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 ASME MFC-3M-2004
[Revision of ASME MFC-3M-1989 (R1995)]

REAFFIRMED 2017

Measurement
of Fluid Flow
in Pipes Using
Orifice, Nozzle,
and Venturi

A N A M E R I C A N N AT I O N A L STA N DA R D
Intentionally left blank
 ASME MFC-3M–2004
[Revision of ASME MFC-3M–1989 (R1995)]

Measurement
of Fluid Flow
in Pipes Using
Orifice, Nozzle,
and Venturi

AN AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Three Park Avenue • New York, NY 10016

 Date of Issuance: August 15, 2005

The 2004 edition of this Standard is being issued with an automatic addenda subscription service. The
use of addenda allows revisions made in response to public review comments or committee actions to
be published as necessary. This Standard will be revised when the Society approves the issuance of a
new edition.

ASME issues written replies to inquiries concerning interpretations of technical aspects of this
Standard. Interpretations are published on the ASME Web site under the Committee Pages at
http://www.asme.org/codes/ as they are issued.

ASME is the registered trademark of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

This code or standard was developed under procedures accredited as meeting the criteria for American National Stan-
dards. The Standards Committee that approved the code or standard was balanced to assure that individuals from com-
petent and concerned interests have had an opportunity to participate. The proposed code or standard was made avail-
able for public review and comment that provides an opportunity for additional public input from industry, academia,
regulatory agencies, and the public-at-large.
ASME does not “approve,” “rate,” or “endorse” any item, construction, proprietary device, or activity.
ASME does not take any position with respect to the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any items
mentioned in this document, and does not undertake to insure anyone utilizing a standard against liability for infringe-
ment of any applicable letters patent, nor assumes any such liability. Users of a code or standard are expressly advised
that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, is entirely their
own responsibility.
Participation by federal agency representative(s) or person(s) affiliated with industry is not to be interpreted as gov-
ernment or industry endorsement of this code or standard.
ASME accepts responsibility for only those interpretations of this document issued in accordance with the established
ASME procedures and policies, which precludes the issuance of interpretations by individuals.

No part of this document may be reproduced in any form,

in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Three Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5990

Copyright © 2005 by
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
All rights reserved
Printed in U.S.A.
 CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Committee Roster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Correspondence With the MFC Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Part 1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1-1 Scope and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1-2 References and Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1-3 Symbols and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1-4 Principles of the Method of Measurement and Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1-5 General Requirements for Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1-6 Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1-7 Uncertainties in the Measurement of Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Figure
1-1 “Triple-T” Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Table
1-1 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Nonmandatory Appendices
1A Iterative Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1B Examples of Values of Pipe Wall Uniform Equivalent Roughness, k . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1C Flow Conditioners and Flow Straighteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Part 2 Orifice Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2-1 Scope and Field of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2-2 References and Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2-3 Principles of the Method of Measurement and Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2-4 Orifice Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2-5 Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figures
2-1 Standard Orifice Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 19
2-2 Orifice Plate Flatness Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 20
2-3 Spacing of Pressure Taps for Orifice Plates with D and D/2 Pressure Taps
or Flange Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2-4 Corner Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2-5 Layout Including a Full Bore Valve for
= 0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2-6 Examples of Acceptable Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2-7 19-Tube Bundle Flow Straightener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2-8 Examples of Installations With a 19-Tube Bundle Flow Straightener
Downstream of a Single Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 33
2-9 Zanker Flow Conditioner Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 34

Tables
2-1 Maximum Value of 104 Ra/D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ 24
2-2 Minimum Value of 104 Ra/D (When Required) . . ............................ 24
2-3 Required Straight Lengths Between Orifice Plates and Fittings Without
Flow Conditioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ 27

iii
2-4 Permitted Range of Straight Lengths Between Orifice Plate and 19-Tube
Bundle Flow Straightener (1998) Downstream of Fittings Located at Distance,
Lf, From the Orifice Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Nonmandatory Appendix
2A Tables of Discharge Coefficients and Expansibility Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Part 3 Nozzles and Venturi Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3-1 Scope and Field of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3-2 References and Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3-3 Principles of the Method of Measurement and Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3-4 Nozzles and Venturi Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3-5 Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Figures
3-1 ISA 1932 Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3-2 Long Radius Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3-3 Venturi Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3-4 Venturi Nozzle, Pressure Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3-5 Pressure Loss Across a Venturi Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3-6 Layout Including a Full Bore Valve for

