on-line because of frequent changes in the operating environment of
the process (such as product requirements and prices). On-line optimization is also known as
real time optimization. Process improvement by operation optimization is limited because
of constraints imposed by current process configuration, equipment and/or technology
employed. It is thus necessary to consider modifications in all these for improving the
current process substantially.

1.2 Process Retrofitting and Revamping

Process retrofitting and revamping refers to making suitable changes and/or additions to
existing process configuration and equipment. It may involve new technology such as mem-
brane separation or reactive distillation to supplement or replace distillation. One example
of equipment and configuration changes in a process is heat exchanger network retrofitting,
which involves area additions in existing exchangers and/or installation of new exchangers
for increased energy recovery and re-use. Obviously, process retrofitting and revamping
should maximize the use of the existing equipment in the plant as much as possible.
Analysis, simulation and optimization techniques could be used to achieve the cho-
sen objective of process retrofitting/revamping. However, process retrofitting/revamping
is more than operation optimization because the former considers changes to the process
configuration and equipment in addition to operating conditions. Hence, solving a process
retrofitting/revamping problem and implementing the solution found are more complex and
challenging than those in the case of operation optimization.
Is there some difference between process retrofit and revamp? According to oxforddic-
tionaries.com, revamp is to give a new and improved form, structure or appearance (to some-
thing), and retrofit is to provide (something) with a component or accessory not fitted during
manufacture. Although these two meanings seem to be similar, process retrofit perhaps
 Introduction 5

refers to adding new equipment to the existing process and so its scale, complexity and cap-
ital cost are relatively lower. On the other hand, process revamp involves changes in config-
uration and so its scale, complexity and capital cost are more. Currently, retrofit and revamp
are often used synonymously in the chemical engineering literature although some practi-
tioners use retrofit for smaller projects (that is, investment) and revamp for bigger projects.
In the technical literature, Rong et al. (2000) state that the main objectives of process
retrofits include increasing the production capacity, efficiently processing new feedstock,
utilizing new process technologies, reducing environmental impact, and reducing operating
costs. According to Smith (2005), the motivation to retrofit (or revamp) an existing plant
could be to increase capacity, allow for different feed or product specifications, reduce
operating costs, improve safety and reduce environmental emissions. Kemp (2007), in the
glossary of terms, defines retrofit or revamp as any change to an existing chemical process.
On the other hand, Towler and Sinnott (2012) state that revamps fall into two categories:
debottlenecking (discussed below) and retrofitting, which implies the former is not within
the scope of retrofitting.
Should we distinguish retrofit/retrofitting and revamp/revamping? It is perhaps desirable
for clarity and consistency. As suggested by Rao in Chapter 5, retrofitting can be used
to mean adding to or replacing the whole or part of one type of equipment with a better
alternative, and revamping for reorganizing the process involving several process steps (thus
different equipment types). This indicates that retrofitting is smaller in scale, complexity
and capital cost compared with revamping. Thus, the suggested distinction between retrofit
and revamp is consistent with the use of these terms by some practitioners.
One of the purposes of process changes is to increase the plant throughput (that is,
increasing production rate without any change in feed, process performance or product
quality). This specific activity is referred to as debottlenecking. This common term in
process industries is related to a bottle’s neck, which is generally narrow and limits the
flow rate through it. Obviously, the neck has to be widened for increasing the flow rate.
Similarly, in debottlenecking of an operating process, equipment/operation limiting the
throughput is identified and then it is suitably modified for increasing the production rate.
In this way, process capacity can be increased by 5 to 20%, with much smaller capital
investment compared with building new facilities. This is possible because of the spare
size/capacity available in many items of the existing equipment because of design margins
used at the time of their design and fabrication. It is possible to increase the throughput by
modifying one (type of) equipment or several types of equipment. Thus, debottlenecking
can be achieved by retrofit or revamp. In other words, one objective of retrofit or revamp
can be debottlenecking. Recall that retrofit and revamp can be for any of the reasons listed
in the previous section. For specificity and clarity, debottlenecking (and not retrofit or
revamp) should be used if the sole objective of process changes is an increase in the plant
throughput. Note it is different from plant expansion, wherein there are no existing items
of equipment to be considered and generally no space restrictions.
How is process retrofit/revamp different from operation optimization? Unlike the oper-
ation optimization, retrofit/revamp design will have more degrees of freedom (that is,
variables related to existing equipment changes and to new equipment) and more combina-
tions to be considered for optimization. Hence, it is much more challenging than operation
optimization. However, retrofit/revamp design can improve the process significantly com-
pared with operation optimization.
6 Chemical Process Retrofitting and Revamping

Analysis and solution of a process retrofit/revamp problem will require simulation and
optimization. Hence, computational techniques for process simulation and optimization
find applications in process retrofit and revamp. However, appropriate models have to be
developed for process retrofit/revamp, and the resulting optimization problems have more
constraints and are more challenging than are operation optimization problems.

1.3 Stages in Process Retrofitting/Revamping Projects

There are five main stages in the industrial retrofit/revamp projects. These are: (1) estab-
lishing objectives and basis for retrofit/revamp, (2) conceptual process design, (3) front-end
engineering design (FEED), (4) engineering, procurement and construction (EPC), and (5)
commissioning/start-up and completion. The main activities in these five stages are sum-
marized in Table 1.1. See Chapter 2 in this book for more details on these, and Chapter 3
for safety aspects of retrofit/revamp projects.
The first stage is to establish objectives for the retrofit/revamp project, which can be one
or more of the purposes listed in Section 1.1. This should be carried out comprehensively by
considering plant performance and operating experience; current product demand, quality
and price as well as their future projections; raw material availability, quality and price;
and promising technologies and improved equipment for the process. The feasibility of
achieving the set objectives for retrofit/revamp should be assessed for obtaining manage-
ment approval to proceed to the next stage. Chemical engineers are the main players in the
first stage, and they need to obtain required data on raw materials and product(s) from the
supply and marketing departments.
In the second stage, conceptual process design is performed by chemical engineers having
experience in process development and design. It can be divided into two main steps. In the
first step, existing plant design and operating data are collected, a simulation model of the
process is developed and validated against the design/operating data, and rating studies are
performed to identify the limits of existing equipment. Thus, this step involves extensive data
collection and analysis, process simulation and equipment modeling, all within the domain
of chemical engineering. In the second step, several options for retrofit/revamp should be
developed and assessed for their techno-economic feasibility. These options are developed
by considering heat, mass and process integration (for example, heat integration by pinch
analysis or optimization; see Chapter 7 in this book), as well as promising new technologies
and equipment (for example, membrane separations by themselves or along with the existing
distillation column; see Chapter 10 in this book), and process intensification (for example,
reactive distillation) described in Chapter 5. Further, retrofit/revamp options should use
existing equipment as much as possible (to reduce capital investment) and also meet space
constraints in the plant. The chosen option for retrofit/revamp should be assessed for
controllability and also discussed with the operators of the existing process. Most of the
research on process retrofit/revamp, as well as many chapters in this book, are focused on
this step of conceptual process design, and this is discussed further in the next section.
The two steps in the conceptual process design require techniques and tools for process
simulation, optimization and control.
Stages 3 to 5 in industrial retrofit/revamp projects are similar to those in the engineering,
construction and commissioning of new plants. However, activities in these stages (outlined
 Another Random Document on
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wine, mentioned by Pliny, Intrita panis e vino, lib. ix. cap. 8.—By our author’s use
of it here, it plainly appears to be something light, soft, and simple, probably very
like, if not the same with our panada.
7. But if one in such a fever coughs gently, &c.) Siquis autem in hujus modi febre
leniter tussit, is neque vehmenti siti conflictari, neque bibere aquam frigidam
debet; sed eo modo curandus est, quo in cæteris febribus præcipitur.—All this is
omitted in Morgagni’s MS.—Ronsseus suspected it to be interpolated, and it is not
to be found in the Pinzian edition, nor the Juntine, nor Florentine.—Ronsseus’s
suspicion arose from considering aph. 54. sect. 4.—‘Those that are troubled with
dry and gentle coughs in ardent fevers, are not very thirsty.’ Morgagni, Ep. 5.
p. 140.—But perhaps this objection might be removed by only reading conflictatur,
instead of conflictari.
