KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
ETEG 432
Wireless Communications
ETEG 405: Communication Laboratory Work
Submitted To: Dr. Anup Thapa
From: Aavash Shrestha (42025)
EE-COM
April, 2025
Lab 1: Reuse ratio and SIR in a cellular system.
OBJECTIVES
To study the cellular system and to compute the reuse ratio for different cluster size and plot it
against different values of N.
THEORY
RF bandwidth has always been the primary constraint in wireless systems; there is never too much.
Efficiently using this precious resource involves what is called frequency reuse, in which a radio
channel is allowed to be simultaneously used by multiple transmitters as long as they are
sufficiently separated to avoid interference. The essential idea of cellular radio is to transmit at
power levels sufficiently low so as to not interfere with the nearest location at which the same
channel is reused.
In this way a physical (RF) channel can be used more than once in a given city. The greater the
reuse distance, the lower the probability of interference. Likewise, the lower the power levels used
in cells sharing a common channel, the lower the probability of interference. Thus, a combination
of power control and frequency planning is used in cellular systems to prevent interference.
The reuse distance is directly proportional to the cluster size but the relation ship is non linear.
Let D be the reuse distance and R be the radius of the cell then Q (co-channel reuse ratio)= D/R=
√(3N).
MATLAB CODE
clc; clear; close all;
N_values = [3, 4, 7, 9]; % Different cluster sizes
R_values = 1:5; % Different cell radius values
n_values = [2, 3, 4]; % Path loss exponents
% reuse distance (D) and reuse ratio (Q)
Q_values = sqrt(3 * N_values)
D_values = Q_values' .* R_values % Reuse distance for different R
% Reuse Ratio vs. N
figure;
plot(N_values, Q_values, '-o', 'LineWidth', 2);
xlabel('Cluster Size (N)');
ylabel('Reuse Ratio (Q)');
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title('Reuse Ratio vs. Cluster Size');
grid on;
% plot SIR
figure;
hold on;
colors = ['r', 'g', 'b'];
for idx = 1:length(n_values)
n = n_values(idx);
SIR_values = zeros(length(R_values), length(N_values));
for i = 1:length(R_values)
R = R_values(i);
for j = 1:length(N_values)
D = D_values(j, i);
interfering_distances = D .* [1.5, 2, 2.5, 3]; % Example interference distances
interference = sum(interfering_distances .^ -n);
SIR_values(i, j) = (R^(-n)) / interference;
end
end
plot(R_values, SIR_values(:, 1), ['-' colors(idx)], 'LineWidth', 2, 'DisplayName', ['n = '
num2str(n)]);
end
xlabel('Cell Radius (R)');
ylabel('SIR');
title('SIR vs. Cell Radius for Different Path Loss Exponents');
legend;
grid on;
hold off;
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RESULT AND ANALYSIS
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The results show a clear trend: as the cell radius increases, the SIR decreases for all values of n.
This is because the desired signal travels a greater distance and experiences more attenuation,
while the interfering signals remain at fixed distances and are less affected.
• For n=2, the SIR is lowest and decreases moderately with cell radius.
• For n=3, the SIR improves significantly, and the slope of the decrease with R becomes
less steep, showing better signal isolation.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The analysis of the cellular system involved computing the reuse ratio (Q) and Signal-to-
Interference Ratio (SIR) for different cluster sizes (N), cell radii (R), and path loss exponents (n).
The reuse ratio was calculated as Q=√(3N), demonstrating a direct dependence on the cluster size.
As N increases, the reuse distance also increases, reducing co-channel interference but requiring
more frequency bands.
The SIR was analyzed for different values of R and n. The results indicate that:
• Higher path loss exponent (n) improves SIR: When n is large (e.g., 4), interfering signals
decay faster with distance, leading to a better SIR.
• Larger reuse distance (D) reduces interference: Since interfering base stations are
farther apart when N is large, the interference component in the denominator of the SIR
equation is reduced.
• Smaller cell radii (R) decrease SIR: A smaller R leads to a lower SIR because the
received signal power decreases while interference from surrounding cells remains
significant.