0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3-7 Examples of Acceptable Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Tables
3-1 Upper Limits of Relative Roughness of the Upstream Pipe for ISA 1932 Nozzles . . . 52
3-2 Upper Limits of Relative Roughness of the Upstream Pipe for Venturi Nozzles . . . . 58
3-3 Required Straight Lengths for Nozzles and Venturi Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Nonmandatory Appendix
3A Tables of Discharge Coefficients and Expansibility Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Part 4 Venturi Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4-1 Scope and Field of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4-2 References and Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4-3 Principles of the Method of Measurement and Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4-4 ASME Venturi Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4-5 Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Figures
4-1 Geometric Profile of the ASME Venturi Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4-2 Pressure Loss Across an ASME Venturi Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4-3 Layout Including a Full Bore Valve for
= 0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4-4 Examples of Acceptable Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Table
4-1 Required Straight Lengths for Classical Venturi Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Nonmandatory Appendices
4A Tables of Expansibility Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4B ASME Venturi Meters Used Outside the Scope of MFC-3M–2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4C Pressure Loss in ASME Venturi Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

iv
 FOREWORD

The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance and recommendations in the applications
of fluid flow in pipes using orifice, nozzle, and venturi meters. This Standard was prepared by
MFC Subcommittee 2 of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Standards Committee on
Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits.
As of the publication of this Standard, differential producers are the single most-used method
of full-pipe flow measurement in the United States and worldwide. By utilizing simple physical
laws, differential-producing flow meters are capable of providing reliable flow measurement
within established uncertainty bands.
The first edition of this Standard was approved by the ASME MFC Standards Committee in
1985. The MFC Standards Committee approved the second edition of this Standard in 1989, and
reaffirmed it in 1995. This revision, approved by the MFC Standards Committee in 2004, includes
extensive changes to content and format from the MFC-3M–1989 (R1995) edition.
Given the global nature of the flow measurement market, this Standard is as consistent and
technically equivalent with ISO 5167 as practical. There are, however, technical and editorial dif-
ferences made in consideration of recent technical insights and operational practices common in
the United States.
This Standard provides information in both SI (metric) units and U.S. Customary units. For
reference, U.S. Customary units are shown in parentheses.
Suggestions for improvement to this Standard are welcome. They should be sent to Secretary,
ASME MFC Standards Committee, Three Park Avenue, New York, NY, 10016-5990.
This edition of the Standard was approved by the American National Standards Institute on
April 30, 2004.

v
 ASME MFC COMMITTEE
Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits
(The following is the roster of the Committee at the time of approval of this Standard.)

OFFICERS

Z. D. Husain, Chair
R. J. DeBoom, Vice Chair
R. L. Crane, Secretary

COMMITTEE PERSONNEL

C. J. Blechinger, Consultant
R. W. Caron, Visteon Corp.
G. P. Corpron, Consultant
R. L. Crane, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
R. J. DeBoom, Consultant
P. G. Espina, Controlotron Corp.
D. Faber, Badger Meter, Inc.
R. H. Fritz, Lonestar Measurement
F. D. Goodson, Emerson Process
Z. D. Husain, Chevron Texaco
E. H. Jones, Jr., Alternate, Chevron Petroleum Technologies
C. G. Langford, Cullen G. Langford, Inc.
W. M. Mattar, Invensys / Foxboro Co.
G. E. Mattingly, National Institute of Standards and Technology
D. R. Mesnard, FMC Measurement Solutions
R. W. Miller, R. W. Miller and Associates, Inc.
A. M. Quraishi, American Gas Association
B. K. Rao, Consultant
W. F. Seidl, Colorado Engineering Experiment Station, Inc.
T. M. Kegel, Alternate, Colorado Engineering Experiment Station, Inc.
D. W. Spitzer, Copperhill and Pointer, Inc.
R. N. Steven, McCrometer
D. H. Strobel, Consultant
J. H. Vignos, Consultant
D. E. Wiklund, Rosemount, Inc.
D. C. Wyatt, Wyatt Engineering and Design

SUBCOMMITTEE 3—PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL DEVICES

D. C. Wyatt, Chair, Wyatt Engineering

R. L. Crane, Secretary, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
R. M. Bough, Allison Engine Co.
R. H. Fritz, Lonestar Measurement
F. G. Goodson, Emerson Process
Z. D. Husain, Chevron Texaco
M. P. McHale, McHale and Associates Inc.
R. J. W. Peters, McCrometer
A. M. Quraishi, American Gas Association
W. F. Seidl, Colorado Engineering
D. W. Spitzer, Copperhill and Pointer, Inc.
R. N. Steven, McCrometer
J. W. Stuart, Stuart Gas Measurement Consulting
S. H. Taha, Experflow Measurement, Inc.
D. E. Wiklund, Rosemount, Inc.

