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 Matrix introduction
 Types of Matrices
 Properties of Matrix multiplication
 Transpose Matrix and properties of Transpose operation
 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrix
 Inverse of Matrix and properties of Inverse operation
 Inverse of Matrix from Matrix equation

Matrix introduction
Broadly speaking a Matrix is a mathematical “Structure”. Matrix algebra is analogously developed as the
Algebra for real variables. Matrix algebra is the branch of higher mathematics and is known as Linear
Algebra.

In general, an m × n matrix can be written rectangular array:

 Concisely, matrix can be written as A=[ aij ] m ×n

 ith row consists of the elements ai1, ai2, ai3,..., ain, while the
 jth column consists of the elements a1j, a1j, a2j,,..., anj,
 aij, is an element lying in the ith row and jth column.

Types of Matrices
Column Matrix:

Row Matrix:

Rectangular Matrix: m is not equal to n, i.e., number of rows is not equal to number of columns:
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Square Matrix: m is equal to n, i.e., number of rows is equal to number of columns:

Diagonal Matrix, Scalar Matrix and Identity Matrix:

Following region is called as the Diagonal of a square matrix:

 In diagonal i = j. So, any diagonal element can be represented as aii.

 Following region is not the Diagonal as i is not equal to j for all elements in this region. Give an
example.

 If all elements except some elements of the diagonal of a matrix are zero then that matrix is
called as diagonal matrix. So, a square matrix A = [aij]nxn is said to be a diagonal matrix if:

{
a ij= 0 if i≠ j
x if i= j

 A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal.
A square matrix A = [aij]nxn is said to be a scalar matrix if:

{
a ij= 0 if i≠ j
k if i= j

 A Scalar matrix is said to be an Identity matrix (I) or unit matrix if each of its diagonal elements is
equal to 1
A square matrix A = [aij]nxn is said to be a Identity matrix if:

{
a ij= 0if i≠ j
1 if i= j
Identity matrix is similar to number 1 in real numbers.

Null or Zero Matrix (O): A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
a ij=0 for any i , j. Null matrix is similar to 0 in real numbers.
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Exercise:

(1) Define the following:

(a) Matrix
(b) Order of a Matrix
(b) Row matrix
(b) Diagonal matrix
(b) Unit matrix
(b) Null matrix

(2) Write examples of following:

(a) 1 order matrix
(b) 4 x 1 Column matrix
(c) 1 x 3 Row matrix
(d) 3 x 4 Rectangular matrix
(e) 2nd order matrix
(f) 3rd order matrix
(g) A4 matrix
(h) Diagonal matrix of order 4
(i) Scalar matrix of order 5
(j) 3rd order Identity matrix
(k) I6
(l) O4
(m) O2x3

(3) Write down the following general matrices:

(a) Amxn
(b) An
(c) Bm
(d) In
(e) On

(4) Write down a general matrix A in concise notation.

(5) Write down the matrices (general) in concise notation:

(a) Diagonal matrix
(b) Scalar matrix
(c) Identity matrix
(d) Null matrix

(6) Represent in form of “set diagram” and “hierarchy diagram” the following:
(a) Rectangular matrices
(b) Square matrices
(c) Diagonal matrices
(d) Scalar matrices
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(e) Identity matrices

Properties of Matrix multiplication
Process of Matrix multiplication is explained in following diagram:

Non-commutativity of matrix multiplication:

Matrix multiplication has a difference over the multiplication of real numbers.

In real numbers we have: ab = ba, known as Commutative law.

In Matrix multiplication problem following cases are possible:

Case-1: AB is defined, BA is not defined:

Case-2: Both AB and BA are defined But AB is not equal to BA:

Case-3: Both AB and BA are defined and AB = BA:

Hence, we can conclude that Matrix multiplication is Non-commutative.

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Following laws regarding Matrix multiplication are always valid whenever both sides of the equality
are defined:

(AB) C = A (BC)

A (B + C) = AB + AC

(A + B) C = AC + BC

IA = AI = A

Following points are also worth to be noted:

 Multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative. Hence, if A and B are
diagonal matrices of same order then, AB = BA.