When interferers are placed at fixed distances, increasing the cell radius weakens the desired signal
more than the interference, resulting in a lower SIR.
A higher path loss exponent enhances SIR by attenuating interference more rapidly than the
desired signal. Therefore, environments with higher propagation loss (e.g., urban or indoor) may
inherently benefit from improved SIR due to faster interference falloff.
The plots confirm that frequency reuse planning is crucial in cellular networks to optimize system
capacity while minimizing interference.
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Lab 2: Path loss
OBJECTIVES
1. To analyze signal attenuation in an ideal free-space environment using the Free Space Path
Loss Model.
2. To evaluate path loss under different environmental conditions using the Log-Distance
Path Loss Model.
3. To study the impact of ground reflections and interference effects using the Two-Ray
Ground Reflection Model.
4. To predict signal loss in urban environments based on empirical data using the Hata Model.
THEORY
Radio transmission .in a mobile communications system often takes place over irregular terrain.
The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be considered for estimating the path loss.
The terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a highly mountainous profile.
The presence of trees, buildings, and other obstacles also must be considered. A number
of propagation models are available to predict path loss over irregular terrain. While all these
models aim to predict signal strength at a particular receiving point or in a specific local area
(called a sector), the methods vary widely in their approach, complexity, and accuracy. Most of
these models are based on a systematic interpretation of measurement data obtained in the
service area.
MATLAB CODE
clc; clear; close all;
% Given Parameters
d = linspace(5000, 10000, 100); % Distance in meters
f = linspace(900, 1800, 10); % Frequency in MHz
Pt = 50; % Transmitted Power in Watts
Gt = 1; Gr = 2; % Transmitter and Receiver Gains
lambda = 3e8 ./ (f * 1e6); % Wavelength in meters
h_t = 50; h_r = 3; % Transmitting and Receiving Antenna Heights
% 1. Free Space Path Loss Model
PL_fs = 10 * log10((Pt * Gt * Gr * (lambda.^2)') ./ ((4 * pi * d).^2));
figure;
plot(d, PL_fs);
xlabel('Distance (m)'); ylabel('Path Loss (dB)');
title('Free Space Path Loss Model'); grid on;
legend(arrayfun(@(x) sprintf('%d MHz', x), f, 'UniformOutput', false));
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% 2. Log-Distance Path Loss Model
PL0 = 30; % Reference path loss at d0 (assumed)
PL_log = PL0 + 10 * (2:6)' * log10(d / 1000); % Path loss for exponent values 2 to 6
figure;
plot(d, PL_log);
xlabel('Distance (m)'); ylabel('Path Loss (dB)');
title('Log-Distance Path Loss Model'); grid on;
legend(arrayfun(@(x) sprintf('n=%d', x), 2:6, 'UniformOutput', false));
% 3. Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model
PL_tr = Pt * Gt * Gr .* (h_t * h_r ./ d.^2).^2;
PL_tr_dB = 10 * log10(PL_tr);
figure;
plot(d, PL_tr_dB);
xlabel('Distance (m)'); ylabel('Path Loss (dB)');
title('Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model'); grid on;
% 4. Hata Model
fc = 900; % Frequency in MHz
ht = 50; % Transmitter height in meters
hr = 3; % Receiver height in meters
if fc >= 300
a_hr = 3.2 * (log10(11.75 * hr))^2 - 4.97;
else
a_hr = 8.29 * (log10(1.54 * hr))^2 - 1.1;
end
L50 = 69.55 + 26.16*log10(fc) - 13.82*log10(ht) - a_hr + (44.9 - 6.55*log10(ht)) * log10(d);
figure;
plot(d, L50);
xlabel('Distance (m)'); ylabel('Path Loss (dB)');
title('Hata Model for Urban Environments'); grid on;
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RESULT AND ANALYSIS
Analysis of FSPL
• Path loss increases with distance.
• Higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) result in higher path loss.
• The graph shows a family of curves, one for each frequency (from 900 MHz to 1800
MHz).
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Analysis of Log-Distance Path Loss Model
• Path loss increases logarithmically with distance.
