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to Georgia, westward to Western New York, Eastern Ohio, Kentucky,
and Eastern Tennessee. It has little value as timber, because it does
not grow large enough.

Scotch and Austrian Pines.

In the same manner other pines may be studied. Fig. 238 shows a
cone and a bit of foliage of the Scotch pine, and Fig. 239 the Austrian
pine. These cones grew the past season and are not yet mature. After
they ripen and shed the seeds which they contain, they will look
somewhat like the cone in Fig 235. The Scotch pine has short and
blue-green needles. The Austrian pine is coarser, and has long dark-
green needles.

There are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we
shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster is
more conspicuous than in either the white or the pitch pine. Do the
leaves persist in the Scotch and Austrian pines longer than they do in
the others we have examined? Study the cones of these and other
pines.
 Fig. 238. Scotch pine. Half natural size.

The Scotch and Austrian pines are not native to this country, but are
much grown for ornament. They can be found in almost any park and
in many other places where ornamental trees are grown.

The Norway Spruce.

The leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the
pines. Instead of being in clusters of two or more, they are single and
without a sheath at the base; neither are there scale-like bodies on
the branches where the leaves are borne. Notice, too, that the leaves
have a very short stem or petiole.

The leaves of the Norway spruce are about one inch long, although
the length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in
different trees. They are rather stiff and rigid and sharp-pointed. In a
general way, the leaves are four-sided, though indistinctly so.
 It will be interesting to study the
position which the leaves take on
the branches. A hasty glance
might give us the impression that
the leaves are not produced on
the under side of the branches;
but a more careful examination
will convince us that there are
nearly as many on the under side
as on the upper. The leaves are
all pointing outward from the
branch and as nearly upward as is
possible. In other words, the
leaves grow toward the light.

We must not forget to see how

long the leaves of the Norway
spruce persist and to find out
when the leaf-scars disappear. We
Fig. 239. Austrian pine. One-third can find leaves that must surely
natural size. be six or seven years old and
sometimes we can find them even
older than this. The leaf scars,
too, remain a long time. The falling of the leaves is illustrated in Fig.
240. It shows the extremities of a limb which is eight years old. The
part between the tip and A is last season's growth; between A and B
it is two years old; and beyond B is a part that grew three seasons
ago. The section beyond C is six years old; from C to D is seven years
of age. The four years' growth of this limb not shown in the drawing
was as densely covered with foliage as is the part shown in the upper
figure; but there are not many leaves between C and D (seven years
old) and none on the eight-year-old wood (except those on the
branchlets, and these are younger).

The cone of the Norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white
pine, but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is. The
cones are usually borne on the tips of small branchlets, although
occasionally one is borne in the manner shown in Fig. 241. The cones
usually fall the first winter.

Fig. 240. Twig of the common Norway spruce. Half natural size.

The Norway spruce is not a native of this country, but like the Scotch
and Austrian pines, it was introduced from Europe and is grown very
widely as an ornamental tree. It is the commonest evergreen in yards
and parks.

The Black Spruce and Its Kin.

There are several different kinds of spruces which we find growing in

our forests and swamps, and sometimes these are planted for
ornament. A sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these,—the black
spruce,—is shown in Fig. 242. The foliage is not very unlike that of
the Norway spruce, but the cones are very small in comparison. They
are about one inch long, though they vary considerably in size. Before
they open they are oval or plum-shaped; but when mature and the
scales of the cone have expanded, they are nearly globular. They are
often borne in clusters, as well as singly, and persist for many years
after the seeds have fallen. The position of the cones will depend
upon their age. When young they point upward, but they gradually
turn downward.

In general appearance the white spruce resembles

the black very closely. The leaves of the white
spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of
color and when crushed or bruised give forth a
peculiar, disagreeable odor. The cones vary in
length from an inch to two inches, and in shape
are more cylindrical or finger-shaped than the cone
of the black spruce.

The foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish

tinge of color of the white spruce and the cones,
which are from one inch to two inches in length,
are obovate in shape—that is, the widest place is
through the upper part of the cone, and from this
Fig. 241. Cone point it gradually tapers to the tip. They seldom
of Norway persist longer than the second summer.
spruce. Half The leaves of all these different kinds of spruces
size. vary greatly in length, thickness, and sharpness of
point, according to the part of the tree on which
they grow, and their surroundings. The shedding
of the leaves on these or other spruces can be determined as easily
as in the Norway spruce.