8. To twenty-four hours.) Linden and after him Almeloveen have followed
Constantine in rejecting the preposition inter. But the old reading seems
preferable, which was this,—Inter horas viginti quatuor et triginta sex: that is, The
fit takes up between twenty-four hours and thirty-six.
9. Cleanse his belly, vomendo ventrem purgaret.) It is probable by venter here our
author means the stomach.
10. And apply that, et id ingerere.) I cannot help agreeing with Scaliger, that these
words are interpolated. For supposing them to mean the application of the
medicine here mentioned, yet that is particularly directed a few lines after. Besides
I do not remember any instance of ingero bearing a sense that would answer in
this place.
11. Greeks call zesis. Et jactationem, fervoremque corporis, quem ζέσιν Græci
vocant.)—All Morgagni’s [ IY ] editions and his MS. agree in reading thus,
Fætoremque quendam odoris, quem ὄζην Græci vocant. Which word from this
single passage of Celsus has a place in Stephens’s Thesaur. Ling. Græc. But as the
sense, according to this last reading, is not near so proper, and as Linden, no
doubt, had some authority for his reading, I have abode by it.
12. Former regimen strictly.) After the words, to which these answer in the
original, there follows in Linden and Almeloveen, Et aqua tantummodo calida, si
sitis est, uti: ac tum ita nono die balneo frigus prævenire, et. Which must appear
manifestly corrupt; for this would be making the paroxysm of a quartan fever
return after one day’s interval: so that though the other words were retained, yet
nono should be undoubtedly changed into decimo. But I have chosen rather to
follow the reading of Pinzi and Junta, which is perfectly consonant with the
context. Septimo die balneo frigus prævenire, abstinere, continere se debet; si
febris redierit, ducere alvum; ubi ex eo corpus conquieverit, inunctione
vehementer perfricari, eodem modo sumere cibum et vinum, biduo proximo se
abstinere, frictione servata. Decimo die rursus balneum experiri, &c. This makes
the directions which follow nono die, to belong to the seventh; and decimo die for
decimo tertio die still preserves the regular succession of the fits. This reading is
confirmed by what our author adds in the next paragraph, where he prescribes a
new method to be pursued, if the fever should return upon the thirteenth day.
‘Wherefore, if the distemper shall continue upon the thirteenth day, the bath must
neither be tried before the fever nor after it, &c.’ For if we allow the reading of
Linden, &c. decimo tertio die, in the first paragraph, he orders bathing on this day;
and in the next he absolutely forbids it.
13. Laser.) This was the juice or gum of a plant like the ferula, by the Latins called
laserpitium, by the Greeks silphium. That kind, which was most esteemed, came
from Cyrene, where it seems it was worn out in Pliny’s time, for he tells us only
one stalk was found in his memory, which was sent to Nero; he adds, that for a
long time they had no other imported to them, but what came from Persia, Media,
and Armenia, where it grew in abundance, but much inferior to the Cyrenean, and
adulterated with gum, sagapenum, or bean-meal.—See Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xix. cap.
3.—Some of the moderns take this for assa-fœtida; others, among whom is Dr
Lister, think it a different thing, and absolutely unknown now. I have therefore
chosen to retain the original word.—See the description of it Dioscorid. lib. iii. cap.
500.
14. Happened in the beginning.) Cum id initio inciderit; thus Linden and
Almeloveen read it; some older editions have vitio, when that has happened by
some mismanagement; which agrees with what our author says in the end of the
15th chapter. Perhaps it might be Initio, cum id inciderit, that is, upon its first
appearance, &c.
15. That cannot be assigned. Certis partibus assignari possunt.) Constantine, and
after him Linden and Almeloveen, have thought fit to omit non, which will appear
to any, who considers the sense to be manifestly wrong. Our author himself
determines it in the beginning of the fourth book, where with reference to this
part of his work he says, Hactenus reperiuntur ea genera morborum, quæ in totis
corporibus ita sunt, ut iis certæ sedes assignari non possint. See Morgagni, Ep. 1.
p. 25.
16. There may be the same reason, &c. Nec minus dubitari potest, an alvus
ducenda sit.) The connection of this sentence with the context has an obscurity
very uncommon in our author. We must observe that he is here maintaining the
necessity of taking blood in phrenitic cases against Asclepiades: and after general
reasons drawn from the nature of the disease, he adds an argument from the
practice of that physician. He prescribed clysters in this distemper, though, as
Cælius Aurelianus [ IZ ] observes, that was directly contrary to a principle of his own.
Celsus therefore insists, that there is no reason against bleeding, that is not
equally strong against clysters, which are however approved by Asclepiades.
According to the exact method every where observed by our author, this argument
would naturally have followed what he said of friction ordered by Asclepiades: and
as it now stands after the conclusion drawn, it seems to be an after-thought. If
this explication be thought unnatural, it may be otherwise paraphrased, and
connected with the following paragraph thus: The doubt is the same with regard
to clysters, as to the letting of blood, and the resolution is also the same. But after
either of these, intermitting a day, &c.
17. Ointment of saffron.) In preparing this they first inspissated the oil by boiling it
with calamus and myrrh, and then infusing saffron in it for five days, and stirring it
frequently; and on the sixth the oil was poured off clear. Others added the myrrh
in powder, after the oil was poured off the other ingredients.
18. Ajax or Orestes.) These cases are best illustrated by the tragedies of
Sophocles and Euripides, which our author seems to have had in view. Ajax
enraged to see Ulysses preferred to him in the competition for the arms of
Achilles, falls into madness. He resolved to revenge this affront upon the whole
army. And in the night ran into the fields, where their flocks and herds were
grazing, murdered the shepherds and laid about him among the cattle, taking
them for men; slew numbers of them, which he imagined to be Agamemnon,
Menelaus, and others, that were accessary to his dishonour. Then bound and led
prisoners to his tent many more oxen and sheep to be reserved for tortures, and
flogged unmercifully a great ram for his adversary Ulysses, before he put him to
death. Orestes was affected in the same manner. After the murder of his mother,
he fancied himself haunted by the furies, and her amongst them. He is
represented as terrified by their frightful looks, sometimes reasoning, sometimes
beseeching, and at other times drawing his sword to fight them. In one of these
fits, like Ajax, he falls upon the cattle. See Sophocl. Ajax flagell. et Euripid. Orest.
et Iphigen. in Taur. Such are the figures presented to the imagination in this
species of madness.
19. Purged in the inferior parts.) The whole sentence, which runs thus, Ubi ab
inferiore parte purgandus aliquis est, ventrem ejus ante solvendum esse: ubi à
superiore, comprimendum esse, is taken from aph. 66. sect. 7. And after
comparing them together, I conceive our author’s meaning to be, that when the
intention is to purge, the belly should first be moistened by diluent liquors taken
inwardly, or perhaps a laxative clyster administered to facilitate the operation. On
the contrary, when a vomit is intended, the belly should be bound.
20. Polenta is made from barley in several ways. The Greeks pour warm water
upon the grain, dry it for one night, and the day following, toast it, and then grind
it. Others toast it more, and sprinkle it again with a little water, and dry it before
they grind it. Others again shaking out the recent barley from the green ears,
bruise it, while moist, in a mortar, and wash it in baskets, dry it in the sun, beat it
again, and after it is cleansed, grind it. In whatever way it is prepared, they first of
all toast three pounds of lintseed, and half a pound of coriander, with an
acetabulum of salt, and mix it in the mill, with twenty pounds of barley. Those that
have a mind to preserve it for a longer time, put it into earthen vessels with its
own flour and bran. In Italy it is ground fine after toasting, without pouring any
water upon it, and mixed up with the ingredients abovenamed and millet. Plin. b.
xviii. cap. 7.
21. Vomit spontaneously. Sponte vomere.) That is, vomit without any emetic
medicine being given.
