Astrofysica

Tussentoets 1
Tuesday 17 September 2024, 9:00−10:30 (or to 10:45 for students granted extra time)

During this test you may use a calculator and the enclosed sheet of constants. Please write clearly
and do not forget to put your name and student number on each sheet. For calculations:
motivate each step (briefly). Without an explanation, you cannot get full marks for this
kind of problem.
There are three questions, each worth 30 points. The distribution of points per component is
indicated.
Please start a new page for each question since it simplifies grading.
May the force be with you!

Question 1: Basic concepts. Explain briefly (no more than a few lines) the following key
concepts. Long mathematical explanations or derivations are not required.

(a): Star formation: How do stars form from gas clouds? With reference to this process, what
is the Jeans criterion and why is it useful? 5 points

Points for mentioning: interstellar gas cloud starts to collapse under gravity; heats up (virial
theorem); eventually gets hot enough for fusion to start. Jeans criterion specifies conditions that
cloud must meet for collapse to proceed, depending on mass/temperature/density/composition.
(b): What is the Initial Mass Function of stars? What are the challenges in testing the IMF,
and how do current observations compare to the predictions of the Salpeter IMF? 5 points

Points for mentioning: IMF is birth mass distribution; hard to test because low mass stars
are faint, high mass stars have short lifetimes. Salpeter IMF predicts more low mass stars than
high mass stars (can also show this by giving the power law), but data do not bear this out.
(c): What is the CNO cycle and in what type of stars is it important? 5 points

Points for mentioning: One way of fusing H to He, uses CNO as catalysts, two different
routes (CN and ON), main H burning reaction in high (more than 1.5 solar) mass stars
(d): Why is opacity relevant when computing stellar structure? What are the main sources of
opacity in stellar material, and which dominate in the Sun? 5 points

Points for mentioning: opacity appears in the energy transport equation, if assuming radiative
diffusion. Main sources of opacity are bound-bound, bound-free, free-free, electron scattering.
FF and BF dominate in Sun. Some credit could also given for mentioning Kramer’s opacity,
radiation pressure.
(e): What determines the maximum mass of stars, and what are typical values for the highest
mass? 5 points
 Points for mentioning: more massive stars are more luminous, radiation pressure eventually
gets strong enough to beat gravity (Eddington limit), in Milky Way values are about 100 solar
mass, can be up to ∼ 200 in metal-poor areas due to composition dependence. Primordial stars
(almost zero metallicity) may have got up to 1000 solar mass.
(f ): Why is the machinery of black body physics (Planck’s law) important to our understanding
of stars, and what information can we derive from it? 5 points

Points for mentioning: stellar radiation is close to black body (although modified by emis-
sion/absorption lines), using this we can estimate temperature (Wien peak), then radius (via
luminosity if have flux+distance). Explains why more luminous stars on main sequence are
hotter, also presence of dwarf/giant stars.

Question 2: Properties of the main sequence star Altair

The Sun can be considered to be a black body with an effective temperature of Teff ∼ 5800 K.
The spectrum of the Sun peaks in visible light at a wavelength of λpeak ∼ 500 nm. Altair is an
A-type main sequence star, visible in the summer months in the northern hemisphere. This star
has an effective temperature of Teff ∼ 7527 K.
(a) Determine the wavelength at which the spectrum of Altair peaks, stating clearly any as-
sumptions made. 5 points

Answer:
Assuming that both the Sun and Altair emit as (close to) black bodies, we can use Wien’s
displacement law: T λmax = constant.
Thus λmax (Sun) = T λmax (Altair)
For Altair, λmax = 5800×500
7527 nm = 385 nm [this would be violet visible light]
Alternative - you could use the Wien constant from the formula sheet (again assuming that
Altair behaves as a black body), in which case λmax = b/T = 2.9 × 10−3 /7527 m = 3.85 × 10−7
m = 385 nm.

(b) The measured luminosity of Altair is L ≈ 10.6 L⊙ . What steps would have been needed
to determine this from observations? What is the radius of Altair and how does this compare
to the radius of the Sun? 5 points

Answer:

Luminosity can be determined from flux (or apparent magnitude) provided that the distance
to the star is known from parallax (which it is for Altair).