These three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of
the northern United States and Canada and farther south in the
mountains. They are sometimes all found growing together, but the
black spruce likes best the damp, cold swamps, while the others grow
best on the drier and better drained lands. The black spruce is
commonest. The red spruce is least known.

The Balsam Fir.

This is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold,
damp grounds of the northern United States and Canada, and to
some extent in the eastern states as far south as West Virginia.

The foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces;
yet there are interesting differences in the characters of these two
kinds of leaves. Perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the
shape; and the color of the fir leaves will attract our attention because
the under side is a silvery color, while the upper side is green. What is
the nature of the tip of the leaf and how does it compare with the
pines and spruces in this respect? Does the leaf have a stem or
petiole or is it attached directly to the branch without any stem? How
are the leaves shed?

Fig. 242.—Black spruce. Half natural size.

The cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate
appearance. It will be interesting to determine the position of the
cones, that is, the direction in which they point, and to learn whether
it is the same when they are young as it is after they have matured.

The grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many "blisters"
from which Canada balsam is obtained.

The Hemlock.

A hemlock twig is an interesting object. It may have many characters

in common with the spruce and fir; yet the impression which we get
from it, or from a large hemlock tree, is entirely distinct. The
arrangement of the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping
branchlets are most pleasing. We are led to examine it more closely.
We notice that the leaves appear to be borne in two more or less
regular rows,—one on each side of the branch or twig; but in reality
they come from all sides of the branch, and it is the position which
the leaves assume that gives this two-rowed appearance.

The leaves have a short stalk or petiole, and this stalk rests along the
side of the branchlet in such a direction that the leaves are placed in
single rows on either side of the branch. The petioles of the leaves
are nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a
decided angle with the petiole. This fact can best be brought out by
carefully examining a small twig.

While we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets,

we should also notice the points of similarity and difference between
these leaves and those of the spruces and firs. We shall find that
there is more in common, at least so far as shape and color are
concerned, between the hemlock and the fir than between the
hemlock and the spruce.

Fig. 243. Spray of the hemlock. Two-thirds natural size.

The small, delicate cones, borne on the tips of the branchlets, will also
attract our attention (Fig. 243.) We may wonder at their small size, for
they are only about three-quarters of an inch long, and very delicate;
yet a second glance at the tree will impress us with the number of
cones which the tree bears, and we conclude that, although the cones
may be small, yet there are so many of them that there will be no
lack of seeds.

It is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many

other kinds of trees, yet we can easily determine that many of the
leaves are several years old when they fall.

The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather. The tree
is much used for lumber. Where does it grow?

The Arbor-vitæ.

One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, but
wrongly, called the white cedar) has any leaves at all. It does possess
them, however, but they are very different in size and shape from any
of the others that we have examined. They are small scale-like
bodies, closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in
four rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to
be "appressed." The leaves of the arbor-vitæ are so close together
that they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes,
sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The
former are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the
branchlets, while the latter are on the sides or edges. See Fig. 244.
 Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly
full size.

If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall notice a raised spot near

the point or tip. This is said to be a resin gland. This gland can be
seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old.

Most of the leaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years;
but even older ones can be found. These older leaves, however, exist
not as green, active leaves, but merely as dried and lifeless scales.
These lifeless leaves are probably detached from the branches by the
forces of nature.

The cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones. They are borne
in the axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and
are not conspicuous unless one is close to the tree.

The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for
other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties.
The tree is abundant in a wild state in New York.

Summary of the Kinds of Common Evergreens.

The white pine (Pinus Strobus).—Leaves in clusters of five, soft and

slender; cones five or six inches long, slightly curved; bark
smooth except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees,
where it is fissured.

The pitch pine (Pinus rigida).—Leaves in clusters of three, from three

to four inches long, rather rigid; cones two to three inches
long, often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne
singly, persisting long after the seeds have been shed; bark
more or less rough on the young growth and deeply fissured
on the trunks of old trees.

The Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris).—Leaves usually in clusters of two,

from two to four inches long, rigid, of a bluish-green hue when
 seen in a large mass on the tree; cones two to three inches
long and the scales tipped with a beak or prickle.

The Austrian pine (Pinus Austriaca).—Leaves in clusters of two, five or

six inches long and somewhat rigid, dark green in color, and
persisting for four or five years; cones about three inches long,
conical in shape; and scales not beaked or pointed as in the
Scotch pine.

The Norway spruce (Picea excelsa).—Leaves borne singly, about one

inch long, dark green, four-sided; cones about six inches long,
and composed of thin scales, and usually borne on the tips of
branchlets. The small branches mostly drooping.

The black spruce (Picea nigra).—In general appearance, this is not

very unlike the Norway spruce, but the small branches stand
out more horizontally and the cones are only one or one and
one-half inches long, recurving on short branches. The cones
persist for several years after shedding the seed.

The white spruce (Picea alba).—Leaves about one inch long, having a
glaucous or whitish tinge; twigs stout and rigid, of a pale
greenish-white color; cones from one to two and one-half
inches long, more or less cylindrical or "finger-shaped," and
easily crushed when dry.

The red spruce (Picea rubra).—The foliage lacks the whitish tinge of
the white spruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color; twigs
stouter than those of the black spruce and not so much
inclined to droop; cones about one inch long, obovate, and
usually falling by the second summer.

The hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis).—Leaves about one-half inch long,

flat with rounded point, green on the upper side, whitish
beneath, and borne on short appressed petioles; cones about
three-quarters of an inch long, oval or egg-shaped, and borne
 on the ends of small branchlets and often persisting for some
time.

The balsam fir (Abies balsamea).—Leaves narrow, less than one inch
long, borne singly, very numerous and standing out from the
branchlets in much the way of the spruce; cones about three
inches long, cylindrical, composed of thin scales, and standing
upright on the branches, or recurved; bark smooth, light green
with whitish tinge.

The arbor-vitæ (Thuya occidentalis).—Leaves very small, scale-like,

and over-lapping one another in four rows, adhering closely to
the branchlets; the cones oblong and small,—a half-inch or less
in length,—and composed of but few scales.

LEAFLET XXXIV.

THE CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN.[46]

By ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK.

The pedigree of honey does not concern the bee,

A clover any time to him is aristocracy.

—Emily Dickinson.

here is a deep-seated prejudice that usefulness

and beauty do not belong together;—a
prejudice based obviously on human
selfishness, for if a thing is useful to us we
emphasize that quality so much that we forget
to look for its beauty. Thus it is that the clover
suffers great injustice; it has for centuries been a most valuable
forage crop, and, therefore, we forget to note its beauty, or to regard
it as an object worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it
cheats us more than it does the clover, for the clover blossoms not for
us, but for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself. As I remember
the scenes which have impressed me most, I find among them three
in which clover was the special attraction. One was a well-cultivated
thrifty orchard carpeted with the brilliant red of the crimson clover in
bloom. One was a great field of alfalfa spread near the shore of the
Great Salt Lake, which met our eyes as we came through the pass in
the Wasatch Mountains after days of travel in dust-colored lands; the
brilliant green of that alfalfa field in the evening sunlight refreshed our
eyes as the draught of cold water refreshes the parched throat of the
traveller in a desert. And another was a gently undulating field in our
own State stretching away like a sea to the west, covered with the
purple foam of the red clover in blossom; and the fragrance of that
field settled like a benediction over the acres that margined it. But we
do not need landscapes to teach us the beauty of clover. Just one
clover blossom studied carefully and looked at with clear-seeing eyes,
reveals each floweret beautiful in color, interesting in form, and
perfect in its mechanism for securing pollination.

The clover is especially renowned for its partnerships with members

of the animal kingdom. It readily forms a partnership with man,
thriftily growing in his pastures and meadows, while he distributes its
seed. For ages it has been a special partner of the bees, giving them
honey for carrying its pollen. Below the ground it has formed a
mysterious partnership with microbes, and the clover seems to be
getting the best of the bargain.