22. Bulbous roots.) Aretæus mentions nothing of rubbing these over the whole
body; but he recommends the small red kind, crude with pepper, and the
powdered lees of vinegar, as the best cataplasm for the feet in this disorder. To
which he adds this caution, that they must be frequently removed, for fear of
ulcerating the parts. Lib. ii. de Curat. Acut. Morb. cap. 3.
23. Inject by way of clyster.) Celsus here shews that he knew it was possible to
nourish by clysters, and that it was sometimes practised—Cælius Aurelianus
mentions the use of clysters in this disorder, particularly acrid ones, as prescribed
by the followers of Serapion, Heraclides, and Herophilus, and also by Asclepiades
and Themison. But he does not give the least hint, as if any of these authors
directed an injection with a view to nourishment, but only to make a derivation of
the humour from the skin to the belly. Cæl. Aurelian. de Acut. Morb. lib. ii. cap. 38.
24. Malagmas.) These cannot according to the present division of compositions
admit of a literal translation, and therefore the original word is retained. By turning
to the fifth book, chap. 17. and 18. will be seen their difference from plaisters, &c.
and that they consist of various ingredients, but compounded without any heat.
25. Catapotia.) Most of the moderns translate this word pills. But our author does
not limit their consistence nor form; for we find him sometimes ordering them to
be diluted, sometimes of the consistence of sordes, and sometimes swallowed
about the bigness of a bean, and at other times dry powders given in some kind of
liquor. See lib. v. cap. 25.—Scribonius Largus defines a catapotium as a medicine,
that is swallowed without being diluted, cap. 22. comp. 87. Upon which Rhodius
will have them to be much the same with the bolusses now in use.
26. Attempt that by diet.) The reading in Almeloveen and Linden is Alvum moliri
cibo melius est, &c. But as there was no mention of the belly before, and no
proper sense can be assigned to molior, as it there stands, I have followed the old
reading, Sed id ipsum moliri cibo melius est, and the rather, as Celsus immediately
subjoins proper medicines for that purpose. This reading is approved by Morgagni,
Ep. 6. p. 149.
27. Nard.) It is generally agreed, that what we now have under the name of nard,
is not the ancient kind. Dioscorides says, it resembles the cyperus in its smell, has
a small head, is bitter to the taste, and drying to the tongue, retaining its
fragrancy for a long time. There were two species of it, one called Indian, and the
other Syrian. Dioscorid. lib. i. cap. 6.
28. Balsam.) Our author does not distinguish what part of the balsam-tree he
intends. The ancients called the juice opobalsam, the wood xylobalsam, and the
fruit carpobalsam; which distinction Celsus himself elsewhere uses. Dioscorid. lib.
i. cap. 18.
29. Panaces, or panax.) Dioscorides mentions three kinds of this, which are still
retained by modern botanists. Considering the virtues he ascribes to each, I think
it probable our author intends the panax Heracleum, or Hercules’s all heal, from
whence the opopanax is produced. Though it is to be observed, that Pliny affirms
the opopanax to be obtained from the panax Asdepium. Lib. xxv. cap. 4. P.
Ægineta from the Heracleum lib. vii.
30. Cardamom.) It neither appears from Celsus nor Dioscorides, that the seed was
in use among the ancients. Some affirm it to be the same with the modern greater
cardamom. Dioscorides [ JA ] says, the best comes from Comagene, Armenia and
Bosphorus. It grows also in Arabia and India. The best is firm, large, compact, and
pungent to the smell, acrid and bitterish to the taste; it has a heating quality. By
this it would seem they made use of the root.
31. Acorum according to Dioscorides has leaves likes the iris, but narrower, and
roots not unlike to it, not growing straight, but oblique and creeping on the
surface of the earth, whitish, divided by joints, acrid to the taste, and smelling not
unpleasant. Lib. i. cap. 2.
32. The flower of long and round cyperus.) In the original Juncus quadratus et
juncus rotundus. I shall not determine, whether what we now call cyperus longus,
et rotundus, are the same as here mentioned. However, they certainly belong to
the same class, and the virtues ascribed to the present, agree pretty nearly with
those attributed to the ancient by Dioscorid. lib. i. cap. 4. and 16.—See also Dale
and Schroder.
33. Bound upon the skin.) This seems a very odd way of using squils; the old
reading appears much more just. Utiliter etiam scilla cocta delinitur cutis. It does
good also to rub boiled squils over the skin. The same variety recurs at the end of
the following paragraph, Sicut supra dixi delinitur, instead of Simul super ventrem
deligatur.
34. Frequent pimples.) That is the smoothness or continuity of the skin is
interrupted by pimples and ulcers.
35. Takes its rise from the head.) From a catarrh, which the ancients imagined to
be a discharge from the brain through the os ethmoides.
36. Mild as gruel.) I have here departed from Linden and Almeloveen, who have it
thus, Deinde lenis sorbitio, &c. Afterwards mild gruel, because the more ancient
reading, Dein lenis, ut sorbitio, besides being more elegant, is confirmed by the
following words of our author.
37. And especially brains.) I have taken no notice of the words ex prima in the
reading of Linden and Almeloveen, which manifestly spoil the sense, otherwise
complete without them. [ JB ]Morgagni observes, that all the other editions read,
either ex pruna, or ex aprugna; but this last is not probable, because he said, that
a boar was of the strongest class of food, lib. ii. but the whole head of a lamb or
kid in the middle kind; and the former seems to be superfluous.
38. Comitial, so called from the comitia or assemblies of the people being
adjourned, when any person was taken with one of these fits.
39. Arquatus.) The obscurity of this name gives room to the conjectures of critics.
Some tell us it was so called, because the colour in the jaundice resembles the
greenness of the rainbow; others because it bends the bodies of those afflicted
with it like a bow.
40. Suppurations.) Ronsseus think this paragraph wrong placed here, as having no
connection with what goes before; and suspects its proper place to be at the end
of the twenty second chapter of this same book; because the author there treats
of consumptive people, and suppurations of the lungs. Morgagni also believes it to
be improperly placed, Ep. 1. p. 32.
 NOTES
TO

BOOK IV.
1. Sometimes like a small tongue, viz. the epiglottis.
2. Below the last ribs, &c.) I have here translated, according to an emendation
proposed by Morgagni [ JC ], who would read, Qui lumbis sub imis costis inhærent, a
parte earum rotundi, ab altera resimi. Where a small alteration renders the
description just: whereas in the way it stands in all the editions, Qui lumbis sub
imis coxis inhærent, a parte earum resimi, ab altera rotundi, it plainly contradicts
truth, as will be very obvious to any person the least conversant in anatomy.
3. They are stocked with vessels, and covered with coats.) In Almeloveen, Et
venosi sunt, et tunicis super conteguntur. Morgagni [ JD ] informs us, that after the
three first words, all his editions agree in inserting Et ventriculos habent, and they
have ventricles; and it is not probable our author would take no notice of these;
and to the same purpose speaks Hippocrates de Ossium Natur. no. 8.
4. Relaxation of the nerves.) Resolutio nervorum he commonly uses for a palsy,
yet he cannot intend that here, but a langour or slight relaxation of the solids.
5. Cervicalia.) Cervicale was used in a double sense by the Romans, either for a
bolster, or a piece of dress resembling the neckcloth.
6. And venery, A venere.) It is probable that Almeloveen is wrong in omitting after
this a vino, which is in Morgagni’s [ JE ] MS and all his editions especially as a few
lines after, our author mentions the condition of allowing wine.
7. Nostrils are more open.) In Almeloveen magis pallent. Though the MS and
Cæsar and Ruellius read thus, yet it is plain from the text itself that the other
editions are right, which have it magis patent; for our author presently adds, in a
worse state of the disorder, the contrary symptom: Si nares æque clausæ videntur.
Morgagni, Ep, 6. p. 140.
8. Aminean wine.) This, says Pliny, has the preference of all other wines, upon
account of its strength, and its growing better by age. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xiv. cap.
