FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, DUTSIN-MA

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTEMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MTH 102
COURSE GUIDE

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II
(CALCULUS)

(2 UNITS)

1
COURSE DESCRIPTION

Elementary Mathematics II (Calculus) is a course that covers fundamental topics in calculus.

It includes:

1. Functions of Real Variables: Understanding and working with functions that depend on
a single real variable. Analyzing and graphing functions to visualize their behavior.
2. Limits and the Concept of Continuity: Studying the concept of limits and how it relates
to the continuity of functions.
3. Differentiation: The derivative as a limit of the rate of change; exploring the concept of
the derivative and how it represents the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
Learning techniques of differentiation, which are methods used to compute derivatives of
various functions.
4. Integration: Integration as the inverse of differentiation, that is studying integration as
the reverse process of differentiation. Methods of integration; Learning techniques to
evaluate integrals. Exploring definite integrals.
5. Applications of Differentiation and Integration: Applications such as finding areas
and volumes under curves. Understanding and graphing extreme points (maxima and
minima) of functions.

This course provides a foundational understanding of calculus and its practical applications.

2
 CHAPTER ONE

FUNCTIONS OF REAL VARIABLES

Definition 1.1 (Function) A function is a mapping from a set X into a set Y in which every
elements of X has an image in Y . For instance if f is a mapping from X into Y , and there exists
an element x in X , then f is a function if ∃ an element y , where y is as a result of the action of f
on x . We denote this acting of f on x by f (x)= y .

1.2 Preliminary Properties of Functions

(i) X is called the domain of f while Y is called the co-domain of f . y is the image
of x under f .
(ii) The variable x is called the independent variable while y is called the dependent
variable.
(iii) The set of all the images of the elements of X is called the range of f . This is the
set R such that for every element y in R there exists an element x in X such
that f (x)= y . Note that R ⊆ Y .
(iv) We can write f as the set of all ordered pairs (x , y ), where x ∈ X and y ∈ R .
Thus, f =( X × R ) . That is, f is a subset of the cross product of the sets X and
R.
(v) Since f =( X × R ) and ( X × R ) ⊆ ( X × Y ) it follows that f ⊆ ( X × Y ) .

Example 1.1

3
1.2 Finding Values of functions

If f defines a function, then for each value x in the domain of f, the corresponding processed
value, denoted as y=f (x ), is called the value of the function.

Example 1.2
Show that the rule y=25−2 x 2 defines a function. Find the values of the function for the first
three positive integers.
Solution:
(i) The rule y=25−2 x 2 instructs us to take a value x from the domain, square it, multiply it by a
factor of 2, and then subtract it from 25. Since this rule generates only one value y in the range
for each x in the domain, it qualifies as a function.

The values of the function for the first three positive integers are:
For x=1 , y=25 – 2 (1)2=23
For x=2 , y=25 – 2(2)2=17
For x=3 , y=25 – 2(3)2=7

Example 1.3
The domain of the function h ( x )=2( x ¿¿ 2−1) ¿ is { 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } . Find the range
Solution:
For x=0 , h(0)=2((0)¿ ¿ 2−1)=−2 ¿. For x=1 , h(1)=2((1)¿¿ 2−1)=0 ¿.
For x=2 , h(2)=2((2)¿¿ 2−1)=6 ¿. For x=3 , h(3)=2((3)¿¿ 2−1)=16 ¿ .

For x=4 , h(4)=2((4 )¿ ¿ 2−1)=30 ¿. For x=5 , h(5)=2((5)¿¿ 2−1)=48 ¿.

Therefore, the range of the function is {−2 , 0 , 6 ,16 ,30 , 48 }.
Example 1.4
Given that f (t)=4 (t−3)+ 6 t . Find the values of
(i) f (−3) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (3 t) (iv) f (x+ 3)
Solution:
(i) For t=−3 , f (−3 )=4 (−3−3 ) +6 (−3 )
¿ 4 (−6)+6 (−3)
¿−24−18=−42

4
 (ii) For t=0 , f ( 0 )=4 ( 0−3 )+ 6 ( 0 )
¿ 4 (−3)+6 (0)
¿−12+ 0=−12

(iii) For t=3 t , f (−3 )=4 ( 3 t−3 )+ 6 ( 3 t )

¿ 12 t−12+18 t
¿ 30 t−12=6 (5 t−2)

(iv) For t=x +1 , f ( x+1 ) =4 ( x +1−3 )+ 6 ( x+1 )

¿ 4 x−8+6 x +6
¿ 10 x−2=2(5 x−1)

NOTE: All functions are rules, but not all rules are functions. To be considered a function, a rule
must have a one-to-one correspondence between values in the domain and values in the range.