For many years clover was regarded as a crop helpful to the soil, and
one reason given was the great length of the roots. Thus the roots of
red clover often reach the depth of several feet, even in heavy soil,
which they thus aerate and drain, especially when they decay and
leave channels. But this is only half the story; for a long time people
had noted that on clover roots were little swollen places or nodules,
which were supposed to have come from some disease or insect
injury. The scientists became interested in the supposed disease, and
they finally ascertained that these nodules are filled with bacteria,
which are the underground partners of the clovers and other legumes.
These bacteria are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, and make it
available for plant-food. As nitrogen is the most expensive of the
fertilizers, any agency which can extract it from the free air for the
use of plants is indeed a valuable aid to the farmer. Thus it is that in
the modern agriculture, clover or some other legume is put on the
land once in three or four years in the regular rotation of crops, and it
brings back to the soil the nitrogen which other crops have
exhausted. An interesting fact about the partnership between the root
bacteria and the clover-like plants is that the plants do not flourish
without this partnership, and investigators have devised a method by
which these bacteria may be scattered in the soil on which some kinds
of clover are to be planted, and thus aid in growing a crop. This
method is to-day being used for the introduction of alfalfa here in
New York State. But the use of clover as a fertilizer is not limited to its
root factory for capturing nitrogen; its leaves break down quickly and
readily yield the rich food material of which they are composed, so
that the farmer who plows under his second-crop clover instead of
harvesting it, adds greatly to the fertility of his farm.

The members of three distinct genera are popularly called clovers:

The True Clovers (Trifolium), of which six or seven species are found
in New York State, and more than sixty species are found in the
United States. The Medics (Medicago), of which four species are
found here. The Melilots (Melilotus), or sweet clovers, of which we
have two species.

The True Clovers. (Trifolium.)

The Red Clover (Fig. 245). (Trifolium pratense.[47])—This beautiful

dweller in our fields came to us from Europe, and it is also a native of
Asia. It is the clover most widely cultivated in New York State for
fodder, and is one of our most important crops. Clover hay often
being a standard of excellence by which other hay is measured. The
export of clover seed from the United States has
sometimes reached the worth of two million dollars
per year, and this great industry is supposed to be
carried on with the aid of that other partner of the
red clover, the bumblebee. Bumblebees had to be
imported into Australia before clover seed could be
produced there. The whole question of the relation
of the bumblebee to the pollination of clover no
doubt needs to be re-studied, for recent
observations have led to the contesting of
prevailing opinions. It has been supposed that the
failure of the clover seed crop in some places is
due to the destruction of bumblebees; whether
this is true or not, we are certain that bumblebees
visit clover blooms, and the teacher can observe
Fig. 245. The
for himself.
common red
There is a more perennial form of red clover, clover.
known as variety perenne. It is distinguished from
the common form of red clover by its taller growth
and mostly less hairy herbage, and by the fact that the flower-head is
usually somewhat stalked. Some persons regard it as a hybrid of red
and zig-zag clover.

Zig-Zag Clover. (T. medium.)—This is another

species of red clover, resembling the one just
discussed, except that its flower-head rises on a
long stalk above the upper leaves, while the red
clover has the flower-head set close to these
leaves. The color of the blossom is darker than in
red clover, and the flower-head is looser. The
stems of the zig-zag clover are likely to be bent at
angles and thus it gets its name. It is a question
whether this species is really grown on farms. It is
probable that some or all of the clover that passes
under this name is Trifolium pratense var. perenne.
 Fig. 246. At all events, the zig-zag clover seems to be
Crimson clover. imperfectly understood by botanists and others.

Crimson Clover—Scarlet Clover (Fig. 246). (T.

incarnatum.)—While this beautiful clover grows as a weed in the
southern parts of our State, it has only recently begun to play an
important part in our horticulture. It is an annual, and its home is the
Mediterranean region of Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils,
and in our State is chiefly used as a cover-crop for orchards, and to
plow under as a fertilizer. It usually has bright, crimson flowers,
arranged in a long, pointed head, and its brilliant green fan-shaped
leaves make it the most artistically decorative of all our clovers.