2. And thus Virgil says, Georg. 2. line 97.—Sunt et Amineæ vites, fortissima vina.
9. Liquid cerate, says Ægineta, such as is used for fractures, is prepared from two
parts of oil and one of wax. Lib. vii. cap. 17.
10. Syrian oil.) I suppose our author must here mean what was called from its
sweetness elæomeli—which Pliny says is produced spontaneously in the maritime
parts of Syria. It flows from the trees, fat, thicker than honey, thinner than resin,
of a sweet flavour, and is used by the physicians. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xv. cap. 7.—
And to the same purpose Dioscorid. lib i. cap. 37.—To this account P. Ægineta
adds, that about two cyathi of this taken in a hemina of water discharge crude and
bilious humours by stool; but that this draught is apt to stupefy a person, which,
however, is not dangerous, but he would require to be excited. P. Æginet. lib. vii.
cap. 3.
11. Synanche, or Cynanche.) According to Aretæus, the latter of these names was
given to the distemper, either because it was common to dogs, or because these
animals, even in health, hang out their tongues. Lib. i. de Caus. et Sign. Morb.
Acut. cap. 7.
12. His belly must be opened. Si non febrit, venter solvendus est.) This I take to
be the general direction; if he has no fever, the intestinal discharge must be
promoted—Liquenda alvus, by which I understand the accomplishment of this by
diet or medicines, and Interdum etiam ducenda, the use of clysters.
13. Lycium or puxacantha, box-thorn, a tree of the thorn-kind. The branches, with
the leaves, are bruised and macerated for some days in water, then boiled, and
after straining it, is boiled again to the consistence of honey. The best lycium is
what will burn. It has an astringent quality. They adulterate it by mixing lees of oil,
or the inspissated juice of wormwood or ox-gall in the boiling. Dioscorid. lib. i. cap.
133.
14. Frankincense, thus.) It is generally allowed, that what the ancients called thus,
goes now under the name of olibanum.
15. Stomach.) When our author mentions the gullet and stomach together, as in
the first chapter of this book, he calls the former stomachus, and the latter
ventriculus; but he often comprehends both under the name of stomachus, as in
this place, which appears by the disorders mentioned.
16. A powder with oil.) This word is pulvis—Our author does not say what powder.
He had mentioned rose-oil just before: can he intend the powder of rose-leaves?
or any of those powders he prescribes in the cardiac disorder, the last of which is
quilibet ex via pulvis, any common dust? Or has the word, denoting the kind, been
omitted by the copiers?
17. Sulphurated wool.) I suppose he means wool impregnated with the fumes of
sulphur.
18. Cutiliæ, &c.) The waters of Cutiliæ in the country of the Sabines, Pliny says,
are extremely cold, and by a kind of suction excite a sensation in the body like a
bite; they are very useful to the stomach, nerves, and the whole body. Lib. xxxi.
cap. 2. Our industrious critics and collectors have not been able hitherto to find
any such place as Subruinæ or Sumbruinæ, and therefore to cut the knot they
cannot loose, propose to read here, as well as in the forecited place of Pliny,
Subcutiliæ.
19. Rhetic or Allobrogic.) These wines, whose qualities are here described, had
their names from the countries where they were produced; the first was the
Grisons, and the latter Savoy.
20. Signine.) This wine by reason of its great austerity was used as an astringent
medicine in fluxes. It had its name from the town of Signia in Latium. Plin. Nat.
Hist. lib. xiv. cap. 6.
21. Sesanum.) Dioscorides gives no description of this, but says, it is bad for the
stomach, and produces a bad smell in the mouth. Lib. ii. cap. 369. Pliny tells us it
is brought from India, and the colour of it is white, and it resembles the erysimum
or hedge mustard in Greece and Asia. Lib. xviii. cap. 10. The moderns give this
name to the oily purging grain.
22. Over it.) That is, through the teguments, so as to bring the part affected into
view. I have here followed the old reading contra id, which Constantine upon the
authority of an ancient MS. changed into ultra id; which I think does not afford so
good a sense, though followed by Linden.
23. Cytisus is a shrub, all white like the buckthorn, sending out branches of a
cubit’s length or more, about which are the leaves, resembling fenugreek; which
being rubbed between the fingers smell like rocket. Dioscorid. lib. iv. cap. 695.
24. Acorns.) Dioscorides calls this βάλανος μυρεψική. It is the fruit of a tree like
the myrica.—It resembles the Pontic nut: upon being squeezed like bitter almonds,
it emits a moisture, which is used for ointments instead of oil.—It grows in
Ethiopia, Egypt, and Arabia. Lib, iv. cap. 742.
25. Ferula answered to narthex among the Greeks, and was a general name for
several herbs of the same genus, from whence some of the fetid gums are
obtained, as sagapenum, and galbanum.—The ancients made use of the stalks of
these herbs, in the same manner as paste-boards are now used for fractures, as
will be seen in the eighth book.
26. Refreshing to nature.) I have given a sense of the phrase secundum naturam
(which is the reading of Linden and Almeloveen) very near to that, in which the
philosophers use it, because I can find no other.—Pinzius, Junta, and the Manutii
read vel mentha secundum naturam est. As the books vary, and none of them
make the meaning quite clear, it might perhaps be plainer, if it be read, vel quod
secundum eam naturam est, that is, Or mint, or something of the same nature.
27. Regimen for such patients I have already mentioned.) Vid. book i. chap. 7.
28. Minium.) Pliny complains that minium, which was used by the painters, was of
a poisonous nature, and through ignorance often given in medicine instead of the
Indian cinnabar. This last, he says, is believed to be the gore of a dragon crushed
by the weight of a dying elephant, with the mixture of the blood of these animals.
Minium was found in the silver mines in both the Spains, but hard and sandy; also
at Colchos in a certain inaccessible rock, but this was a spurious kind: the best
was got near Ephesus.——Minium some of the Greeks call cinnabar, others miltos.
Plin. lib. xxix. c. i. & lib. xxxiii. c. 7. Cinnabar, says Dioscorides, some mistake for
what is called ammion: for this last is prepared from a certain stone mixed with
the silver sand in Spain, and no where else. In the melting pot it changes into a
very florid and flame colour: it has a suffocating steam in the mines: the painters
make use of it. But cinnabar is brought from Libya, and sold at a great price, in so
much that painters can hardly have it for their use: the colour of it is deep,
whence some have imagined it to be the blood of a dragon: it has the same
virtues as the hæmatites stone. Lib. v. c. 883.—Miltos Sinopica, the best is solid
and heavy, of a liver colour, not stony, very thin when melted. It is gathered in
Cappadocia in certain caves; it is strained and brought to Sinope, and sold there,
whence its name. It possesses a drying quality, and agglutinating, for which
reason it is mixed with vulnerary plaisters, and drying and styptick troches. It
binds the belly if taken with an egg, and is given in clysters to hepatick patients,
Lib. v. c. 885.——Our author elsewhere prescribes minium from Sinope, which
makes it probable, that he intended the miltos of Dioscorides. But upon comparing
these several descriptions, which it is needless to enlarge upon, the learned reader
may determine for himself.
29. Tetrapharmacum, or compounded of four medicines. Vid. lib. v. c. 19.
30. Myrrhapia.) So called, according to Pliny, from the likeness of their flavour to
that of myrrh. Lib. xxv. c. 15.
31. If the hardness continue.) Si durities manet. This appears suspicious, as our
author had mentioned no hardness before. In this chapter he first describes
hysterick fits, then prescribes the proper treatment both during the paroxysms,
and after they are over. We have very great reason to believe the whole chapter to
be corrupted, for reasons which will be mentioned in a following note. With regard
to this particular place, my opinion is, that after Celsus had finished what he had
to say concerning hysterick fits, he next proceeded to treat of a hardness of the
uterus; and after directing some remedies, in case of their failing, and the
hardness continuing, he orders other medicines to be tried.—What renders this
conjecture the more probable, is, that Aretæus, amongst the chronick diseases of
the uterus, mentions σκληριη, a hardness. “There is,” says he, “another species of
cancer, where there is no ulcer, but a hard and resisting tumour. The whole uterus
is stretched, violent pains distress, and all the other symptoms are the same as in
a cancerous ulcer of this part.” Lib. ii. de caus. et sig. morb. chron. c. 2.
