Recap of the Last Session

✓ What is DBMS

✓ Applications and Relevance

✓ Course Content and Delivery

✓ Course Outcomes

✓ Program Outcomes and Program

Specific Outcomes

✓ Related the DBMS Course to the

Placement, Higher Studies and
Entrepreneurship

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 Module-1
Introduction to Databases

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 Topics of Module-1
Introduction to Databases: Introduction, Characteristics of database approach,
Advantages of using the DBMS approach, History of database applications.
Overview of Database Languages and Architectures: Data Models, Schemas, and
Instances. Three schema architecture and data independence, database languages,
and interfaces, The Database System environment. Conceptual Data Modelling
using Entities and Relationships: Entity types, Entity sets, attributes, roles, and
structural constraints, Weak entity types, ER diagrams, examples, Specialization
and Generalization. 10 Hours
Textbook 1:Ch 1.1 to 1.8, 2.1 to 2.6, 3.1 to 3.10

Text Books:
1. Fundamentals of Database Systems, Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe,
7th Edition, 2017, Pearson.
2. Database management systems, Ramakrishnan, and Gehrke, 3rd Edition, 2014,
McGraw Hill

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 Learning Objectives

On Completion of this Module, the learner will be able to:

1. Understand the basic concepts of Database and Evolution of database

2. Understand the Data Models, Schemas, and Instances, Database system
environment
3. Understand the concepts of ER Modelling
4. Apply and draw ER Diagrams for various problem statement

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 Quote for the Day
With data collection, ‘the sooner the better’ is always the best answer.”

- Marissa Mayer
American businesswoman and investor

“You can have data without information, but you cannot have information
without data.”
- Daniel Keys Moran
American computer programmer and science fiction writer

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 Basic Definitions

Data: Raw facts that can be recorded/acquired which has an implicit

meaning. Ex- Age, Color, name..etc

Database: A collection of related data, organized in a proper manner

for effective and efficient storage and retrieval purpose.

Database Management System (DBMS): A software

package/ system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a
computerized database.

Mini-world (DB - Problem Statement): Some part of the real

world about which data is stored in a database. For example, student
grades and transcripts at a university.

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 Basic Definitions (Cont…)

Database System: The DBMS software together with the data

itself. Sometimes, the applications are also included.
Users/Programmers

Database System

DBMS Software

Stored Data (Meta Data)

Simplified database system environment

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 Main Characteristics of the Database Approach

There are 5 Main characteristics of the database approach:

1. Self-describing nature of a database system

2. Insulation between programs and data
3. Data Abstraction
4. Support of multiple views of the data
5. Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing

1.Self-describing nature of a database system:

• A DBMS catalog stores the description of a particular

database (e.g. data structures, types, and constraints)
• The description is called meta-data.
• This allows the DBMS software to work with different
database applications.
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 Main Characteristics of the Database Approach ( Cont…)
2. Insulation between programs and data:

• It is also called as program-data independence.

• Allows changing data structures and storage organization without having
to change the DBMS access programs.

3. Data Abstraction:

• A data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a
conceptual view of the database.
• Programs refer to the data model constructs rather than data storage details

4. Support of Multiple views of the data:

• Each user may see a different view of the database, which describes only
the data of interest to that user.

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 Main Characteristics of the Database Approach ( Cont…)

5. Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing:

• Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve from and to update the

database.
• Concurrency control within the DBMS guarantees that each transaction is
correctly executed or aborted
• Recovery subsystem ensures each completed transaction has its effect
permanently recorded in the database
• OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a major part of database
applications. This allows hundreds of concurrent transactions to execute per
second.

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 Advantages of using the DBMS Approach (Cont…)
• Controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and
maintenance efforts.
• Sharing of data among multiple users.
• Restricting unauthorized access to data.
• Providing persistent storage for program Objects
• Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes) for efficient Query Processing.
• Providing backup and recovery services.
• Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users.
• Representing complex relationships among data.
• Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.
• Drawing inferences and actions from the stored data using deductive
and active rules

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 Historical Development of Database Technology

Early Database Applications:

• The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced in mid

1960s and dominated during the seventies.
• A bulk of the worldwide database processing still occurs using
these models, particularly, the hierarchical model.