Buffalo Clover (Fig. 247). (T. reflexum.)—This is sometimes taken for a

variety of the red clover, but only a glance is needed to distinguish it.
While the head is perhaps an inch in diameter the flowerets are not
directed upward and set close as in the red clover, but each floweret
is on a little stalk, and is bent abruptly backward. The flowers are not
pink. The standard is red, while the wings and keel are nearly white.
The leaves are blunt at the tip. It grows in meadows in western New
York and westward. This species is native to this country.

Alsike Clover. (T. hybridum.)—This is a perennial and grows in low

meadows and waste places from Nova Scotia to Idaho. It was
introduced from Europe. It is especially valuable in wet meadows,
where the red clover would be drowned. The blossoms of the alsike
look like those of the white clover except that they are a little larger
and are pink; but the long branching mostly upright stems are very
different in habit from the creeping stems of the white clover; the
blossoms are very fragrant.
 Fig. 247. Three clovers, respectively, Buffalo, Yellow, and Rabbit-
foot clover.

The White Clover. (T. repens.)—This beautiful little clover, whose

leaves make a rug for our feet in every possible place, is well known
to us all. It is the clover best beloved by honey-bees, and the person
who does not know the distinct flavor of white clover honey has lost
something out of life. While in hard soil the white clover lasts only two
or three years, on rich, moist lands it is a true perennial. While it was
probably a native in the northern part of America, yet it is truly
cosmopolitan and may be found in almost all regions of the temperate
zones. Very likely the common stock of it is an introduction from
Europe. By many this is considered to be the original shamrock.

The Yellow, or Hop Clover (Fig. 247). (T. agrarium.)—This friendly little
plant, filling waste places with brilliant green leaves and small yellow
flower-heads, is not considered a clover by those who are not
observant. But if the flowerets in the small, dense heads are
examined, they will be seen to resemble very closely those of the
other clovers. The stems are many-branched and often grow a foot or
more in height. The flowers are numerous, and on fading turn brown,
and resemble the fruit of a pigmy hop vine, whence the name. Its
leaves are much more pointed than those of the medics, with which it
might be confused because of its yellow flowers.
Low Hop Clover, or Hop Trefoil. (T. procumbens.)—This resembles the
above species, except that it is smaller and also more spreading, and
the stems and leaves are more downy.

The Least Hop Clover. (T. dubium.)—This may be readily distinguished

from the above species by the fact that its yellow flowerets occur from
three to ten in a head. This is said by some to be the true shamrock,
although the white clover is also called the shamrock.

The Rabbit-Foot, or Stone Clover (Fig. 247). (T. arvense.)—This is

another clover not easily recognized as such. It grows a foot or more
in height and has erect branches. The leaflets are narrow and all arise
from the same point. The flowerets occur in long, dense heads. The
calyx is very silky, and the lobes are longer than the white corollas,
thus giving the flower-head a soft, hairy look, something like the early
stages of the blossom of the pussy willow. Because of its appearance
it is often called "pussy clover."

The Medics. (Medicago.)

Alfalfa (Fig. 248). (Medicago sativa.)—This is the veteran of all the

clovers, for it has been under cultivation for twenty centuries. It is a
native of the valleys of western Asia. In America it was first
introduced into Mexico with the Spanish invasion. It was brought from
Chile to California in 1854, where it has since been the most
important hay crop. In fact, there is no better hay than that made
from alfalfa. It was probably introduced into the Atlantic States from
southern Europe, and has grown as a weed for many years in certain
localities in New England and the Middle States; only recently has it
been considered a practicable crop for this climate, although it was
grown in Jefferson Co., N. Y., in 1791. Its special value is that it is a
true perennial, and may be cut three times or more during a season,
and when once established it withstands hot, dry weather. It is of
marvelous value to the semi-arid regions. The alfalfa flower is blue or
violet, and grows in a loose raceme. The plant grows tall and its
stems are many branched. This and all these medics are introduced
from Europe.

Black or Hop Medic. (M. lupulina.)—This would

hardly be called a clover by the novice. The long
stems lie along the ground, and the tiny yellow
flower-heads do not much resemble the clover
blossom. It is a common weed in waste places in
our State. It is perennial.

The Toothed Medic. (M. denticulata.)—Instead of

having the yellow flowerets in a dense head, this
species has them in pairs or perhaps fours, or
sometimes more. It is widely distributed as a
weed, and is also introduced as a pasture plant for
early grazing. It is of little value as hay.