32. Restringents must be used.) Si maligna purgatio est, subjicienda sunt
coërcentia: thus Linden and Almeloveen.—Morgagni observes, that the MS. copy of
Alex. Paduan, after the words subjicienda sunt, not only has a great vacuity to the
end of the page, but in the beginning of the next coëuntia, and in the margin
opposite to this chasm are written these words, Desunt in vetustissimo exemplari
duo folia. Two leaves are wanting in the oldest copy. In this also, where the
indexes were prefixed to each book, he found the following in the fourth—Vulva
exulcerata est—De vesica—De calculis in vesica—In omni dolore vesicæ. And in
the margin of the book, he found, Vulva ulcerata est, written opposite to Si vero
vulva exulcerata est. Then should have followed the two other—And the last,
namely, In omni dolore vesicæ, was set over against Præter hæc in omni dolore
vesicæ, and not vulvae, as Linden and Almeloveen read it.
In the MS. in the library of St Anthony at Venice, he found the preceding chasm
much larger, 42 large pages, the same observation in the margin, and the
correspondent numbers in the contents of the book.—Morgagn. ep. ii. p. 45.—ep.
iii. p. 50. So that it is probable our author had first finished the diseases of the
uterus, as being peculiar to women, and then proceeded to those of the urinary
bladder, as common to both sexes.
33. And especially rue with vinegar, &c.) Almeloveen and Linden read,
praecipueque ex aceto; vitare autem oportet rutam, et ne supinus dormiat. This is
making Celsus condemn what all physicians almost have approved, and therefore
with Constantine and Ronsseus, I read praecipueque ex aceto rutam: vitare etiam
oportet ne supinus dormiat: which Morgagni prefers. Ep. i. p. 27.
34. At such seasons as it returns.) I have here followed the correction offered by
Morgagni his for hi which last would manifestly destroy our author’s meaning, as
may appear from the general sense of the whole sentence—Instead of the present
translation it would be, by those upon whom it returns.
35. Sarcophagus, or flesh-eating.) This is found at Assos, a city of Troas. Dead
bodies interred in it are said to be consumed in forty days, bones and every thing,
except the teeth. Plin. l. xxxvi. c. 17.
36. Asian stone.) Dioscorides says this ought to be of the colour of the pumice,
spongy, light, and easily friable. Lib. v. c. 916.
37. Acopon, according to the derivation of the word, signifies something that
relieves lassitude, which was rubbed upon the joints.—Our author exhibits some
forms of them lib. v. cap. 24. where their consistence varies.—P. Ægineta for acopa
orders four parts of oil to one of wax, lib. vii. cap. 17.—In later ages the word was
used in a more extensive sense, for compositions of the consistence of oil, or as a
liniment even when the intention was not to relieve fatigue.
38. Most agreeable to his humour.) That is, Celsus supposes a man in good health,
who is his own master, to be confined to no laws, lib. i. cap. i. but upon account of
a preceding illness he must return to that gradually.
 NOTES
TO

BOOK V.
1. Chalcitis.) Pliny lib. xxxiv. cap. 2. says, this was an ore of copper, and found in
Cyprus. Dioscorides describes the best chalcitis as resembling copper, easily
friable, having shining veins. Lib. v. cap. 889.
2. Gum, when mentioned alone in any of the ancient authors, is understood to be
the same with what now bears the name of gum Arabic.
3. Calcined lead. Plumbum combustum.) The process of this is mentioned by
Dioscorides under the correspondent Greek name—It was prepared by putting
very thin laminæ of lead, with sulphur strewed upon each of them, into an earthen
pot, and keeping them on the fire, stirred with an iron rod, till the lead was
converted into ashes. It was afterwards rubbed in a mortar, and washed by
repeated affusions of water, till no dross swam at top. Dioscorid. lib. cap. 870.
4. Misy.) This hath the same virtues as the chalcitis, and they only differ in the
degree of strength. The best comes from Cyprus, of a gold colour, hard, and when
broken, shining and stellated. Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 891.
5. Allum.) There are several kinds of this mentioned by the ancients. Dioscorides
says, the scissile, round and liquid, were applied to medicinal purposes, and that
the scissile was the best. Lib. v. cap. 897.
6. Melinum.) As our author in this place mentions only simples, he cannot intend
by this word, oil of quinces; so that it must either be a kind of colour that came
from Melos, or else the Melian allum; in which last sense the comma ought to be
expunged betwixt alumen, and Melinum.—But it is necessary to observe, that our
author mentioning this species of allum in the sixth book, calls it Alumen Melium,
which in other editions is Alumen Melinum.
7. Iron scales are reckoned to have the same virtue as its rust, but not so
efficacious.
8. White vine.) Paul Ægineta mentions the Ampelos leuce, or white vine, which he
said was also called bryonia. Lib. vii.
9. Propolis is a gluey matter, of a fetid smell, found in the honey-combs, which
Pliny says serves to keep out the cold.—Dale calls it bee-bread.—Others call it bee-
glue.
10. Soot of frankincense.) Dioscorides orders it to be made thus,—“With a pair of
small tongs light a bit of thus at a lamp, and put it into a new hollow earthen
vessel, which is covered with a concave copper one, with an opening in the
middle, and carefully anoint it over; on one side or both, put small stones to the
height of four fingers, to show if it burns, and that there may be room to put in
other bits, before the first be entirely extinguished; and continue this, till you
observe a sufficient quantity of soot collected; always wetting the external side of
the copper with a sponge dipped in cold water. For thus all the soot will be fixed,
when this is not too much heated: otherwise it would fly off again by reason of its
lightness, and be mixed with the ashes of the thus.” Lib. i. cap. 85.
11. Sandarach.) This is the mineral sandarach, or red arsenic.
12. Gnidian berry.) Modern botanists are not agreed, what this berry of the
ancients was; some taking it for the mezereon, or spurge olive, others for the
spurge flax.
13. Omphacium.) Of this there were two kinds, the one the juice of unripe olives,
and the other the juice of unripe grapes. Plin. lib. xii. cap. 27.
14. Copper-scales.) This must be an interpolation, as in this same chapter, which
mentions only the class of cleansers, it occurred before.
15. Calcined copper.) The metal was calcined by being put into a pot, stratum
super stratum, with sulphur and salt.—Or else the copper was kept for several
days in the fire in a pot by itself.—Others again added allum to it, or sulphur alone,
which last gave it a sooty colour.—It was washed in a mortar, and the water
changed four times a day, till no froth arose in it. Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 861.
16. Apronitre.) The spume or froth of nitre was of a purplish colour, and the lighter
the better. It had the same virtues with nitre.—Id. lib. v. cap. 905.
17. Chrysocolla.) I have here retained the original word, because naturalists are
not agreed, that it was the modern borax. Dioscorides says the Armenian is the
best, and in colour it resembles leeks.—What is full of earth and stones is to be
rejected. Lib. v. c. 878.
18. Cyprus ashes. Cinis Cyprius.) I do not remember that this is mentioned by any
other ancient author; but it has probably been the ashes of the tree or plant of
this name, or perhaps some particular kind of ashes brought from the island of
Cyprus.
19. Cadmia.) The best is the Cyprian, called botryitis, solid, moderately heavy,
being clustered like a bunch of grapes, of the colour of spodium, and being broken
it appears cineritious and eruginous within. There are other kinds of it inferior,
known by the names onychitis, zonitis, and ostracitis. For burning cadmia it is hid
in live coals, till it grows diaphanous, and runs into bubbles like the scoria of iron;
afterwards it is extinguished in Aminæan wine. Some burn it thus three times, till
it be perfectly converted into ashes; and then they use it instead of spodium. It is
washed in a mortar, and the water changed, till no dross appears on the top.
Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 858.—I have here mentioned particularly the burning and
washing of cadmia, because it may serve to shew the nature of this process in
other minerals, when our author prescribes such; and Dioscorides in mentioning
them often refers to cadmia as the general example.
20. Hypocistis grows near the roots of cistus. The juice of it is inspissated like the
acacia; and it has the same qualities. Dioscorid. lib. i. cap. 128.
21. Diphryges.) This is not known in medicine at present. Dioscorides says ‘there
are three species of it. One of the metallic kind found only in Cyprus, which is first
dried in the sun, and then burnt by laying sticks all round it. Whence its name
from being twice torrified. A second kind is found at the bottom of the copper
furnaces after smelting. The third is the pyrites stone calcined for several days in a
furnace, till it have the colour of cinnabar. The taste of diphryges is eruginous,
astringent, and vehemently drying upon the tongue.’ Lib. v. cap. 894.
22. Salamander.) Our author here intends the animal so called, and Dioscorides
ascribes to it this virtue. It was burnt and the ashes made use of. Lib. ii. cap. 255.
23. Flower of copper.) Flos æris is obtained, when the melted copper runs from
the furnace, by pouring cold water upon it to refrigerate it. For by the sudden
check, this substance is as it were spued out, and concretes into flowers. Id. lib. v.
cap. 862.
24. Spodium was scraped off the walls of furnaces mixed with sparks, and
sometimes coals; that, which was generated in the gold furnaces, was reckoned
best for the eyes. Plin. lib. xxxiv. cap. 13.
25. Phrygian.) This was made use of by the dyers in Phrygia, whence its name.
The best is pale-coloured and moderately ponderous, not firm in its concretions,
and having white veins. Diosc. lib. v. cap. 915.
26. Scissile.) This is produced in the western Iberia. The best is of a saffron
colour; easily broken and split; in its contexture it resembles the sal ammoniac.
Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 919.
27. Vinegar is superfluous, because mentioned before in the same chapter.
28. Burned paper.) It must be observed the paper of the ancients was made from
the papyrus or paper-reed.
29. Sansucus.) Dioscorides says this is the same with the amaracus, or sweet
marjoram, which is the name given to sansucus by the Sicilians and people of
Cyzicum. Lib. iii. cap. 452.
30. Asteriace.) I do not find that this word occurs any where else.
31. Eretrian earth is very white, or of an ash-colour: this last, and the soft is best.
Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 945.
32. Poppy-tears.) Dioscorides after describing the papaver sativum and its virtues,
says, ‘It is not improper to subjoin the method in which the opos or juice of it is
collected. Some then cutting the poppy heads with the leaves, squeeze them
through a press, and rubbing them in a mortar, form them into troches. This is
called meconium, and is weaker than the opos. But whoever desires to gather the
juice, must proceed thus. After the heads are moistened with dew, let him cut
round the asterisk with a knife, but not penetrate through them, and from the
sides, cut straight lines in the surface, and draw off the tear that flows, with his
finger, into a shell; and come again not long after, for it will be found standing
upon it; and the day following, it will be found in the same manner. It is proper to
rub it in a mortar, and forming it up, to set it by.’ Dioscorid. lib. iv. cap. 647.—Pliny
says, that the meconium is prepared from a decoction of the heads and leaves;
but is much weaker than opion. Lib. xx. cap. 18.
From this account it seems plain, that our author means the genuine tear, or the
opos of Dioscorides.
33. Antimony. Stimmi, and in other places of our author stibium.) Dioscorides’s
description of this shews it to be the modern antimony, lib. v. cap. 873.
34. Dross of lead.) This is glassy, and has the same virtues as calcined lead. If is
washed in a mortar like other minerals. Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 878.
35. Matter. Materia.) This is not meant here of pus, as will appear by what the
author immediately adds; but any humour, that is the proximate cause of a
disease.
36. Struthium.) This was an herb used by dyers. Dioscorides says it was well
known. The wool-washers make use of it for cleansing wool: the root of it is
pungent and diuretic, and relieves in disorders of the liver, &c. Lib. ii. cap. 381.—
This herb is not known now, at least by the same name. Some take it for the
luteola, others for the imperatoria, others for red valerian, others for saponaria.
37. Nard ointment.) For making this, oil is inspissated with cyperus, and for the
fragrancy is added costus, amomum, nard, myrrh, balsam. Dioscorid. lib. i. cap.
76.
38. Cachrys is the fruit of the libanotis fructifera, which is by some called zea or
campsanema, and has leaves like fennel, but thicker and broader, roundish, and
creeping on the ground; the stalk, about a cubit or more in length; the fruit has a
heating quality, very drying, whence it is good mixed with ointments against
rheums of the eyes. Dioscorid. lib. iii. cap. 492. et 93.
39. Viscum, bird-lime.
40. Ammoniacum thymiama.) According to Constantine, this is nothing else than
gum ammoniac. I forbear to mention the conjectures of others, that seem to be
not well founded. Paulus Ægineta says, it is an opos, or juice, endued with such
an emollient virtue as to discuss schirri and tophi. Lib. vii.
41. Crocomagma.) This was the refuse left after the expression of the oil in
making the crocine ointment; which, besides retaining some of the virtues of
saffron, would also be in some measure impregnated, with the aromatics used in
the composition of that ointment. Vide Plin. lib. xxi. cap. 20. et Dioscorid. lib. i.
cap. 26.
42. Thapsia.) According to Dioscorides’s description and account of its virtues, it
seems to be the modern thapsia, or turpethum garganicum, deadly carrot. Vide
Dioscorid. lib. iv. cap. 739.
43. Washed lead was thus prepared.—Put water into a leaden mortar, and rub it
with a lead pestle, till the water becomes black and feculent; then strain it through
a linen cloth, pouring water upon it, that all that is dissolved may be strained; and
repeat this till you have a sufficient quantity. Then suffer it to settle, pouring water
upon it several times, till no more blackness stand upon the top; then work it up
into a troches and set it by. Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 869.
44. Cedria is what distils from the cedar-tree; the best is thick, pellucid, and of a
strong smell, and not diffusing itself when poured out. Dioscorid. lib. i. cap. 106.
45. Laurel oil.) This was made in different ways. One method was boiling the
berries in water when they fall off the tree, which causes them to emit their oil,
which is separated by the hands into shells. Others impregnate the oil of unripe
olives with cyperus, calamus, and afterwards putting in the tender leaves of the
laurel, boil them together. Others add to these bay-berries, till the oil smell
sufficiently of them. Others mix with it storax and myrrh. Dioscorides, lib. i. cap.
50.
46. Rasile verdigrease is made by suspending a copper vessel, or plate, over the
steam of vinegar for ten days; then the verdigrease produced is scraped off. Or
else by putting one or more lumps or plates of copper into husks of grapes grown
sour. Dioscorid. lib. v. cap. 865.
47. Oesypum is the oily part collected from sordid wool thus: the wool was washed
in warm water, and all its sordes expressed, the fat swimmed a-top, with a froth,
and upon throwing in some sea water, it subsided to the bottom, and when all the
œsypum was obtained from it in this manner, it was purified by repeated affusions
of water. When pure it has no sharp taste, but is in some degree astringent, and
appears white. It has a heating quality, fills up ulcers, and is emollient. Dioscorid.
lib. ii. cap. 272.
48. Boiled copperas.) Dioscorides mentions a species prepared in Spain that had
the name of χάλκανθον ἑφθὸν—atramentum sutorium coctum. Lib. v. cap. 888.
49. Cicine.) A proper quantity of κροτωνὼν, of the Ricinus, is dried in the sun, till
their exterior coat break and fall off. Then the pulp is collected, put into a mortar,
and pounded well, and afterwards removed into a tinned kettle containing water,
and boiled over a fire. When all the juice is obtained from them, remove the vessel
from the fire, and take up the oil that swims a-top, and set it by. In Egypt, where
great use is made of this oil, they obtain it by first grinding the seed, and then
pressing it. Dioscorid. lib. i. cap. 38.
50. Burnt ceruss.) Put powdered ceruss into a deep vessel; set it on the fire,
stirring it with a ferula, till it has the colour of sandaracha, (red arsenick).