Relational Model based Systems:

Relational model was originally introduced in 1970, was heavily

researched and experimented within IBM Research and several
universities.
Relational DBMS Products emerged in the early 1980s.

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Historical Development of Database Technology (Cont…)
Object-oriented and emerging applications:
• Object-Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMSs) were introduced
in late 1980s and early 1990s to cater to the need of complex data
processing in CAD and other applications.
• Many relational DBMSs have incorporated object database concepts, leading
to a new category called object-relational DBMSs (ORDBMSs)
• Extended relational systems add further capabilities (e.g. for multimedia data,
XML, and other data types)

Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:

• Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language) with links among
pages.
• This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-commerce is using new
standards like XML (eXtended Markup Language).
• Script programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript allow generation
of dynamic Web pages that are partially generated from a database.
• Allow database updates through web pages

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 Extending Database Capabilities

New functionality is being added to DBMSs in the following areas:

• Scientific Applications
• XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
• Image Storage and Management
• Audio and Video Data Management
• Data Warehousing and Data Mining
• Spatial Data Management
• Time Series and Historical Data Management

The above gives rise to new research and development in incorporating new data
types, complex data structures, new operations and storage and indexing schemes
in database systems.

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Overview of Database Languages and Architectures ( Cont…)

Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the structure of a

database, the operations for manipulating these structures, and
certain constraints that the database should obey.
Data Model Structure and Constraints:

• Constructs are used to define the database structure

• Constructs typically include elements (and their data types)
as well as groups of elements.
• (e.g. entity, record, table), and relationships among such
groups
• Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data,
• These constraints must be enforced at all times

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Overview of Database Languages and Architectures ( Cont…)

Data Model Operations:

• These operations are used for specifying database
retrievals and updates by referring to the
constructs of the data model.
• Operations on the data model may include basic
model operations
• (Ex. generic insert, delete, update) and user-
defined operations
• (Ex. compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

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 Categories of Data Models
Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:

Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive
data. Also called entity-based or object-based data models.
Physical (low-level, internal) data models:

Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the

computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner through
DBMS design and administration manuals
Implementation (representational) data models:
Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many
commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational data models
used in many commercial systems).

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 Schemas versus Instances
Database Schema:

The description of a database. Includes descriptions of the database structure, data

types, and the constraints on the database.

Schema Diagram:

An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a database schema.

Schema Construct:

A component of the schema or an object within the schema, e.g., STUDENT,

COURSE.

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 Schemas versus Instances (Cont…)

Database State:
This includes the collection of all the data in the database.
Also called database instance (or occurrence or snapshot).
The term instance is also applied to individual database components,
Ex: record instance, table instance, entity instance
The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment in time.

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 Database Schema vs. Database State
Database State: Refers to the content of a database at a moment in time.

Initial Database State: Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded
into the system.

Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the
database.

Distinction:
• The database schema changes very infrequently.

• The database state changes every time the database is updated .

Schema is also called intension.
State is also called extension.

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 Schema Diagram for the database
• Student and Course Information Database

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 Three-Schema Architecture

Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:

Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage
structures and access paths (e.g indexes).
Typically uses a physical data model.
Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a community
of users.
Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
External schemas at the external level to describe the various user
views.
Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

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 The Three-schema architecture

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 The Three-schema Architecture (Cont..)

Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform requests and data.
Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by the DBMS to the
internal schema for execution.
Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted to match the
user’s external view (e.g. formatting the results of an SQL query for display
in a Web page)

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 Data Independence
• Logical Data Independence:
• The capacity to change the conceptual schema
without having to change the external schemas
and their associated application programs.
• Physical Data Independence:
• The capacity to change the internal schema
without having to change the conceptual schema.
• For example, the internal schema may be
changed when certain file structures are
reorganized or new indexes are created to
improve database performance

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 Data Independence
(continued)
• When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings
between this schema and higher-level schemas need to be changed
in a DBMS that fully supports data independence.
• The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged.
• Hence, the application programs need not be
changed since they refer to the external schemas.