The Spotted Medic. (M. Arabica.)—This very much Fig. 248. Alfalfa,
resembles the preceding species except that the foliage and
leaves are likely to have on them conspicuous dark flowers.
spots near the center. Like the preceding species it
is an annual and a weed, and has also been
introduced as a plant for early grazing. This and the toothed medic
are known to farmers under the name of bur-clover. The reason for
this name is found in the seed-pod, which is twisted in a spiral and
has an outer margin of curved prickles.

The Melilots, Or Sweet Clovers. (Melilotus.)

In driving or walking along the country roads, we may find ourselves

suddenly immersed in a wave of delightful fragrance, and if we look
for the source we may find this friendly plant flourishing in the most
forbidding of soils. Growing as a weed, it brings sweet perfume to us,
and at the same time nitrogen, aeration and drainage to the hopeless
soil, making rich those places where other weeds have not the
temerity to attempt to grow. When the soil is generous, the sweet
clover often grows very tall, sometimes as high as ten feet. It is a
 cheerful, adaptable and beneficial plant, and I
never see it without giving it a welcome, which, I
am sorry to say, I cannot always grant to other
roadside wayfarers. The sweet clovers are
European.

The White Sweet Clover (M. alba) is sometimes

called Bokhara clover and has white flowers (Fig.
249).

The Yellow Sweet Clover (M. officinalis) has yellow

blossoms. It has interesting old English names,
such as Balsam Flowers, King's Clover and
Heartwort.

Fig. 249. White

sweet clover.

Questions on the Clovers.

Two general kinds of types of studies are to be made of the clovers:

identification studies, whereby you will come to know the kinds of
clover; life history studies, whereby you will come to know under
what conditions the plants live and thrive. The latter is the more
important, but the former usually precedes it, for one is better able to
discover and discuss the biological questions when he is acquainted
with the species. The following questions will bring out some of the
important biological aspects:

1. How many of the true clovers, the medics, and the sweet clovers
do you know?

2. Send me properly labelled pressed specimens of the leaves and

blossoms of the clovers that you have been able to find.
3. Dig a root of red clover and find the nodules on it. Please describe
them.

4. What methods does the U. S. Department of Agriculture employ to

inoculate the soil with bacteria so that alfalfa may grow?

5. How do clover roots protect the land from the effects of heavy
rains?

6. How do the clover plants conserve the moisture in the soil?

7. How does this conservation of moisture aid the farmer and

orchardist?

8. What is a cover-crop, and what are its uses?

9. Why do farmers sow red clover with grass seed?

10. How do the habits of the stems of white clover differ from those
of other clovers?

11. Why is white clover so desirable for lawns?

12. Compare the floweret of the red clover with the sweet pea
blossom and describe the resemblance.

13. Study a head of white clover from the time it opens until it is
brown, and tell what changes take place in it day by day.

14. What has happened to the flowerets that are bent downward
around the stalk?

15. Watch one of these flowerets deflect, and describe the process.

16. How many flowerets do you find in a head of red clover? Of white
clover? Of alsike?

17. Which flowerets open first in a head of red clover?

18. Describe a clover seed. Describe a seed of alfalfa.

19. What insects do you find visiting the red clover blossoms? The
white clover blossoms?

Alfalfa, or Lucerne.[48]

The alfalfa plant is just now coming into great prominence in New
York State. Every teacher, particularly in the rural schools, will need to
know the plant and to have some information about it.

What alfalfa is.—It is a clover-like plant. It is perennial. It has violet-

purple flowers. The leaves have three narrow leaflets. It sends up
many stiff stems, 2 to 3 feet high. The roots go straight down to great
depths.

Why it is important.—It is an excellent cattle food, and cattle-raising

for dairy purposes is the leading special agricultural industry in New
York State. In fact, New York leads all the States in the value of its
dairy products. Any plant that is more nutritious and more productive
of pasture and hay than the familiar clovers and grasses will add
immensely to the dairy industry, and therefore to the wealth of the
State. Alfalfa is such a plant. It gives three cuttings of hay year after
year in New York State, thereby yielding twice as much as clover
does. In the production of digestible nutrients per acre ranks above
clover as 24 ranks above 10. When once established it withstands
droughts, for the roots grow deep.