• Increasing the path loss exponent n from 2 to 6 makes the slope steeper.
o n = 2 represents free space,
• n > 2 models more lossy environments like urban, suburban, or indoor areas.
Analysis of Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model
• Shows strong path loss at larger distances due to destructive interference.
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Analysis of Hata Model
• Provides empirical path loss values based on real-world measurements.
• Path loss increases gradually and realistically over distance.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The path loss models demonstrate varying characteristics:
• The free space model follows an inverse square law with distance and gives an ideal
baseline for signal degradation with no environmental interference.
• The log-distance model introduces a tunable path loss exponent, making it adaptable to
various environments.
• The two-ray ground reflection model considers ground interference, leading to variations
in loss due to phase interactions and is suitable for longer distances where reflections from
the ground are significant.
• The Hata model applies real-world measurements, making it highly relevant for urban radio
frequency planning.
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Lab 3: Rayleigh Distribution and Rician Distribution.
OBJECTIVES
• To study Rayleigh Distribution and Rician Distribution.
• To study fading channel models in Matlab and detail analysis on the results obtained.
THEORY
Rayleigh Distribution
The Rayleigh distribution models fading in environments where there is no dominant line-of-sight
(LOS) component, and the received signal results from multipath propagation. It is given by:
−𝑟2
𝑟 ( )
𝑝(𝑟) = {𝜎2 𝑒 2𝜎2 (0≤ r ≤ ∞)
0 (r < 0)
where:
• is the amplitude of the received signal,
• is the standard deviation of the multipath components.
This distribution is widely used in urban and indoor environments where signals undergo multiple
reflections, diffractions, and scattering.
Rayleigh Fading Channel
In wireless communication, a Rayleigh fading channel models the effect of multipath propagation
where there is no direct line-of-sight (LOS) between the transmitter and receiver. The transmitted
signal reaches the receiver through multiple reflected, scattered, and diffracted paths, each with a
different delay and phase shift.
Rayleigh fading assumes that the amplitude of the received signal follows a Rayleigh distribution,
which is valid when the signal results from the sum of many independent multipath components
with random phase and amplitude. The model is particularly suitable for urban environments with
dense scattering.
Key characteristics:
• Fast fading: Rapid fluctuations in signal amplitude due to the relative motion between the
transmitter and receiver (Doppler effect).
• Maximum Doppler shift determines the rate of these fluctuations.
• No dominant path like a direct LOS; instead, the signal is composed of many weak
contributions.
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The Rayleigh fading channel significantly affects system performance, making it essential to study
its impact on signal strength and design robust communication systems.
Rician Distribution
The Rician distribution describes fading conditions where a dominant LOS component is present
along with scattered multipath components. The probability density function is:
−(𝑟2 +𝐴2 ) 𝐴𝑟
𝑟 ( )𝐼0 ( 2 )
𝑝(𝑟) = {𝜎2 𝑒 2𝜎2 𝜎 for (A ≥0, r ≥0)
0 for (r < 0)
where:
• represents the amplitude of the LOS component,
• is the modified Bessel function of the first kind and zero order,
• represents the spread of multipath components
A key parameter in Rician fading is the Rician K-factor, given by:
𝐴2
𝐾(𝑑𝐵) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔( )
𝜎2
This factor quantifies the strength of the LOS component relative to scattered components. Higher
K -values indicate stronger LOS dominance, while K=0 corresponds to Rayleigh fading.
Rician Fading Signal
A Rician fading channel models wireless signal propagation in environments where there is a
dominant line-of-sight (LOS) path along with several scattered multipath components. Unlike
Rayleigh fading, where no direct path exists, Rician fading includes both a strong LOS component
and multiple weaker reflected signals.
The amplitude of the received signal in a Rician channel follows a Rician distribution,
characterized by the K-factor, which is the ratio of the power in the LOS path to the power in the
scattered paths. A higher K-factor indicates a stronger LOS component.
The presence of a dominant path improves signal reliability compared to Rayleigh fading, but the
signal can still experience deep fades due to destructive interference from multipath components.