Dioscorides also mentions a toasted or roasted ceruss, but the process is of the
same nature, and only stopped, when the ceruss acquires a lemon colour.
Dioscorid. lib. v. c. 877.
51. Polybus.) I have chosen to read this name with the older editions, because our
author afterwards mentions the sphragis of Polybus, which can have no other
place to refer to but this.
52. Cauneæ.) Mentioned by Cicero, De Divinatione, lib. 2.
53. Susine ointment.) For making this, oil was first boiled with wine, calamus, and
myrrh, and after being strained, cardamom was infused in it, til it gave a proper
flavour, After this, to three and an half pound of this oil were added the leaves of a
thousand lilies, and the whole was stirred with hands anointed with honey. After
standing a day and a night, the lilies were squeezed out. Dioscorid. lib. i. c. 63.
54. If a woman does not conceive.) Si non comprehendit. This sentence has, in
some copies, been joined with the former, si concidere vitio locorum, &c. as if
comprehendit related to the consistence of the pessus obtained by the honey.
There are several other explanations offered, but none of them with any
appearance of truth. I thought it capable of no other sense than what I have given
in the translation; and was pleased to find this supported by the opinion of
Morgagni, Ep. i. p. 18.
55. Sprinkled on dry.) The words as they stand in the text, seem capable of no
proper sense. Misy quoque et galla, si paribus portionibus misceantur, corpus
consumunt: eaque vel arida inspergere licet, vel excepta cadmia, illinere. I have
therefore taken the liberty to transpose cadmia, and place it after galla for the
cadmia is as dry as the other two, and therefore could not serve to bring them to
any consistence; but still there seems to be a word wanting after excepta, to
denote the substance for uniting them.
56. Marmor coctum.) I suppose this to be burnt marble; for Dioscorides mentions
a lapis alabastrites, which was burnt, and mixed with resin or pitch, and thus used
to discuss hardnesses. Lib. v. c. 927.
57. Ignis sacer.) Some, among whom is Heister [ JF ], believes, that Celsus calls an
erysipelas ignis sacer, whereas he has erysipelas under its own name, cap. 26. of
this book.—Fabricius [ JG ] ab Aquapendente, and Wiseman [ JH ], by his ignis sacer
understand the miliary herpes. See our author’s description of it, cap. 28.
58. Malabathrum.) It is a question, whether the modern malabathrum, or Indian
leaf, is the same with the ancient. Dioscorides says, some will have it to be the
leaf of Indian nard being deceived by the similarity of its smell. But that is not
true; for it is a vegetable of a peculiar nature, growing in the fens of India, without
any root, the leaves swimming on the surface of the water. Lib. i. cap. 11.
59. Black cassia is the second species mentioned by Dioscorides, who says it is
preferable to the first, and fittest for medicinal use; the natives of Arabia call it
zigir; it is thick, and smells like roses. Lib. i. cap. 12.
60. Myrrh called stacte was the oily part expressed from particular kinds of myrrh,
and was very fragrant. Dioscorid. lib. i. c. 78.
61. Pontic root.) Dale, with Alpinus, believes the rhapontic of the ancients to be
the same with the true rhapontic of the moderns.
62. See note at chap. 24. book iv.
63. Sil.) Rhodius, together with Constantine and Ronsseus, are for reading seselis
instead of silis, for sil is a species of ochre; and they take it for the seseli Creticum,
or tordylium, hartwort of Candy.
63a. Between the fingers. Vel inter digitos.) Morgagni observes, that, instead of
these words, his MS. and all his editions read In articulis which the reader, he
says, cannot wonder at, if he considers what follows concerning the difficulty of
curing wounds in the joints, p. 297. of the original. Ep. 6. p. 144.
64. Fibulæ.) The word fibula, in other classical authors is translated by a buckle;
which from its connection in such places appears very proper. But upon comparing
the several passages in our author, where the use of them is directed, it seems
very difficult to give any account of them. The variety of opinions may very well be
reduced to two, those of Guido de Cauliaco and Fallopius. The first believed them
to be hooks, whose size was adapted to that of the wounded member, curved at
both ends in the form of the letter S, that they might be fixed to both lips of the
wound. According to Fallopius the fibula was nothing else but the interrupted
suture now commonly used in wounds.
Fabricius was at first of opinion, that the fibula was not made of thread, but
copper or iron, not hard, as Guido would have it, but softer and flexible, that it
might be fixed through the lips of the wound and then twisted. But after mature
consideration, he says he found Fallopius’s opinion to be most agreeable to truth.
Rhodius in his treatise de Acia, where his design is only to clear up the fibula and
acia of Celsus, has been at immense pains to collect every thing extant in any of
the ancients about their fibulæ; but as there is nothing which occurs in any of the
old physicians more particular than in our author, it is not to be wondered, that
every thing in his treatise of real importance to the scope of his enquiry, is
contained in Fabric. ab Aquapendente, lib. ii. de Vulnerib. cap. 5. et de Chirurgic.
Operation. cap. 108.
The principal places, in which our author mentions fibulæ, are lib. v. cap. 26.
p. 292. in the original, p. 293.—Lib. 7. cap. 4. p. 412.—Cap. 19. p. 462. et 464.—
Cap. 22. p. 469.—Cap. 25. p. 473.
The difficulty seems to rest here, that our author should use the term fibula, which
in other classical authors is always taken for a buckle, or something of that kind
made of metal, without distinguishing it from the ordinary fibula, as one should
imagine he would have done, had he intended thread. Could it be a metal wire
with a loop at one end, and the other first put through the wound, then passed
into the loop, and twisted; which it would be easier to cut than pull out? This
seems to obviate the strongest objection against its being of metal, drawn from
the verb incido, which some moderns would have only applicable to thread.
Rhodius de Acia, cap. 6. will have the fibula used to the prepuce of boys
(mentioned by our author lib. vii. cap. 25.) to be of metal; and according to Joann.
Britannicus a small ring either of silver, gold, or copper.
I have only to add, that instead of paulatim according to Linden and Almeloveen, I
have read paulum with Pinzi, Junta, Aldus, and others.
65. Soft thread, acia molli.) Acia occurs no where else but in this single place of
Celsus; the translation is agreeable to the sentiments of Rhodius de Acia, cap. 14.
and I think it capable of no other sense. It may not be improper however to
observe, that in some copies, though they are not of the best authority, acu is
read instead of acia, but with no apparent meaning.
66. After applying.) I read with Constantine imposito for impositum, which last has
no place in the construction with a proper sense.
67. And the flesh within is corrupted.) Malique odoris est, et caro intus corrupta.
All the editions of Morgagni [ JI ] have carunculæ corruptae, and the MS,
carunculaeque corruptae, which Morgagni likes better; because it would have been
to no purpose to have repeated caro ejus corrupta, which had occurred only a few
lines before; whereas with the other reading, we expunge the colon, and make
carunculae relate to the verb resolvuntur.
68. The skin a little farther off.) I have here followed the reading of the older
editions, ulterior instead of deterior in Linden, which agrees much better with the
sense of the whole passage. Vide Morg. ep. 6. p. 149.
69. The skin is entire, but the flesh within.) Linden omits integra cute, which is in
the older editions, and Morgagni’s MS [ JJ ].—As the sense seems to require it, I have
taken it into the translation.
70. Almost all bites.) I read here, omnis fere morsus, with Nicolaus Junta and the
Manutii, and not feræ, as Linden and Almeloveen have it. For Celsus himself
makes no distinction between venenatos et non venenatos morsus.
71. Psylli.) Pliny, from the authority of Agatharchides, says, there was a nation
called Psylli, in whose bodies there was some humour destructive to serpents, by
the odour of which they stupified them. They had a custom among them of
exposing their children to the fiercest of these creatures, that they might try the
chastity of their wives, the serpents not flying from those, that were not of their
blood. Plin. lib. vii. c. 2. This account of Pliny’s has no better foundation than other
vulgar errors: but we may observe, our author was too curious an enquirer into
nature to give credit to such fables.