vi
 CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE MFC COMMITTEE

General. ASME Standards are developed and maintained with the intent to represent the con-
sensus of concerned interests. As such, users of this Standard may interact with the Committee
by requesting interpretations, proposing revisions, and attending committee meetings. Corre-
spondence should be addressed to:
Secretary, MFC Standards Committee
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Three Park Avenue
New York, NY 10016-5990
Proposing Revisions. Revisions are made periodically to the Standard to incorporate changes
that appear necessary or desirable, as demonstrated by the experience gained from the applica-
tion of the Standard. Approved revisions will be published periodically.
The Committee welcomes proposals for revisions to this Standard. Such proposals should be
as specific as possible, citing the paragraph number(s), the proposed wording, and a detailed de-
scription of the reasons for the proposal, including any pertinent documentation.
Interpretations. Upon request, the MFC Committee will render an interpretation of any re-
quirement of the Standard. Interpretations can only be rendered in response to a written request
sent to the Secretary of the MFC Standards Committee.
The request for interpretation should be clear and unambiguous. It is further recommended
that the inquirer submit his/her request in the following format:
Subject: Cite the applicable paragraph number(s) and the topic of the inquiry.
Edition: Cite the applicable edition of the Standard for which the interpretation is be-
ing requested.
Question: Phrase the question as a request for an interpretation of a specific require-
ment suitable for general understanding and use, not as a request for an ap-
proval of a proprietary design or situation. The inquirer may also include any
plans or drawings that are necessary to explain the question; however, they
should not contain proprietary names or information.
Requests that are not in this format will be rewritten in this format by the Committee prior to
being answered, which may inadvertently change the intent of the original request.
ASME procedures provide for reconsideration of any interpretation when or if additional in-
formation that might affect an interpretation is available. Further, persons aggrieved by an in-
terpretation may appeal to the cognizant ASME Committee or Subcommittee. ASME does not
“approve,” “certify,” “rate,” or “endorse” any item, construction, proprietary device, or activity.
Attending Committee Meetings. The MFC Standards Committee regularly holds meetings,
which are open to the public. Persons wishing to attend any meeting should contact the Secre-
tary of the MFC Standards Committee.

vii
Intentionally left blank
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content Scribd suggests to you:
 79. T Weld.—Fig. 59. Scarfing and welding. Material required:
two pieces of 3⁄4 × 3⁄8-inch iron, 8 and 41⁄2 inches long.

Fig. 59.—Steps in Scarfing for a T Weld.

Upset one end of the shorter piece 1⁄8 inch larger than its
diameters, and form a scarf similar to the first one for the right-
angled weld, but here allow it to form fan-shaped and project
equally over each edge, as shown at a.
Upset the center of the long piece to 1⁄8 inch or more larger than
its diameters, with the upset portion fully 1 inch long, as at b. Form
a scarf at this place with the ball of the hammer, allowing the metal
to bend edgewise, as at c. Do not make this scarf quite so wide as
the first one, as its edges should be entirely covered by scarf a
without leaving any openings. See that they fit properly before
heating for welding.
 Especial care should be taken to have a good fire. The long piece
should be placed in the fire so as to be removed with the left hand,
and the short one with the right. Place the short piece on the anvil,
with the long piece, held in the left hand, on top of and overlapping
it sufficiently to prevent any openings. When welded, the long piece
should be perfectly straight, with the short one at a right angle to it.
Finish the weld with the flatter while it is at a dull red heat. Sketch D
shows the T completed.

Fig. 60.—Chain Making.

80. Chain Making.—Fig. 60. Bending, scarfing, and welding

links. Material required: 8 pieces of 3⁄8-inch round iron, 6 inches
long.
Heat and bend the center of each piece to a semicircle 3⁄4 inch
inside diameter; make the ends of equal length and parallel from the
semicircle, as at a. Take one of these bent pieces and form a scarf
on one end by holding it on the edge of the anvil at an angle of 45
degrees, as shown at b, and delivering overhanging blows, as
indicated by the dotted circle, which represents the hammer. Turn
the link over, placing the other end in the same position as the first,
and scarf. Bend both scarfs toward each other equally until they
overlap sufficiently to prevent any opening being formed, as at c;
this is called closing the scarf.
Heat and weld the link by delivering the first few blows on its
sides while it is resting on the face of the anvil, then by delivering
lighter ones, while it is hung on the horn. While striking the light
blows, do not hold the link in a fixed position, but move it to receive
the blows around the circumference. The finished dimensions are 2
× 3⁄4 inches inside; a slight variation in length does not make any
difference, but their ends and widths should be uniform.
Proceed with another piece in like manner, but after scarfing it
insert the finished link and continue adding new ones, until there are
five links all together. The three extra pieces are for use in the next
three exercises.
81. Welded Ring.—Fig. 61. Bending, scarfing, and welding a ring
of round iron. Material required: one piece of 7⁄16-inch round iron, 8
inches long.
 Fig. 61.—Steps in Making a Ring.