Exercise 1.1
1. Suppose that a function g is defined for all real numbers t by g ( t )=2 x 2−x . Find the
values of (i) g ( 5 ) (ii) g ( 11) ( iii ) g (−4 ) ( iv ) g ( k+ 1 ) (v) g ( 2t )

2. Given that { 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } . Find the corresponding values of g ,where gis given by the
rule (i) g=x +5 (ii) g=( x 2−2)2
4 3
3. The volume of a solid sphere of radius r is given as V ( r )= π r . Find the volume of
3
the sphere with a radius of 9 meters.
4. State whether or not the following rules express a function
1 1
(i) y=x 2−5 (ii) x 2+ y 2=3 (iii) y= 3 (iv) y=x 2−x 3
2x
1
(v) y=6−x 6 (vi) y= ±√ x +1

1.4 Finding Domain and Range of Functions

5
Definition 1.4.1 (Domain) Domain of a function of real variable is the largest set of real values
for which the value of the function y has real values.

Definition 1.4.2 (Range) The range of a function is the largest set of real values for which y has
real values.
Example 1.5
1
(i) Find the domain and range of f (x)=
x
Solution:
f :R→ R,
1
f (x)=
x

1
∴ f ( 0 )= ,f is not defined
0

∴ Dom ( f ) =R− {0 }

Or Dom ( f )=(−∞ , 0 ) ∪(0 ,+ ∞) Or Dom ( f )={ x : x ≠ 0 , x ∈ R }

Range is obtained by substituting the minimum and maximum values of the domain

in the function. Therefore from the domain, Range(f )=R− { 0 }

Or¿ (−∞ , 0 ) ∪ ( 0 ,+∞ )

Or ¿ { x : x ≠ 0 , x ∈ R }

Example 1.6
(i) Find the domain and range of y= √ 1− x2
Solution:

Give that y= √1− x2

Domain: We express those inside the radical so that it must be none negative, therefore
2
1−x ≥0
2
−x ≥−1

6
 x≤±1

Therefore , the Dom ( f )= [−1 , 1 ] .

And the Range ( f )=[ 0 ,1 ] .

Exercise 1.2
Find the domain and range of the following functions

1 1
(i) y= √1− x2 (ii) 2 (iii) y=x 3−x 2 + 4 (iv) y= 3
x −9 x

3x
(v) y=
√ 1−x 3

1.5 Some Types of Function

1.5.0 Even, Odd and Periodic Functions

Definition 1.5.1 (Even Functions) A function f (x) is even if f (−x)=f (x ) for all x in the
domain of f . Even functions are symmetric about the y -axis. An example of an even function is
2
y=x .

4
2
3 y=x

0
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-1

-2

From the graph above, we can see that y=x 2 is symmetric about the y -axis.
Other examples of even functions are y=x 4 , y= x6 , y=cos x, etc
Definition 1.5.2 (Odd Functions) A function f ¿ ) is said to be odd if f (−x)=−f (x). An
example of odd functions is f ( x )=x 3

7
 56
46
3
36 y=x
26
16
6
-4
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-14
-24
-34
-44
-54
-64

This function is symmetric about the origin. Other examples of odd functions include
5
y=x , y=x , y =sin x , y=tan x e.t.c.
Example 1.7
Determine whether the following function is even or odd: f ( x )=x 2−5.
Solution: Given that f ( x )=x 2−5 ,
Now,

f (−x ) =(−x ) −5⟹ f (−x ) =¿ ¿ ¿

2

⟹ f (−x ) =¿ ¿⟹ f (−x ) =x2−5

Since f (x)=f (−x ), we can conclude that f (x) is an even function.

Definition 1.5.3 (Periodic Functions) A function is said to be periodic if there exists a constant
k such that f (x+ k )=f (x) for all x in the domain of f . The smallest such k is called the period of
the function. In other words, the function repeats itself at a regular interval and such interval is
called the period of the function. An example of a periodic function is y=sin x .

8
 1.00

0.00
0.00 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28 7.85 9.42 10.99 12.56 14.13 15.70

-1.00

Notice that the period of the above function is 2 π . This is because sin( x+2 π )=sin x . Other
examples of a periodic function include cos x , tan x , etc.

1.6 Composition Functions

If h ( x )and g ( x ) are two functions, the composition function denoted by hog is defined as
(hog)(x )=h (g (x)).
To obtain(hog)(x ), we firstly obtain g(x ) and then h(g (x)). Similarly, to obtain (goh)( x), we
firstly h( x) and then obtain g(h(x)).

Example 1.8
(1) If h ( x )=x 2 +5 and g ( x )=x+ 1.Find
(i) (hog)(x ) (ii) (goh)(x) (iii) (hoh)(x ) (v) (gog)(x)
(2) Given that h ( x )=x +5 and g ( x )=x 2−3. Find
1
(i) h(g (0)) (ii) g(h(2)) (iii) h(h( )) (v) g(g(1))
2
Solution:
(1) Given that h ( x )=x 2 +5 and g ( x )=x+ 1, then
(i) From definition, ( hog )( x )=h ( g ( x ) )
¿ h(x +1)
2
¿(x +1) + 5
2
¿ x + 2 x +6
(ii) From definition, (goh)( x)=g (h( x ))=g ( x 2+5)
2 2
¿ x + 5+1¿ x +6
Solve (iii) and (iv)

9
Example 1.9 Given that h ( x )=x +5 and g ( x )=x 2−3. Find
1
(i) h(g (0)) (ii) g(h(2)) (iii) h(h( )) (iv) g(g(1))
2
Solution:
(i) h ( g ( 0 ) ) =h ( 02−3 )
¿ h (−3 ) =−3+5=2

(ii) g ( h ( 2 ) )=g ( 2+5 )

2
¿ g(7)=7 −3=11

Solve (iii) and (iv) as an exercise.