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MATLAB CODE WITH RESULT AND ANALYSIS
% Rayleigh Distribution Code
clc; clear; close all;
% parameters
r = linspace(0, 10, 1000);
sigma_values = 1:10;
figure;
hold on;
for sigma = sigma_values
p_rayleigh = (r ./ sigma.^2) .* exp(-r.^2 ./ (2 * sigma.^2));
plot(r, p_rayleigh, 'DisplayName', sprintf('σ = %d', sigma));
end
hold off;
xlabel('r'); ylabel('p(r)');
title('Rayleigh Distribution');
legend; grid on;
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The Rayleigh distribution was plotted for a range of scale parameters σ=1 to σ=10. The
probability density function (PDF) p(r) was observed to shift and spread as σ increased.
Specifically:
• For lower values of σ, the PDF is more peaked and concentrated closer to the origin.
• As σ increases, the distribution widens and the peak value decreases, indicating that the
random variable has a higher probability of taking larger values.
• This reflects how fading amplitude varies more significantly in channels with higher
variance (larger σ).
%% Rician Distribution Code
clc; clear; close all;
% parameters
r = linspace(0, 10, 1000);
sigma_values = 1:10;
A_values = [10];
figure;
hold on;
for A = A_values
for sigma = sigma_values
K_dB = 10 * log10(A^2 / sigma^2); % Rician K-factor in dB
p_rician = (r ./ sigma.^2) .* exp(-(r.^2 + A^2) ./ (2 * sigma.^2)) .* besseli(0, (A .* r) ./
(sigma.^2));
plot(r, p_rician, 'DisplayName', sprintf('A = %d, σ = %d, K = %.2f dB', A, sigma, K_dB));
end
end
hold off;
xlabel('r'); ylabel('p(r)');
title('Rician Distribution');
legend; grid on;
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Figure 1: A=0
Figure 2: A=6
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Figure 3: A=10
For the Rician distribution, the simulations were run with A=0, effectively reducing the
distribution to a Rayleigh distribution, as A=0 corresponds to the absence of a line-of-sight (LOS)
component.
• The plot confirms that when A=0, the Rician distribution matches the Rayleigh case
• The PDF shape and behavior with increasing σ is consistent with that of the Rayleigh
distribution but with a broader distribution and lower peak as σ increases.
• For A>0, the distribution becomes skewed with a peak away from the origin, indicating a
strong direct signal component in addition to scattered multipath.
Rayleigh Fading Channel
clc; clear; close all;
c = comm.RayleighChannel('SampleRate', 10000, 'MaximumDopplerShift', 100);
sig = 1i*ones(2000,1); % Generate signal
% Pass signal through channel
% method for System objects like comm.RayleighChannel
y = c(sig);
c
plot(20*log10(abs(y)));
xlabel('Sample Number');
ylabel('Power (dB)');
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title('Rayleigh Fading Signal');
grid on;
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Rician Fading Signal
clc; clear; close all;
T=[0:1:100];
A=5;
B=10;
Y=A+B*T*1i;
c= comm.RicianChannel('SampleRate',1000,'KFactor',4,'MaximumDopplerShift',100);
Yout= c(Y.');
Yout1= abs(Yout);
Yout2= 20*log(Yout1);
plot(Yout2);
xlabel('Sample Number');
ylabel('Power (dB)');
title('Rician Fading Signal');
grid on;
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CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
1. Rayleigh Distribution
• The probability density function (PDF) increases with r, peaks, and then decays
exponentially.
• Larger values of σ (sigma) result in broader distributions, indicating increased
fading severity.
2. Rician Distribution
• When A=0, the Rician distribution behaves like the Rayleigh distribution.
• As A increases, the distribution shifts towards a more deterministic behavior,
reducing deep fades.
• The Rician K-factor (in dB) quantifies the ratio of direct to scattered components;
higher K indicates a stronger line-of-sight component.
3. Rayleigh Fading Channel and Rician Fading Signal
• The simulation of Rayleigh and Rician fading channels provided insights into the
effects of multipath propagation on wireless signals. In the Rayleigh fading case,
the received signal experienced rapid fluctuations in amplitude, representing a
scenario with no direct line-of-sight (LOS) component. The plotted signal envelope
showed deep and frequent fades, indicating severe channel impairments commonly
found in dense urban or indoor environments.