Heat, and bend over the horn of the anvil about 11⁄2 inches of
each end to an inside radius of no less than 1 inch, as at A. Then
heat the straight portion to a uniform temperature and bend it by
holding the piece in a vertical position on the anvil, and delivering
upright blows, as shown at B; this should produce a form similar to
that shown at C. Continue the bending by holding the work as at D.
By carefully observing the effect of these blows, you will be able to
determine how the work ought to be held to produce the complete
ring. These blows are used here to give the same effect as leverage
blows. If the position of the metal is changed when and where it
should be, almost a perfect ring may be produced without holding it
on the horn of the anvil. It is not the best method to hold the work
on the horn, because blows delivered in this way have a tendency to
produce oval sections where they hit. In forming this ring the ends
should be left open about 1 inch.
The directions for scarfing and welding are somewhat similar to
those given for links, except that the angle of the scarf should be
nearly a right angle. After the welding is completed, the ring should
be made perfectly round by placing it over a mandrel or the horn of
the anvil. When the ring is welded and complete, connect it to the
chain with one of the extra links.
82. Chain Swivel.—Fig. 62. Bending, scarfing, welding, and
riveting. Material: about 2 feet of 7⁄16-inch round iron. Norway iron
is the best, and this length is the most convenient for the first
operations.

Fig. 62.—Chain Swivel.

 Fig. 63.—Tool for Welding a Swivel.

For making this swivel, a special mandrel (Fig. 63) should be

provided, made of 3⁄4-inch round, mild or tool steel, with a short
offset of 3⁄4 inch; the gudgeon or pin which is shown at a should be
11⁄4 inches long, 7⁄16 inch in diameter at the shoulder, and tapering
to 5⁄16 inch at the end. Any convenient length of handle that will
prevent burning the hand when welding, will do.
Bend about 21⁄2 inches of the 7⁄16-inch round stock to a right
angle, as at a, Fig. 64; make the corner as square as possible, by
upsetting it before bending; or after bending, by using upright and
backing-up blows. Flatten the bent portion b parallel with the bar, by
first delivering the blows with the ball of the hammer to increase the
width as much as possible, then finish it to 3⁄16 inch thick with the
face of the hammer. The corner should be scarfed with the ball of
the hammer and the rib worked out, as shown at c.

Fig. 64.—Steps in Making a Swivel.

 Cut off the flat portion 2 inches from the bar, and form a thin scarf
at the end of b. Notice that this should be formed on the same side
with c. Beginning with the scarf at the end, the flat portion should
be bent or rolled up so that the scarfs will overlap considerably, as
indicated in the end view d. The special mandrel should now be
inserted in the opening shown here, and all placed in a 3⁄4-inch
bottom swage, while the scarfs are hammered into close contact.
The long bar should now be cut off 41⁄2 inches from the inside of
the bend, and a fan-shaped scarf formed with the ball of the
hammer, as at e. This should be drawn thin on the end and sides.
The center of the 41⁄2-inch length is next bent and the last scarf
placed in position at f by again inserting the mandrel, placing it in
the swage, and closing down the edges around the portions at f. It
is then ready for welding. Figure 62 shows this in solid lines.

Fig. 65.—Making an Eye for a Swivel.

A good clean heat should be procured for welding; the mandrel

should be quickly inserted, placed in the swage, and the welding
done. This being completed, a small eye is to be made of 3⁄8-inch
round iron: first, by bending it in the form shown at a, Fig. 65;
second, by inserting a punch in the opening and hammering the
ends together, forming the eye, as shown at b; third, by welding
these ends solidly together, as at c, and forging the whole to fit
loosely in the swivel. The fitted end is now cut off square 3⁄8 inch
longer than the depth of the hole in the swivel, heated, and, while
the eye is held in the vise, it is quickly riveted into place with a small
straight or ball peen hammer. The eye is shown in place by the
broken lines in Fig. 62. Connect this swivel to the chain with one of
the extra links.
83. Chain Swivel.—Figs. 66 and 67. Fullering, forging, bending,
welding, and riveting. Material: a piece of 1 × 1⁄2-inch iron, 4 or
more inches long.
Using top and bottom fullers, form two sets of depressions not
deeper than 1⁄4 inch, on each edge and opposite to each other, the
first pair to be 1 inch from the end, the second pair 1 inch from the
first, as at a.
 Fig. 66.—Steps in Making a Swivel.