Alfalfa is South European. It was early introduced into North America.

It first came into prominence in the semi-arid West because of its
drought-resisting qualities, and now it has added millions of dollars to
the wealth of the nation. Gradually it is working its way into the East.
It is discussed in the agricultural press and before farmers' institutes.
Last year the College of Agriculture offered to send a small packet of
seeds to such school children in New York State as wanted to grow a
little garden plat of it. About 5,000 children were supplied. The
teacher must now learn what alfalfa is.
In nearly every rural community, sufficient alfalfa can be found for
school purposes. In many places it has run wild along roadsides.

On these plants make the following observations:

1. Under what conditions have you found alfalfa growing? How did the
plant come to grow there,—sown, or run wild?

2. Describe the form of the root. How does the root branch?

3. Do you find the little tubercles or nodules on the roots? On what

part of the roots? How large? How numerous?

4. The crown of the plant (at the surface of the ground),—describe it,
and how the tops and the roots start from it.

5. The stems,—how many from each crown, whether erect or

prostrate, how they branch.

6. The leaves,—simple or compound? Form? Edges entire or fine

toothed? Do the leaves "sleep" at night, as those of clover do?

7. Do you find any distinct spots on the leaves? What do you think is
the cause of them?

8. Flowers,—how borne (whether singly or in clusters), color, form,

resemblance to any other flowers you may know. Do they vary in
color?

9. If possible, find the seed-pods and seeds, and describe.

10. Make inquiries as to whether alfalfa is becoming well known in

your vicinity.

Agricultural Account of Alfalfa.

You may be asked some practical questions about alfalfa; therefore

we give you a brief agricultural account of it. If you desire further
information, write to the College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y., for
Bulletin 221, "Alfalfa in New York."

Alfalfa is grown mostly for hay. It is not adapted to pasture, because

the new growth springs from the crown at the surface of the ground,
and if this is destroyed the growth will not be renewed vigorously.
New York is a hay-producing State. Grain feeds can be grown more
cheaply in the West. It is of great importance to the State, therefore,
if a better hay-producing plant can be found. We have seen that New
York leads the States in dairy cattle. Other livestock also is abundant.
Last year more than half a million horses and mules were fed in the
State.

Success has not attended efforts to grow alfalfa in all parts of New
York. This is due to two principal reasons: (1) farmers have not
known the plant and its habits well enough to give it the care and
treatment it demands; (2) the soils of many localities, because of their
physical condition or composition, are not suitable for the plant.

The alfalfa seedling is not a strong plant. It cannot compete with

weeds nor overcome adverse conditions of moisture; it cannot adapt
itself to conditions resulting from poor preparation of land, and it is
not vigorous in its ability to get food from any source. Care must be
given to the preparation of the land in order that sufficient moisture
may be supplied during the early stages of growth and that there may
be an abundance of quickly available plant-food. After growth has
started, alfalfa has the power to get some of its nitrogen from the air
through the nodules which grow upon its roots; yet during the early
stages of growth it is essential that the soil be supplied with all
elements of plant-food in available form.

While alfalfa requires an abundance of moisture for its best growth

and development, yet it will not grow in soils that hold water for any
considerable length of time. Such soils are usually those with an
impervious subsoil or hard-pan, or those of clay or silt structure which
retain free water to the exclusion of air. Therefore, it is important that
alfalfa soils be well and uniformly drained, either by natural conditions
or by underground drains. One other essential of prime importance is
that the soil be neutral or alkaline in its reaction; in other words, that
it contain no free acid. Limestone or blue-grass soils are ideal in this
regard for alfalfa. If acid is present, the difficulty may be corrected
either wholly or in part by the application of 500 to 2,000 pounds of
lime per acre.