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 DBMS Languages

• Data Definition Language (DDL)

• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These
include the relational language SQL
• May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded in a programming language

• Low Level or Procedural Languages:

• These must be embedded in a programming language

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• Data Definition Language (DDL):
• Used by the DBA and database designers to
specify the conceptual schema of a database.
• In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views).
• In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language
(VDL) are used to define internal and external
schemas.
• SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the DBA and database
designers

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• Data Manipulation Language (DML):
• Used to specify database retrievals and updates
• DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
• A library of functions can also be provided to access the DBMS from a programming
language

• Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be

applied directly (called a query language).

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Types of DML
• High Level or Non-procedural Language:
• For example, the SQL relational language
• Are “set”-oriented and specify what data to
retrieve rather than how to retrieve it.
• Also called declarative languages.
• Low Level or Procedural Language:
• Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
• Constructs such as looping are needed to retrieve
multiple records, along with positioning pointers.

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 DBMS Interfaces

• Stand-alone query language interfaces

• Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS
interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in
ORACLE)
• Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in programming
languages
• User-friendly interfaces
• Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.

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 DBMS Programming Language Interfaces
• Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a programming
languages:
• Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C,
C++, etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
• Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java,
ODBC for other programming languages
• Database Programming Language Approach: e.g.
ORACLE has PL/SQL, a programming language
based on SQL; language incorporates SQL and its
data types as integral components

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 User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces

• Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web

• Forms-based, designed for naïve users
• Graphics-based
• (Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.)

• Natural language: requests in written English

• Combinations of the above:
• For example, both menus and forms used extensively in Web database interfaces

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 Other DBMS Interfaces

• Speech as Input and Output

• Web Browser as an interface
• Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using
function keys.
• Interfaces for the DBA:
• Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
• Setting system parameters
• Changing schemas or access paths

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 The Database System environment.

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 Overview of Database Design Process

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 Example COMPANY Database

• We need to create a database schema design based on the following

(simplified) requirements of the COMPANY Database:
• The company is organized into DEPARTMENTs.
Each department has a name, number and an
employee who manages the department. We keep
track of the start date of the department
manager. A department may have several
locations.
• Each department controls a number of PROJECTs.
Each project has a unique name, unique number
and is located at a single location.

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• We store each EMPLOYEE’s social security number,
address, salary, sex, and birthdate.
• Each employee works for one department but may work on several projects.
• We keep track of the number of hours per week that an employee currently works on each
project.
• We also keep track of the direct supervisor of each employee.

• Each employee may have a number of DEPENDENTs.

• For each dependent, we keep track of their name, sex, birthdate, and relationship to the
employee.

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 ER Model Concepts

• Entities and Attributes

• Entities are specific objects or things in the mini-world that are
represented in the database.
• For example the EMPLOYEE John Smith, the Research DEPARTMENT,
the ProductX PROJECT
• Attributes are properties used to describe an entity.
• For example an EMPLOYEE entity may have the attributes Name, SSN,
Address, Sex, BirthDate
• A specific entity will have a value for each of its attributes.
• For example a specific employee entity may have Name='John Smith',
SSN='123456789', Address ='731, Fondren, Houston, TX', Sex='M',
BirthDate='09-JAN-55‘
• Each attribute has a value set (or data type) associated with it –
e.g. integer, string, subrange, enumerated type, …

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Types of Attributes (1)
• Simple
• Each entity has a single atomic value for the attribute. For example,
SSN or Sex.
• Composite
• The attribute may be composed of several components. For example:
• Address(Apt#, House#, Street, City, State, ZipCode, Country), or
• Name(FirstName, MiddleName, LastName).
• Composition may form a hierarchy where some components are
themselves composite.
• Multi-valued
• An entity may have multiple values for that attribute. For example,
Color of a CAR or PreviousDegrees of a STUDENT.
• Denoted as {Color} or {PreviousDegrees}.