Draw the 1-inch end to 7⁄16 inch round, leaving it slightly heavier
where it was fullered to provide excess metal for further bending.
The opposite end should now be cut off 1 inch from the fullered
place and drawn to the same dimensions as the first end. Forge the
central portion into a circular form and punch a 3⁄8-inch hole in its
center. Cut off all surplus material, making the ends 31⁄2 inches long
from the center of the hole, as at b.
 Fig. 67.—The Completed Swivel.

Bend each end to a right angle close up to the eye and make the
arms parallel and one inch apart, as at c. Drift the hole by driving
the punch through between the parallel ends, thereby forming a
slightly tapered hole. Scarf and weld the ends as you would a link.
Make a small eye of 3⁄8-inch round stock, proceeding in the manner
explained in the previous exercise, also following the same
instructions as to fitting, cutting, and riveting. Connect the link end
of this swivel to the chain with one of the extra links. (See Fig. 67.)
 Fig. 68.—Steps in Making a Chain Grabhook.

84. Chain Grabhook.—Fig. 68. Forging, punching, and bending.

Material: one piece of 3⁄4 × 3⁄8-inch iron, 41⁄2 inches long.

Form a depression as at a, 1⁄4 inch deep and 3⁄4 inch from one
end with overhanging blows. (The opposite edge should be kept
perfectly straight during this and the following operations.) Forge the
3
⁄4-inch end into a circular-shaped eye 3⁄8 inch thick, and punch a
1
⁄4-inch hole, in the center, as at b. This hole should be drifted or
expanded with a punch driven through from both sides alternately
until the diameter becomes 1⁄2 inch.
 By hanging this eye over the horn of the anvil so that the inner
corners of the eye rest on the horn, by delivering blows opposite to
those corners, and by changing its location so that blows will be
delivered on all outside corners, the sectional form will be changed
from square to octagon; by similar operations the form may be
changed from octagon to round. During this change, light blows
should be used in order to make the eye smooth. This stage is
shown at c with a sectional view of the eye.

Fig. 69.—The Completed Chain Grabhook.

Proceeding from the eye toward the opposite end, forge both
edges round to correspond with the eye, leaving the metal 3⁄4 inch
wide, 3 inches from the eye, as shown at d.
Draw the remaining section tapering from this extreme width to
1
⁄4 inch, and forge the edges round as before. The hook should be
3
⁄16 inch round at the end and 3 inches long from the widest point,
as shown at E. Heat the middle portion; cool the point and the eye,
and bend the hook edgewise over the horn of the anvil toward the
straight side, until the point is opposite the depression first formed.
The inside semicircle formed by bending should be 1⁄2 inch in
diameter, the other inside lines straight and parallel. The extreme
point should be slightly curved away from the eye, and all flat
surfaces hammered smooth with light blows while the hook is at a
dull red heat. Figure 69 shows the hook completed. Using the
remaining extra link, connect the hook to the swivel.

Questions for Review

What forging operations are employed in making the staple and the
draw spike? What hammer blows are used on them? What caution
should be observed in heating the S hook for bending? What
operations are employed in making the pipe hook? Which is the most
difficult? Where was the most difficult forging encountered? How was
the point drawn? What operations are employed in making the gate
hook? Explain how the angle should be bent, and how the blows
should be delivered to make it square. Why should the extreme corner
of the angle be cooled off before bending the hook? What operations
are employed in making the hasp? Which one is used first? Into what
form is the metal to be forged in making the bolt? What is meant by
chamfering? What kind of hammer blows should be used in
chamfering? Why should the metal be upset for the round weld? What
special hammer blows are to be used in forming the scarfs? Explain
how the scarfs are formed for the right-angled weld. How should
scarfs be placed in the fire? How should they be placed on the anvil?
Explain how the scarfs are formed for the T weld. Describe the
scarfing of a link. Describe the welding of a link. What is the effect of
bending the ring over the horn of the anvil? What operations are used
in making the chain swivel?
 CHAPTER IV