As in most other legumes (members of the family Leguminosæ,

including peas, beans, clovers), there is a peculiar relationship existing
between the plant and excrescences or nodules upon its roots. These
nodules are essential to the normal growth and development of the
plant. They contain bacteria, and these bacteria have the power of
"fixing" or appropriating the free atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
Legumes are "nitrogen-gatherers," whereas most other plants secure
their nitrogen only from decomposing organic matter. Failure to have
the soil inoculated with the proper bacteria for alfalfa is the cause for
many failures with the crop. In most instances when the plants do not
make satisfactory growth, or have a yellow, dwarfed appearance, the
trouble can be traced to the absence of these bacteria from the soil,
and hence to a lack of nodules on the roots. The relationship existing
between the plant and the organism is one of mutual benefit. Each
kind of leguminous plant seems to have its characteristic bacterium,
which grows on no other plant, although this question is not
thoroughly settled.

Farmers are becoming aware of this requisite in alfalfa culture and

usually supply it in two different ways. The older method is to take
the surface soil from an old alfalfa field, where the plants have grown
well and where nodules are to be found on the roots, and to sow it on
the land to be seeded at the rate of one hundred or more pounds per
acre. In this way the soil becomes inoculated with the bacteria, and
as the young plants spring into growth the bacteria develop on the
roots. Another method is to inoculate the seed before sowing with
artificial cultures of the bacteria. Both of these methods are usually
successful, and if soil conditions are right the chances for failure are
few.
Alfalfa should be cut when it opens into flower. At this time the stems
and leaves contain their highest percentage of nutrients, the leaves
do not so easily fall off in curing, and the stems are not so woody.
Besides these reasons, if cutting be delayed until after flowering, the
plant may not spring quickly into subsequent growth.

Disease does not spare the alfalfa plant. Both leaves and roots are
attacked, the leaf spot being serious. The parasitic dodder is a serious
enemy in some parts of New York State.

LEAFLET XXXV

HOW PLANTS LIVE TOGETHER.[49]

By L. H. BAILEY.
o the general observer, plants seem to be distributed in
a promiscuous and haphazard way, without law or
order. This is because he does not see and consider.

The world is now full of plants. Every plant puts forth

its supreme effort to multiply its kind. The result is an
intense struggle for an opportunity to live.

Seeds are scattered in profusion, but only the few can grow. The
many do not find the proper conditions. They fall on stony ground. In
Fig. 250 this loss is shown. The trunk of an elm tree stands in the
background. The covering of the ground, except about the very base
of the tree, is a mat of elm seedlings. There are thousands of them in
the space shown in the picture, so many that they make a sod-like
covering which shows little detail in the photograph. Not one of these
thousands will ever make a tree.
 Fig. 250. A carpet of young elms,
all of which must perish.

Fig. 251. A plant society waiting for the spring.

Since there is intense competition for every foot of the earth's surface
that is capable of raising plants, it follows that every spot will probably
have many kinds of plant inhabitants. Plants must live together. They
associate; they become adapted or accustomed to each other. Some
can live in shade; they thrive in the forest, where sun-loving plants
perish. Others prefer the sun, and thereby live together. There are
plant societies.

Every distinct or separate area

has its own plant society. There is
one association for the hard-
tramped dooryard,—knot-weed
and broad-leaved plantain with
interspersed grass and
dandelions; one for the fence-
row,—briars and choke-cherries
and hiding weeds; one for the dry
open field,—wire-grass and
mullein and scattered docks; one
for the slattern roadside,—sweet
Fig. 252. Weak, narrow-leaved clover, ragweed, burdock; one for
grasses grow in the cat-tail the meadow swale,—smartweed
forest. and pitchforks; one for the
barnyard,—rank pigweeds and
sprawling barn-grass; one for the
dripping rock-cliff,—delicate bluebells and hanging ferns and grasses.
Indefinitely might these categories be extended. We all know the
plant societies, but we have not considered them.

In every plant society there is one dominant note. It is the

individuality of one kind of plant which grows most abundantly or
overtops the others. Certain plant-forms come to mind when one
thinks of willows, others when he thinks of an apple orchard, still
others when he thinks of a beech forest. The farmer may associate
"pussly" with cabbages and beets, but not with wheat and oats. He
associates cockle with wheat, but not with oats or corn. We all
associate dandelions with grassy areas, but not with burdock or
forests.

It is impossible to open one's eyes out-of-doors, outside the paved

streets of cities, without seeing a plant society. A lawn is a plant
society. It may contain only grass, or it may contain weeds hidden
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