We can use the p

luminosity relation,
p L = 4πR2 σTeff
4 . With the provided L and T , we then
eff
find for Altair R = L/4πσT 4 = 10.6 × 3.8 × 1026 /[4π(5.67 × 10−8 )(7527)4 ] m = 1.3×109 m,
which is 1.9 R⊙ .

(c) Sketch the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, marking the positions of the Sun and Altair. Mark
also the approximate position of the B star Spica, the red giant Aldebaran, and the white dwarf
van Maanen’s star. 5 points
Figure 1: Answer: Sketch of Hertzsprung Russell Diagram showing positions of the 5 stars.
Points for labelling axes, having the three main sequence stars in the right order, rough position
of the other two (for Aldebaran and van Maanen’s star, having them above right and below left
of main sequence is sufficient - precise location relative to Sun etc. not required).

(d) Describe two methods that can be used to estimate the masses of stars. Estimate Altair’s
mass. 5 points

Answer:
Masses can be estimated (1) for stars in binaries using orbital motion (eclipses, spectroscopy,Kepler’s
laws) or (2) from the mass-luminosity relation.

The mass-luminosity relation for main sequence stars with masses above 0.5M⊙ is roughly
L ∝ M 3 (see Section 1.3 of the book and Werkcollege 2). If students use a power ∼ 3.6 (as in
the Werkcollege sheet) that is also fine, as long as it is in the right ballpark.
1
L M3
So L⊙ = 3
M⊙
which yields MAltair = 10.6 3 M⊙ = 2.2M⊙ . If you used a power of 3.6 you
would have obtained MAltair = 1.96M⊙ . One point even if the numbers are wrong, provided
that the mass is at least higher than that of the Sun.
 2
(e) Assume that the gravitational potential energy of a gas sphere is Egr = − 3GM 5R . How long
could Altair shine at its current brightness if no nuclear fusion were taking place in the interior
of the star? 5 points [Note: if you were not able to solve earlier parts of the question, make
assumptions for mass and radius and work from there]

Answer:
2
The energy reservoir from gravitational potential energy alone is Egr = 3GM5R = 3(6.67 ×
−11 30 2 9
10 )(2.2 × 2.0 × 10 ) /(5 × 1.3 × 10 ) ≈ 6.0 × 10 41 J. [If students have M or R wrong in
earlier parts, but use them correctly here, do not deduct additional points. Similar if they use
assumed values.]

Then assuming that luminosity remains unchanged, and that the entire reservoir of energy
is used to power the emission, the lifetime is τ ∼ Egr /L ∼ 6.0 × 1041 /(10.6 × 3.83 × 1026 ) s
= 4.7 × 106 years

(f ) Estimate the actual lifetime of Altair on the main sequence, assuming that 75% of its mass
is hydrogen. Use the fact that the mass defect from burning H to He is 4.7 × 10−29 kg. State
clearly any assumptions that you need to make. 5 points

Answer:

Now we will assume that the lifetime is set by H fusion. The fraction of the mass that
is converted to energy by the fusion process is the mass defect divided by the input mass (4
protons), 4.7 × 10−29 /(4 × 1.67 × 10−27 ) = 0.007.

Altair is assumed to be 75% hydrogen. Energy reservoir Enuc = 0.75 × MAltair × 0.007c2 =
0.75 × 2.2 × 2.0 × 1030 × 0.007 × (3.0 × 108 )2 = 2.1 × 1045 J.

So again assuming no change in luminosity, lifetime τ ∼ Enuc /L ∼ 2.1 × 1045 /(10.6 × 3.83 ×
1026 )s = 1.6 × 1010 years

Question 3: Conditions inside the Sun

The equations of stellar structure can be used to calculate the conditions in the interior of
stars. In this question you will do this for the Sun.