Treatment of Tool Steel

85. Selecting and Working Steel.—In making a tool, the
differences in quality of steel should be considered, because steel
suitable for a razor would not do for a cold chisel or any battering
tool. (See sec. 181.)
If the steel at hand is not exactly suitable, but the selection must
be made from it, then that should be chosen which will most nearly
meet the requirements, and tempering must be relied upon to make
up the deficiency. In most large factories all grades of steel are kept
on hand and are assorted in the stock room so that there need be
no difficulty in making the proper selection.
The percentage of carbon in steel represents the amount of
carbon it contains. A steel that is called a 75-point carbon steel is
one that contains (.75) seventy-five one hundredths of one per cent,
each point representing (.01) one one hundredth of one per cent.
Some steel makers use the word “temper” to indicate the amount
of carbon, expecting the user of the steel to be familiar with the
amounts of carbon each different temper represents. For instance, a
razor-temper steel represents one that contains 1.50 per cent carbon
and a tool-temper steel represents one containing about 1.25 per
cent. The word “temper” as used in this connection should not be
confused with the word as it is used in the art of tempering, where it
indicates the operation of reducing the hardness of the metal in
order to make it less brittle and more suitable for some particular
use.
86. Uses of Different Grades of Steel.—As the percentage of
carbon, and consequently the quality of steel, will vary somewhat
with different makes, it is rather difficult to give a rule that will apply
generally, but the following list of different grades of carbon will give
a general idea of how steel should be selected, forged, and
hardened.
Steel of 0.7 to 0.8 per cent carbon should be used for snaps, rivet
sets, cupping tools, etc. This grade of steel should be forged at a
light red heat. It can be welded easily and will harden at a light red
heat.
Steel from 0.8 to 0.9 per cent carbon should be used for drop-
forging dies, hammers, cold sets, track chisels, blacksmith’s tools,
well drills, etc. It should be forged at a light red heat; it welds easily
and hardens at a light red heat.
Steel from 0.9 to 1 per cent carbon should be used for large hand
chisels, large punches, shear blades, dies, etc. Forging should be
done at a light red heat. It welds readily and hardens at a bright red
heat.
Steel from 1 to 1.1 per cent carbon should be used for hand
chisels, punches, punch dies, small shear blades, etc. Forging should
be done at a light red heat. It welds readily and hardens at a bright
red heat.
Steel from 1.1 to 1.2 per cent carbon should be used for screw-
cutting dies, large cutting and trimming dies, small punches, small
hand chisels, large milling cutters, cups, cones, etc. Forging should
be done at a light red heat. It welds readily when care is taken in
heating, and hardens at a bright red heat.
Steel from 1.2 to 1.3 per cent carbon should be used for drills,
taps, reamers, milling cutters, circular cutters, cutting and trimming
dies, mill picks, engraving tools, twist drills, etc. Forging should be
done at a bright red heat. Welding can be done when precaution is
taken against overheating and burning. It hardens at a dull red heat.
Steel from 1.3 to 1.4 per cent carbon should be used for small
drills, taps, cutters, boring tools, etc. Forging should be done at a
bright red heat; welding can be done with care against overheating.
It hardens at a dull red heat. This steel should be handled carefully.
 Steel from 1.4 to 1.5 per cent carbon should be used for tools for
working chilled castings or locomotive wheel tires, lathe and planer
tools, razors, or any tools required to cut hard materials. Forging
should be done at a dull red heat. Welding can scarcely be
accomplished with this grade of stock. Hardening should be done at
a dark red heat.
87. Injuries.—One of the most common injuries to steel comes
from carelessness in the heating for forging. It is one of the
important operations, for unless the metal is uniformly heated,
violent strains are liable to occur, and, when hardened, the steel will
show these strains by cracking. These defects are known as fire
cracks.
The smith should always have plenty of fuel surrounding the metal
while it is in the fire so that the cold-air blast will not come in direct
contact with the metal. The air should be heated by passing through
a bed of hot coals before it strikes the steel. It is always necessary
to heat steel thoroughly to make it plastic, being careful not to
overheat or burn any part of the metal. If it is overheated or burned,
it cannot be completely restored to its former state; the grain
becomes coarse and the structure weak.
Never let steel lie in the fire to soak up heat after it is hot enough
to work. If for any cause it cannot be worked when it is ready, it