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Types of Attributes (2)
• In general, composite and multi-valued attributes may be nested
arbitrarily to any number of levels, although this is rare.
• For example, PreviousDegrees of a STUDENT is a
composite multi-valued attribute denoted by
{PreviousDegrees (College, Year, Degree, Field)}
• Multiple PreviousDegrees values can exist
• Each has four subcomponent attributes:
• College, Year, Degree, Field

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Example of a composite attribute

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 Entity Types and Key Attributes

•Entities with the same basic attributes are

grouped or typed into an entity type.
• For example, the entity type EMPLOYEE and
PROJECT.
•An attribute of an entity type for which each
entity must have a unique value is called a
key attribute of the entity type.
• For example, SSN of EMPLOYEE.

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 Entity Types and Key Attributes (Cont..)

• A key attribute may be composite.

• VehicleTagNumber is a key of the CAR entity type
with components (Number, State).
• An entity type may have more than one key.
• The CAR entity type may have two keys:
• VehicleIdentificationNumber (popularly called VIN)
• VehicleTagNumber (Number, State), aka license plate number.
• Each key is underlined

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 Displaying an Entity type

• In ER diagrams, an entity type is displayed in a rectangular box

• Attributes are displayed in ovals
• Each attribute is connected to its entity type
• Components of a composite attribute are
connected to the oval representing the composite
attribute
• Each key attribute is underlined
• Multivalued attributes displayed in double ovals
• See CAR example on next slide

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 Entity Type CAR with two keys and a corresponding Entity
Set

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 Entity Set

• Each entity type will have a collection of entities stored in the

database
• Called the entity set
• Previous slide shows three CAR entity instances in the entity set for
CAR
• Same name (CAR) used to refer to both the entity type and the entity
set
• Entity set is the current state of the entities of that type that are
stored in the database

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 Initial Design of Entity Types for the COMPANY
Database Schema

• Based on the requirements, we can identify four initial entity types in

the COMPANY database:
• DEPARTMENT
• PROJECT
• EMPLOYEE
• DEPENDENT
• Their initial design is shown on the following slide
• The initial attributes shown are derived from the requirements
description

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 Initial Design of Entity Types:
EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, PROJECT, DEPENDENT

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 Refining the initial design by introducing relationships

• The initial design is typically not complete

• Some aspects in the requirements will be represented as
relationships
• ER model has three main concepts:
• Entities (and their entity types and entity sets)
• Attributes (simple, composite, multivalued)
• Relationships (and their relationship types and
relationship sets)
• We introduce relationship concepts next

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 Relationships and Relationship Types

• A relationship relates two or more distinct entities with a

specific meaning.
• For example, EMPLOYEE John Smith works on the ProductX PROJECT,
or EMPLOYEE Franklin Wong manages the Research DEPARTMENT.
• Relationships of the same type are grouped or typed into a
relationship type.
• For example, the WORKS_ON relationship type in which EMPLOYEEs
and PROJECTs participate, or the MANAGES relationship type in which
EMPLOYEEs and DEPARTMENTs participate.
• The degree of a relationship type is the number of participating
entity types.
• Both MANAGES and WORKS_ON are binary relationships.

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 Relationship instances of the WORKS_FOR N:1 relationship between
EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT

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 Relationship instances of the M:N WORKS_ON relationship between
EMPLOYEE and PROJECT

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 Relationship type vs. relationship set

• Relationship Type:
• Is the schema description of a relationship
• Identifies the relationship name and the
participating entity types
• Also identifies certain relationship constraints
• Relationship Set:
• The current set of relationship instances
represented in the database
• The current state of a relationship type

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 Relationship type vs. relationship set

• Previous figures displayed the relationship sets

• Each instance in the set relates individual participating entities – one
from each participating entity type
• In ER diagrams, we represent the relationship type as follows:
• Diamond-shaped box is used to display a
relationship type
• Connected to the participating entity types via
straight lines

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 Refining the COMPANY database schema
by introducing relationships

• By examining the requirements, six relationship types are

identified
• All are binary relationships( degree 2)
• Listed below with their participating entity types:
• WORKS_FOR (between EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT)
• MANAGES (also between EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT)
• CONTROLS (between DEPARTMENT, PROJECT)
• WORKS_ON (between EMPLOYEE, PROJECT)
• SUPERVISION (between EMPLOYEE (as subordinate), EMPLOYEE
(as supervisor))
• DEPENDENTS_OF (between EMPLOYEE, DEPENDENT)