From Newton’s laws, we know that the gravitational acceleration in the Sun is given by:

GM (r)
g(r) = , (1)
r2
where M (r) is the mass within a radius r. In the following, we will derive an expression for
the central density of the Sun, assuming that it is a homogeneous sphere (i.e. that is constant
density) in hydrostatic equilibrium. That is, we assume that:

dP
= −ρg (2)
dr
(a) Show that the central pressure of the Sun, under these assumptions, is (10 points):

3 GM⊙2
Pc = 4
8π R⊙

Answer:
We start from the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium

dP GM (r)
= −ρg(r) = −ρ ,
dr r2
Integrating over the star gives the central pressure:
Z R⊙
dP
Pc = − dr ,
0 dr
We make use of the fact that for a homegeneous sphere, M (r) = 34 πr3 ρ. The integration then
becomes:

R⊙ρG 43 πr3 ρ
Z
Pc = − dr
0 r2
Z R⊙
4 2
= πρ G rdr
3 0
2 2 2
= πρ GR⊙
3
!2
2 2 M ⊙
= πGR⊙ 4 3
3 3 πR⊙
3 GM⊙2
= 4
8π R⊙

where we have used the fact that since we have constant density, ρ is given by the total mass
divided by the total volume of the Sun.
(b) Calculate i) the central pressure and ii) the central density of the Sun under these assump-
tions. 5 points

Answer:

Using M⊙ = 2 × 1030 kg, R⊙ = 6.96 × 108 m, and G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 , and the
expression from Part (a) we find:

3 6.67 × 10−11 (2 × 1030 )2

Pc = = 1.36 × 1014 Pa
8π (6.96 × 108 )4
We are assuming density to be uniform, so central density is the same as overall density, total
mass divided by total volume.

ρc = 2.0 × 1030 /[(4π/3)(6.96 × 108 )3 ] = 1.4 × 103 kg m−3

(c) The Sun is of course not really homogeneous. If the density gradient is taken into account,
one finds Pc = 2 × 1016 Pa and ρc = 160, 000 kg m−3 .
Use this information to estimate the temperature at the center of the Sun. It may be assumed
ρkT
that the equation of state is given by the ideal gas law, so that P = µm u
. Assume that 93%
of the ions in the Sun (by number) are Hydrogen and 7% Helium (both fully ionized). State
clearly any assumptions that you make in this process. 10 points

Answer:
First you need to figure out the mean molecular mass µ for the Sun. If NH = 0.93N and
NHe = 0.07N (where N is the number of ions) and Ne = 0.93N + (2 × 0.07N ) = 1.07N . Assume
that mH /mu ∼ 1, mHe /mu ∼ 4 and me /mu ∼ 0. Then:

NH (mH /mu ) + NHe (mHe /mu ) + Ne (me /mu )

µ⊙ =
NH + NHe + Ne
(0.93 × 1) + (0.07 × 4)
=
(0.93 + 0.07 + 1.07
1.21
=
2.07
= 0.58

Using the equation of state with Pc = 2 × 1016 Pa and ρc = 160, 000 kg m−3 , and assuming that
the mean molecular weight is also an appropriate value for the center of the Sun (1 point for
stating this assumption!), we then find:

µmu P
Tc =
ρc k
0.58 × 1.66 × 10−27 × 2 × 1016
=
160000 × 1.38 × 10−23
= 8.7 × 106 K

[Note: this is actually a bit lower than the standard value quoted, but think about the effect
your assumption about uniform composition might have had....]

(d) For the percentages by ion number given in part (c), what is the percentage by mass of H
and He ions in the Sun? Can you say anything about the composition of the gas cloud from
which the Sun formed? 5 points

Answer
Let the fraction by mass of hydrogen be α. Then

MH αM
NH = mu = mu = 0.93N

MHe (1−α)M
NHe = 4mu = 4mu = 0.07N
 4α 0.93
(1−α) = 0.07

4α = 13.3(1 − α)

17.3α = 13.3

α = 0.77

So by mass the Sun is 77% H and 23% He. Since H fusion in stars acts to increase the
percentage of He, the initial mass cloud must have had a smaller percentage of He than this (1
mark for this last point).