should be taken from the fire and left to cool, then reheated when it
can be worked. By this precaution injury to the steel will be
prevented.
If steel is heated so that the outer parts are hotter than the
center, the metal will forge unevenly. The outer portion will be
forged by the hammer blows, while the center remains almost in the
original form. This will also cause an uneven grain, sure to produce
cracks when the tool is hardened. Forging at too low a heat will
injure the steel in the same manner as uneven heating.
After the steel has been properly heated, and forging has begun,
the first blows should be struck rather heavily and followed by lighter
ones as the heat vanishes. The forging should cease when the steel
gets too cold, but it may be reheated as often as necessary to
complete the work.
88. Annealing.—After the steel has been forged to the desired
shape, it usually is necessary to do some finishing upon it before it
can be hardened and tempered; in order to do this, it must be
annealed or softened so that it can be machined or filed into shape.
Annealing is the process of softening steel. It is done by heating the
steel slowly to an even low red heat and placing it in an iron box
containing unslaked lime or fine charcoal and leaving it there until
perfectly cold. The object of this process is to retain the heat and
prolong the cooling. The box is usually of cast iron, but sheet steel is
equally good. It should be placed in a perfectly dry place and rest on
bricks, if necessary, to avoid any dampness.
If an annealing box is not at hand, small steel forgings can be
softened very satisfactorily by placing them between two boards,
then completely covering all with dry ashes and leaving them there
until entirely cold. Precaution should be taken here, also, to leave
them in a dry place.
Another method, which is sometimes used, is called water
annealing. Some mechanics claim to have had good results with it,
while others condemn it entirely. By this method the article is heated
to a dull red and allowed to cool partly, out of any direct current of
air. When all redness has disappeared as it is held in a dark place, it
is plunged into water and left there until perfectly cold.
The first method mentioned above is always the best; the second
is nearly as good; and only when there is not sufficient time to allow
the metal to cool slowly, should water annealing be attempted.
Such tools as cold chisels and lathe tools may be heated and laid
in or on warm ashes until nearly cold, when they may be ground,
hardened, and tempered. Quite frequently, if not generally, these
tools are not treated in this manner, but it is no doubt the course to
pursue to get the best results.
 89. Hardening and Tempering.—When steel has been properly
heated, forged, finished, or ground, the next two steps are
hardening and tempering. These two processes are often
understood as one, but they are entirely different in their results.
The confusion arises because the two operations are sometimes
performed with one heating of the steel as in hardening and
tempering a cold chisel, or other similar tools.
As the steel has been subjected to severe strains during the
heating and forging operations, its structure may have been
somewhat altered. It can be restored to the proper crystalline
structure by the hardening, scientifically known as refining. The
hardening or refining heat is always lower than the forging heat, and
should be only as high as is necessary to harden the steel to the
required density by sudden cooling. Then this first operation of
cooling will harden and refine the steel at the same time.
Extreme hardness is always accompanied by extreme brittleness, a
quality undesirable in any cutting tool, and especially so in a tool
required to withstand sudden shocks. As the hardness is reduced by
subsequent heating, the toughness increases. This modification,
called tempering, is accomplished by reheating the hardened portion
of the tool until a sufficient toughness has been obtained, when the
process is stopped by again plunging the tool into cold water. The
heat for tempering may be supplied from the uncooled portion of the
tool as in tempering a cold chisel, from the forge fire, from another
hot piece of metal, or from a carefully heated furnace.
It has been found that the colored oxides formed on the surface of
a piece of polished steel or iron represent a definite temperature in
that metal. These colors have been used, therefore, to determine
the desired temperature in tempering a tool. When we say “temper
a tool to a light straw,” we mean that the hardened tool is to be
heated again to a degree which will produce that color; namely,
about 430 degrees Fahr. The colors as they appear are light straw,
dark straw, bronze, bronze with purple spots, purple, dark blue. The
light color appears first. Do not allow the colors to pass too quickly,
as will happen if the heat applied is too intense.