1.7 One-to-one Function

A function f is said to be one-to-one if different elements in the domain A have
distinct images.
Equivalently f is one-to-one iff f (a)=f (b)⇒a=b
Example 1.10

Example 1.11 A f : R → R by f (x)=x+1 , show that f is one-to-one.

Proof:
Suppose f (a)=f (b) , we show that
a=b
By definition,
a+ 1=b+1
Subtract 1 from both sides,
a=b

10
 ∴ f is one-to-one function.
Example 1.12 f : R → R by f ( x)=x2 , verify whether f is one-to-one or not.
Proof:
Suppose f (a)=f (b) , we show that
a=b
By definition, a2 =b2.
e.g (−¿3)2 = 32
9 = 9 but — 3≠ 3.
∴ f is not one-to-one function.

1.8 Onto Function

A function f : A → B is said to be onto if every element in B is the image of
some elements in A . A function is said to invertible if it is both one-to-one and
onto.
Example 1.13

Solution:

−1
f ( r )=1 , f −1 ( s)=4 .
−1 −1
f (t )=2, f (u)=3.
A one-to-one function is called injective function.
An Onto function is called surjective function.
An invertible function is called bijective function.

1.9 Inverse of a Function

11
A function g has an inverse denoted by g−1 iff it is injective (i.e. one-to-one). We find the
inverse of g by reversing a one-to-one function.

1.9.1 Finding Inverse of a Function

Let g(x ) be a function, then to find g−1 (x ), we consider the following;
(i) Let y=g (x) and solve the equation for x in terms of y
(ii) Interchange x and y in the result which gives the inverse

Example 1.14
Find the inverse of the following functions
2
(i) g ( x )=x 2−4 (ii) g ( x )= x+ 3 (iii) g= √ 4−x
5
8
(iv) g= 3
x
Solution:
(i) Let y=x 2−4
2
x = y+4
x=√ y +4 , now by interchanging x and y , we get
y= √ x +4
∴ g ( x )=√ x+ 4
−1

2
(ii) Let y= x +3
5
5 y−15=2 x
5( y−3)
x= , now by interchanging x and y , we get
2
5(x−3) −1 5( x−3)
y= ∴ g ( x)=
2 2
Solve (iii) and (iv) as an exercise.

1.10 Graphs of Functions

When a function's domain encompasses the entire set of real numbers R , it is consistently
depicted along the horizontal axis, while the associated values of the dependent variable are
indicated by points on the vertical axis. In typical usage, the x−axis represents the domain
(typically denoted as ' x '), and the y−axis represents the co-domain (typically denoted as ' y ').

12
Note: It is crucial to acknowledge that the fundamental rule of a function, which dictates that
each element in the domain maps to only one element in the co-domain, is applied to the graph
of a function, not all graphs faithfully depict a function.

Example 1.15
Sketch the graphs of the following and state whether or not it represents graph of a
function
y=x for x=−3 ¿ x=3
2
(i)
(ii) y= √ x for x= {0 , 1 , 4 , 9 , }
y= √ x for x= {−1 , 0 , 1, 8 , 27 }
3
(iii)
x + y =100, for x= {−6 ,−3 , 0 ,3 ,6 }
2 2
(iv)
1
(v) y= , x≠0
x
y=x , for x=−3 ¿ x=3
3
(vi)
Solution:
(i) Let y=f (x )=x 2 for x=−3 ¿ x=3
Table 1: Values of y=x 2 for x=−3 ¿ x=3
x −3−2−1 0 12 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
f (x)=x (−3) (−2) (−1) (0) (1) (2) (3)
Y 9 4 10 1 4 9

10
9
8 y=x2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

(ii) Let y=f (x )=√ x for x= {0 , 1 , 4 , 9 }

13
 Table 2: Values of y= √ x for x= {0 , 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 }
x 0 1 4 916
f (x)=√ x √ 0 √1 √ 4 √ 9 √16
Y 0 ± 1± 2 ±3 ± 4

4
y= √ x
3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1

-2

-3

-4

We observed that figure in (i) represents graph of the function, while figure in (ii)
did not, as there are values of x that yield more than one value of y . For example,
for x=1 the corresponding values of is y=±1 which doesn’t satisfy the rule of function.
Solve (iii) −¿ (vi) as exercises.

14