[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 −1 0 0
Example : A= 0 2 0 ∧B= 0 10 0 ; AB=BA(Verify )
0 0 3 0 0 5

 Zero matrix as the product of two non-zero matrices: We know that, for real numbers a, b if ab
= 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0. This need not be true for matrices. Following example makes it
clear:

Exercise:
(1-A) Compute the following:
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(1-B) Write down the order of Matrix obtained by the product of following:
(a) 1x3 Matrix by 3x1 Matrix
(b) 4x2 Matrix by 2x1 Matrix
(c) 3x1 Matrix by 1x3 Matrix
(d) 2x1 Matrix by 4x2 Matrix
(d) Two 3rd order matrices
(e) A1xn by Bnxm
(f) Amxn by Bmxn
(g) Am by Bn
(h) An by Bn

(1-C) Write examples of following:

(a) AB is defined but BA is not defined
(b) AB and BA defined but AB is not equal to BA
(c) AB and BA defined and AB is equal to BA
(d) AB =0 but A and B both are not null matrices

(1-D) Does AB = 0 implies either A or B or both are null matrices. Illustrate through an example.

(1-E) Is it always true for any Square matrix A that AI = IA = A. Illustrate with a 3rd order matrix example.
How does an Identity or Unit matrix is analogous to number 1 in Real number system.

(1-F) Is it always true for any Square matrix A that A + O = A and AO = OA = O. Illustrate with a 3rd order
matrix example. How does Null matrix is analogous to number 0 in Real number system.
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(12) A matrix A such that A2 = I is called as Involutory. Show that Identity matrix is Involutory.

( 13 ) If A isinvolutory then show that ( I + A ) ( I − A )=0

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( 14 ) Find the value of ( I 3 )2023

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Transpose Matrix
Matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Note the
following:
 Transpose of the matrix A is denoted by A′ or AT

If A=[ aij ]m ×n , then, A =[ a ji ] n ×m

'


 If order of A is m x n then, order of A’+ is n x m

 In a Square matrix Transpose operation interchanges the upper and lower triangular regions or
flip the Upper and Lower triangles along diagonal

Following are the properties of Transpose operation:

 (A′)′ = A : Transpose of Transpose returns the original matrix

 (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ : Transpose operation distributes over addition / subtraction

 (A B)′ = B′ A′ : Transpose of product is equal to the reversed product of their

transposes

Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrix

Symmetric matrix: A Symmetric matrix is symmetric about its diagonal as lower and upper triangular
regions are same in Symmetric matrix. Hence, transposing operation has no effect over a Symmetric
matrix. This fact is used for the formal definition of a symmetric matrix as follows:

A square matrix is said to be symmetric if A′ = A.

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aij = aji for all possible values of i and j.

Skew-Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A is said to be skew symmetric matrix if A′ = – A

Formally, aij = - aji for all possible values of i and j.
 Diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.

Exercise:
(1) Write down Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric matrix in concise notation.

(2) Prove that all the diagonal elements of a Skew-symmetric matrix are zero.

(3) For any square matrix A with real number entries, prove that A + A′ is a symmetric matrix.

(4) For any square matrix A with real number entries, prove that A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.

1 1
( 5 ) Starting ¿ A= ( A + A ' ) + ( A−A ' ) , prove that : Any square ¿ be expressed as the ∑ of a symmetric∧a skew sym
2 2

(6) Express the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix:

(6) If A and B are symmetric matrices, prove that AB – BA is a skew symmetric matrix.

(7) Show that the matrix B′AB is symmetric or skew symmetric according as A is symmetric or skew
symmetric.

(8) If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then prove that AB – BA is Skew-symmetric matrix.

(9) If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB is symmetric if and only if A
and B commute, that is AB = BA.

(11) Prove: (ABC)' = C’B'A'.

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Inverse of Matrix and properties of Inverse operation

Inverse Matrix: If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B of the
same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A -1
(Note that A-1 is analogous to reciprocal in real number system)

Following points to be noted:

 A rectangular matrix does not possess inverse matrix.

 Every square matrix does not have its Inverse or every Square matrix is not invertible.

 AA-1 = I, if A is invertible.

 (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1: The inverse of the product of two matrices, having inverses, is the product in
reverse order of these inverses.

 (A + B)-1 is always not equal to A-1 + B-1. So, Inverse operation is not distributive over
addition.

Exercise:

(2) Show that an Involutory matrix is inverse of itself.

(5) Prove: (ABC)-1 = C-1B-1A-1 . [Hint: Write ABC=(AB)C ]

(6) Evaluate (A-1)-1 in terms of A.

(7) Prove that (A-1)’ = (A’)-1. [Hint: AA-1 = I. Take transpose of both sides ]
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Inverse of Matrix from Matrix equation