72. Especially in Gaul.) The Gauls tinged their arrows in hunting with hellebore,
and cutting out the wound they made all round, they pretended it made the flesh
more tender. Plin. lib. xxv. c. 5.
73. Cerastes, from κερας, a horn, is a serpent of one or two cubits in length, of a
sandy colour in the body, and near the tail void of scales; upon its head something
rises like horns, and the parts about the belly are covered with scales, orderly
disposed, which as it creeps along makes a rustling noise like hissing. Æt. Tetrab.
4. Serm. 1. cap. 28.
74. Dipsas, a serpent called by that name, from the immoderate thirst, which is
caused by its bite. It is found in maritime places, is about a cubit in length, thick,
and becoming gradually smaller towards the tail. Id. cap. 22.
75. Hæmorrhois.) Paulus Ægineta tells us, persons bit by an hæmorrhois are
tormented with pains, their bodies become short and small, there is a violent
hæmorrhage from the wound, and if there is a cicatrix in any part of the body, it
bursts and bleeds: the stools are bloody, the blood discharged is grumous, blood is
brought up from the lungs by coughing; and being seized with a vomiting of blood
they die immediately. He adds, that remedies must be applied before the
symptoms appear; for after they come on, all means are vain.
76. Chersydrus.) The name of this imports it to be an amphibious animal, from
χέρσος terra, and ὕδωρ aqua.
77. The Phalangium is unknown to Italy, and is of several kinds; one like an ant,
but much larger, with a red head, the rest of its body black and variegated with
white spots. The bite of this is worse than that of a wasp. The Greeks gave this
name also to two species of spiders, the lupus, and another downy with a large
head. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xxix. cap. 4.
78. Pastinaca fish was of the plani kind, and had a cartilage instead of a spine.
The aculeus, or κεντρὸν of this fish is a remedy for the tooth-ach, as Dioscorides
informs us, and Celsus himself mentions, lib. vi. cap 9. Dale calls it the poison fish,
fire, or fierce flaw. The liver is said to be good against itching; in oil it removes
lichens and lepras.—This cleansing quality attributed to it, makes it probable our
author intends it here, for no such virtue is attributed to the water, or sea-parsnip.
79. Now this is a very bad kind.) One of the great sources of corruption is a false
punctuation; and as I could make no sense of this sentence as it now stands, I
have translated it agreeably to the following; Namque pessimum id genus est.
Fereque primum id fit, quod cacoethes à Græcis nominatur. As it stood before, the
cacoethes was called the worst kind, which our author contradicts immediately, by
saying that no other species but that can be cured. Some of the older editions
read ob quæ for namque, that is, ‘Upon these accounts this is a very bad kind.’
Which appears to agree better with the context.
80. None of these can be removed but the cacoethes.) Here again the sense of
the author is manifestly corrupted by the punctuation in Linden and Almeloveen;
but Morgagni [ JK ] has set it to right in this manner:—Tolli nihil nisi cacoethes
potest: reliqua curationibus irritantur; et quo major vis adhibita est, eo magis.
Quidam usi sunt, &c. The translation is conformable to this. Which reading is
almost the same with Constantine’s.
81. Of a good juice.) See book ii. chap. 20.
82. Probe.) One kind of the probe or specillum of the ancients was broad at one
extremity for the purpose, which Celsus here mentions. Vide Scultet. Armament.
Chirurg. tab. 8. fig. 6.
83. Chironian.) So called, says Paulus Ægineta, because it requires a very great
physician, such as Chiron. Lib. iv. cap. 46.
84. These are the methods prescribed by physicians.) This translation is agreeable
to the reading of the most ancient editions, particularly Nicolaus, Pinzi, Junta, and
Aldus. Quæ cum medici doceant, quorundam rusticorum, &c. In Linden and
Almeloveen the passage has a quite different turn: Quæ cum medici doceant, ab
iis requirenda. Quorundam, &c.—That is, ‘These being the methods prescribed by
physicians, they will be best practised under their direction.’
85. Leaven.) The common leaven for bread among the Romans was paste worked
up without salt, and boiled after the manner of pulticula, then suffered to stand till
it turned sour. Plin. lib. xviii. cap. 11.
86. From its figure, our authors call it panus.) Panus, a clue or ball of wool or
yarn; πη̃νος, or πα̃νος the Greeks used in the same sense, but did not apply it, as
the Romans did, to this tumour.
87. The same applications.) I have here followed the reading of Pinzi Manut. Ruell.
Stephens and Morgagni’s MS. autem for aut, and tantum modo for tantummodo.
Morgagni, Ep. vi. p. 156.
88. If it does not slip out, &c.) Almeloveen and Linden read, si non dilabitur sede,
qua innititur; whereas the prior editions wrote, si non labitur, sede quale innititur;
i. e. ‘if it does not slide, but rests upon a smooth surface.’ This Morgagni [ JL ] likes
much better, as agreeable to Celsus himself, who adds, si inæquale quoque et
asperum, &c, that is, in the first case where the probe rested, but upon a plain
surface, the caries was but little advanced; whereas under the following
appearances it was more considerable.
89. Collyrium.) This name, at present, is appropriated to medicines designed for
the eyes; in which sense the ancients also used it. But they gave it a greater
latitude, to denote likewise a composition of powders brought to a consistence by
some liquid, and formed into something like a tent, of various sizes, according to
the cavities it was designed for. Thus Scribonius Largus orders a collyrium of the
bigness of a pine kernel, to be introduced into the anus, Cap. xxxvii. comp. 142.
90. Which is more ulcerated. Quæ magis exulcerata est.) Several of the ancient
editions read quia for quæ, that is, ‘Because it is more ulcerated.’
91. Spreads wide.) This whole passage was very much corrupted in the old
editions. We are obliged to Linden for several corrections in it; but he reads this
part Proceditque et latet, that is, It spreads and conceals itself. As this can hardly
be the meaning of the author, I read Procedit latè, which is in Pinzi, Junta, Aldus,
and others; only I take the liberty of expunging et.
92. Cimolian chalk.) I have here kept close to the author’s term subcærulea. Pliny
and Dioscorides describe this kind as inclining to purple. See note book ii. chap.
33.
 NOTES
TO

BOOK VI.
2. Gum.) Our author here manifestly distinguishes between lachryma and pituita.
The ancients imagined the pituita to be concreted tears, whereas it is the
sebaceous matter secreted from the glands of Meibomius. To translate it in one
word I have therefore given it the vulgar English name.
3. Phlegm.) Vid. lib. ii. cap. 23.
4. Diet ought to be somewhat fuller than formerly.) In Almeloveen and Linden,
Post hæc cibo pleniore, quam ex operum consuetudine. The reading in the older
editions was ex eorum dierum consuetudine, which Morgagni prefers, Ep. vi.
p. 153. and is the reading I have followed.
5. Burnt antimony.) The antimony is rubbed over with suet, and hid in the fire till
the suet is burnt, and then being taken out, it is extinguished in the milk of a
woman, that has had a male child, or in old wine. Dioscorid. lib. v. c. 873.
6. Specillum asperatum.) Paulus Ægineta, treating of the same disorder, mentions
this instrument by the name of blepharoxyston, that is, an instrument for scraping
the eye-lids. It is delineated by Heister, p. 2. tab. 16. fig. 5.
7. Psoricum.) Dioscorides gives the same process for making of psoricum: only he
orders the vessel to be buried in dung for forty days, about the heats of the dog
star. Lib. v. cap. 890.
8. Hot waters.) By our author’s using the plural number here, it may be doubted,
whether he does not intend mineral hot waters.
9. Strigil.) This is used by other authors to signify a currycomb, or that instrument,
with which the sordes were scraped off the skin at the baths; but in this place it
can be taken for nothing else but a tube or syringe.
10. The specillum oricularium, from its use here, as well as in other places, must
have been some kind of forceps.
11. A board is laid down.) I could make no proper sense of this sentence
according to the present pointing, and therefore have altered the punctuation in
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