Fig. 70.—Hardening a Chisel.

There are two distinct methods of hardening and tempering. The

one generally followed in tempering cold chisels, lathe and various
other tools, requires only one heating. The tool is heated to a proper
hardening temperature at the end, where hardness is desired, and
also over an excess area to supply the heat for tempering. About 2
inches of the cutting end is heated; about 1 inch of this is plunged
perpendicularly into water, as shown in Fig. 70; it is then kept in
motion perpendicularly between the places indicated at a and b,
while the end is cooling. This will prevent a fixed cooling point and
prevent a fracture that might possibly occur if it were held in one
position while cooling. The portion between b and c should retain
sufficient heat to produce the necessary temper. When the end is
perfectly cold it should be removed and immediately polished with
sandstone or emery cloth to remove the scale of oxide so that the
different colors may be more readily seen as they move from b
toward the point. The heat in the portion between b and c flows
toward the point, causing the colors to appear as the heat extends.
When the desired color covers the point, it should again be plunged
into the water and left there until entirely cold. In this method the
first cooling is the hardening, and the second the tempering. A
comparative color chart is appended to this chapter for guidance in
obtaining the tempers for various tools.

Fig. 71.—Hardening A Reamer.

By the second method the steel is heated as in the first method,

then it is cooled off entirely by immersing the tool exactly
perpendicularly, as shown in hardening a reamer in Fig. 71; after this
it is polished. The temper is then drawn by holding the tool in
contact with a piece of heated metal, cast iron preferably. In Fig. 72
the reamer is shown inside of a heated bushing, which is a more
practical way than laying it on top of a heated flat plate. The bushing
will impart sufficient heat to the tool to produce the desired color,
when it should be again cooled. This method is used mostly for
tempering plane bits, wood chisels, milling cutters, taps, reamers,
and various other tools of a like nature.
Sometimes tools having sharp protruding edges, as milling cutters,
taps, reamers, etc., are very liable to crack by the sudden cooling in
water; this difficulty is avoided by using oil for hardening and
tempering. Any so treated are called oil-tempered tools.

Fig. 72.—Tempering a Reamer.

The above methods of tempering are such as are ordinarily used

when only a common shop equipment is at hand, and the operator
must depend entirely upon his judgment of the colors which
represent the proper forging, annealing, hardening, and tempering
heats. The degree of accuracy that has been attained in this practice
is most surprising.
In large manufacturing establishments where many duplicate
pieces are to be tempered, a more modern as well as scientific
apparatus is employed to relieve the operator of dependence upon
his discernment of colors. Here the steel is heated in a furnace, to
which is attached a pyrometer that registers the exact degree of
temperature. In this manner all pieces can be heated uniformly for
any of the four required heats.

A. Natural Bar. B. Refined.

C. Too hot. D. Burned.

Fig. 73.—Sectional Views of Tool Steel, showing the Effects of Proper and Improper
Treatment.

The views in Fig. 73 were photographed from the same grade or

bar of steel to show the various granular structures produced by
different heat treatments. A shows the condition of the natural bar,
which was broken to be photographed just as it was received from
the steel makers. The lower left side shows where it was nicked with
the cutter to be broken. B shows the structure when proper
conditions of heating and hardening have been maintained. Notice
how much finer the structure here appears to be; this effect was
caused by, and previously referred to as, the refining heat of steel. A
similar condition should be produced with any tool steel under
correct treatment. C shows a much coarser structure; it was heated
too hot and hardened in the same manner. If a tool were made thus,
its weakness would be hardly noticeable at the time, but the
structure shows that it is considerably weaker. D shows the condition
of the stock after being burned. It has produced from a quality of
steel that was valuable, a metal worthless for any kind of tool.
90. Casehardening.—Another method of hardening, called
casehardening, is used for wrought iron and low carbon or soft steel
parts which are to be subjected to considerable friction. Neither of
these metals could be hardened by the other methods mentioned.
This process adds carbon to the exterior surfaces only, and for that
reason is called casehardening, as the outside is made extremely
hard, while the inner portion or core remains in a condition like that
produced by sudden cooling, thus providing a hard wearing surface
and great strength at the same time. It is similar to the old
cementation process of steel making, but is not prolonged
sufficiently to allow the hardening to continue through the entire
structure.
The articles to be hardened are packed in a box somewhat similar
to an annealing box. This should be partly filled with charred leather,
ground bone, or wood or bone charcoal, all of which are highly
carbonaceous materials; then the articles are placed in and entirely
surrounded with a thin coating of cyanide of potassium, especially if
iron is being hardened. The remaining space in the box is filled with
the leather, bone, or pieces of charcoal. The box should be provided
with a lid that will drop loosely between the outer projecting rims.
The outer edges of this lid should be luted with clay to keep it as air-
tight as possible. If a few small holes are provided in the center of
the lid, test wires can be inserted; by removing a wire and cooling it,
the progress of the operation may be known. These wires should be
inserted before the box is placed in the furnace. The box and its
contents are then placed in a suitable furnace and kept thoroughly
heated from 6 to 15 hours, depending upon the depth of hardness
required. Then it is withdrawn, the lid removed, and the articles
quickly plunged into a large tank of water. This will complete the
hardening.
When a number of very small articles are to be hardened, it is
advisable to connect them with strong bailing wire before they are
placed in the box so that they can all be removed at once. Beside
holding the articles together, the wire will provide a means of testing
the depth and quality of the process.
If only a thin coating of hardness is needed, or the labor and
expense are excessive, the following method may be used: The
article is heated thoroughly and evenly to about a bright red and
thoroughly sprinkled with, or rolled in, cyanide of potassium. Then it
is reheated so that the cyanide may penetrate as deeply as possible,
after which it is quickly chilled in cold water. This is a good method
of hardening small tack hammers made of soft steel, set screws,
nuts, and very small tools.
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