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ER DIAGRAM – Relationship Types are:
WORKS_FOR, MANAGES, WORKS_ON, CONTROLS, SUPERVISION, DEPENDENTS_OF

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 Recursive Relationship Type

• An relationship type whose with the same participating entity

type in distinct roles
• Example: the SUPERVISION relationship
• EMPLOYEE participates twice in two distinct roles:
• supervisor (or boss) role
• supervisee (or subordinate) role
• Each relationship instance relates two distinct EMPLOYEE
entities:
• One employee in supervisor role
• One employee in supervisee role

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 Weak Entity Types

• An entity that does not have a key attribute

• A weak entity must participate in an identifying relationship type with an
owner or identifying entity type
• Entities are identified by the combination of:
• A partial key of the weak entity type
• The particular entity they are related to in the identifying entity type
• Example:
• A DEPENDENT entity is identified by the dependent’s first name, and the
specific EMPLOYEE with whom the dependent is related
• Name of DEPENDENT is the partial key
• DEPENDENT is a weak entity type
• EMPLOYEE is its identifying entity type via the identifying relationship
type DEPENDENT_OF

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 Constraints on Relationships

• Constraints on Relationship Types

• (Also known as ratio constraints)
• Cardinality Ratio (specifies maximum participation)
• One-to-one (1:1)
• One-to-many (1:N) or Many-to-one (N:1)
• Many-to-many (M:N)
• Existence Dependency Constraint (specifies minimum
participation) (also called participation constraint)
• zero (optional participation, not existence-dependent)
• one or more (mandatory participation, existence-dependent)

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Many-to-one (N:1) Relationship

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 Many-to-many (M:N) Relationship

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 A Recursive Relationship Supervision`

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 Recursive Relationship Type is: SUPERVISION
(participation role names are shown)

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 Notation for Constraints on Relationships

• Cardinality ratio (of a binary relationship): 1:1, 1:N, N:1, or M:N

• Shown by placing appropriate numbers on the
relationship edges.
• Participation constraint (on each participating entity type): total (called
existence dependency) or partial.
• Total shown by double line, partial by single line.
• NOTE: These are easy to specify for Binary Relationship Types.

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 Alternative (min, max) notation for relationship structural
constraints:

• Specified on each participation of an entity type E in a relationship type R

• Specifies that each entity e in E participates in at least min and at most max
relationship instances in R
• Default(no constraint): min=0, max=n (signifying no limit)
• Must have minmax, min0, max 1
• Derived from the knowledge of mini-world constraints
• Examples:
• A department has exactly one manager and an employee can manage at
most one department.
• Specify (0,1) for participation of EMPLOYEE in MANAGES
• Specify (1,1) for participation of DEPARTMENT in MANAGES
• An employee can work for exactly one department but a department can
have any number of employees.
• Specify (1,1) for participation of EMPLOYEE in WORKS_FOR
• Specify (0,n) for participation of DEPARTMENT in WORKS_FOR

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 The (min,max) notation for relationship constraints

Read the min,max numbers next to the

entity type and looking away from the
entity type

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 COMPANY ER Schema Diagram using (min, max) notation

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 Summary of notation for ER diagrams

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 Conclusions
We have understood the below concepts:
1. Why Data Analytics, What Data Analytics
2. Who is Data Analyst, Data Analyst skill set
3. Statistics and Types
4. Data Cleaning and Data Manipulation
5. Data Visualization
6. Bonus: Machine Learning
7. Analytics Life Cycle
8. Roles of Data Analyst and Salary Ranges

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 Important Questions asked in VTU Semester End Exam ( SEE)

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 Application Oriented Questions

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 GATE Questions

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 Market Share of different Databases

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 Contact Details:

Dr.Manjunath T N
Professor and Dean – ER
Department of Information Science and Engg
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Mobile: +91-9900130748
E-Mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

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Department of Information Science and Engg
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