• In contrast, the Rician fading channel included a dominant LOS component in
addition to multipath reflections. The resulting signal envelope exhibited fewer and
shallower fades, with a generally more stable power level. This behavior reflects
real-world scenarios such as satellite or rural wireless communication, where
partial LOS paths are often present.
• By comparing both models, it becomes evident that the presence of a strong LOS
component (in Rician fading) leads to improved signal strength and reduced fading
severity. These simulations highlight the importance of understanding channel
characteristics when designing robust wireless systems, particularly in selecting
modulation schemes, implementing diversity techniques, and managing signal
integrity under various propagation conditions.
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Lab 4: Indoor Propagation Attenuation Factor Model
OBJECTIVES
• To study the Indoor Propagation Attenuation Factor Model and analyze how path loss
varies with distance in indoor environments.
• To simulate the path loss experienced in a realistic indoor scenario (e.g., a room with a
transmitter on an upper floor).
THEORY
Indoor wireless signals face multiple propagation challenges such as reflection, diffraction, and
penetration through walls/floors. To model this, several empirical models are used, one of which
is the Attenuation Factor Model (AFM).
The general equation is:
𝑑
𝑃𝐿(𝑑)[𝑑𝐵] = 𝑃𝐿(𝑑0 )[𝑑𝐵] + 10𝑛𝑠𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑔( ) + 𝐹𝐴𝐹[𝑑𝐵]
𝑑0
Where:
• PL(d₀): Reference free-space path loss at distance d₀
• n: Path loss exponent (depends on environment type and building material)
• FAF: Floor attenuation factor (extra loss due to different floors)
• Partition Loss: Additional loss due to walls or other obstructions
MATLAB CODE
f = 1300e6; % Frequency in Hz (1300 MHz)for partition loss of concrete block wall
c = 3e8; % Speed of light in m/s
lambda = c / f; % Wavelength in meters
d0 = 1; % Reference distance (m)
PL_d0 = 20*log10(4*pi*d0/lambda); % Free-space path loss at d0 (in dB)
n = 4.19; % Path loss exponent (for 1-floor penetration)
FAF = 38.5; % Floor Attenuation Factor (dB) for 1900 MHz
partitionLoss = 13; % Concrete wall loss (same floor, dB)
d = 1:1:30; % Between 1 to 30m ()
PL = PL_d0 + 10*n*log10(d/d0) + Fdistance between transmitter and receiverAF + partitionLoss;
figure;
plot(d, PL, 'LineWidth', 2);
grid on;
xlabel('Distance (m)');
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ylabel('Path Loss (dB)');
title('Indoor Path Loss using Attenuation Factor Model');
legend(['n = ' num2str(n) ', FAF = ' num2str(FAF) ' dB, Wall Loss = ' num2str(partitionLoss) '
dB']);
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
• Logarithmic Growth: As expected from the model, the path loss grows logarithmically
with distance. This aligns with the 10 * n * log10(d/d0) behavior.
• High Initial Loss: Even at 1 meter, largely due to the high FAF (38.5 dB) and Partition
Loss (13 dB).
• Significant Loss Across Distance: At 30 meters, the path loss exceeds 148 dB, indicating
how difficult it can be for signals to penetrate floors and walls in dense indoor settings
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
In this simulation, the Attenuation Factor Model using MATLAB to study signal degradation
indoors was implemented. The chosen parameters were:
• Frequency = 1300 MHz (Single Floor Partition loss of concrete block wall)
• Path loss exponent, n = 4.19
• Floor attenuation factor, FAF = 38.5 dB (from Walnut Creek building)
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• Partition loss due to concrete wall = 13 dB
Key Observations:
• As distance increases, path loss increases logarithmically.
• Walls and floors introduce significant signal degradation, adding fixed losses on top of the
logarithmic decay.
• For a 30-meter distance, total path loss exceeded 110 dB, which is considerable and must
be accounted for in real-world system design.
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