section

'C Ideas About Evolution

as you read
Millions of species of plants, animals, and other organisms

You'll Learn liveon Earth today. Do you suppose they are exactly the same as
they were when they first appeared—or have any of them
Describe Lamarck's hypothesis
of acquired characteristics and changed? A species is a group of organisms that share similar
Darwin's theory of natural characteristics and can reproduce among themselves to produce
selection.
fertile offspring. Many characteristics of a species are inherited
Identify why variations in organ-
when they pass from parent to offspring. Change in these inher-
isms are important.
Compare and contrast gradual-
ited characteristics over time is evolution. Figure 1 shows how
ism and punctuated equilibrium. the characteristics of the camel have changed over time.

It's Important
The theory of evolution suggests
why there are so many different
living things.

Proty/opus
Review Vocabulary
56 mya
gene: a section of DNA that
contains instructions for making
specific proteins

New Vocabulary Poebrotherium

o species 35 mya
o evolution
natural selection Small hump
o variation

adaptation
o gradualism
o punctuated equilibrium

Procame/us
23 mya

Figure 1 By studying fossils,

scientists have traced the

hypothesized evolution ofthe Came/us
camel. Present day
Discuss the changes you observe
in camels over time.

156 • A CHAPTER 6 Adaptations over Time

 •Culpepper Galåpagos
Wenman
Islands
Pinta
Genovesa
Marchenao
Equator
San Salvador
Fernandina
O -Baltra
Santa Cruz Azores
Santa
San Cristöbal
Santa Maria anary Is:
Espanola
C pe Verde Is.

Galäpagos Is.

Ascensi n
Cocos Is.
Bahia
St. H ,enp

Tahiti
M ur s

"S dney Rio de Janeiro

Valparaiso

King George l.
Montevideo
Hobart
New Zealand
Falklamd Is.

Tierra del Fuego

Figure 2 This map shows the

route of Darwin's voyage on the

HMS Beagle. Darwin noticed many

Hypothesis of Acquired Characteristics In 1809, Jean species on the Galåpagos Islands
Baptiste de Lamarck proposed a hypothesis to explain how that he had not seen along the
species change over time. He suggested that characteristics, or coast of South America, including
traits, developed during a parent organism's lifetime are inher- the marine iguana. This species is

ited by its offspring. His hypothesis is called the inheritance of the only lizard in the world known
acquired characteristics. Scientists collected data on traits that
to enter the ocean and feed on
are passed from parents to offspring. The data showed that traits seaweed.
developed during a parent's lifetime, such as large muscles built
by hard work or exercise, are not passed on to offspring. The evi-

dence did not support Lamarck's hypothesis.

Reading Check* What was Lamarck's explanation of evolution?

Darwin's Model of Evolution

In December 1831, the HMS Beagle sailed from England on
a journey to explore the South American coast. On board was a
young naturalist named Charles Darwin. During the journey,
Darwin recorded observations about the plants and animals he
saw. He was amazed by the variety of life on the Galåpagos
Islands, which are about 1,000 km from the coast of Ecuador.
Darwin hypothesized that the plants and animals on the
Galåpagos Islands originally must have come from Central and
South America. But the islands were home to many species he
had not seen in South America, including giant cactus trees,

huge land tortoises, and the iguana shown in Figure 2.

SECTIONI Ideas About Evolution A 157

 Figure 3 Darwin observed that thebeak shape of each

species of Galäpagos finch is related to its eating habits.

Finches that eat nuts and seeds Finches that feed on insects have Finches with medium-sized beaks

have short, strong beaks for long, slender beaks for probing eat a variety of foods inciuding
breaking hard shells. beneath tree bark. seeds and insects.

Darwin's Observations Darwin observed 13 species of

finches on the Galåpagos Islands. He noticed that all 13 species
Scienc nline were similar, except for differences in body size, beak shape, and
Topic: Darwin's Finches eating habits, as shown in Figure 3. He also noticed that all the
Visit booka.msscience.com for Web Galåpagos finch species were similar to one finch species he had
links to information about the
seenon the South American coast.
finches Darwin observed.
Darwin reasoned that the Galåpagos finches must have had
Activity In your Science Journal, to compete for food. Finches with beak shapes that allowed
describe the similarities and dif-
them to eat available food survived longer and produced more
ferences of any two species of

Galåpagos finches.
offspring than finches without those beak shapes. After many
generations, these groups of finches became separate species.

How did Darwin explain the evolution of the dif-

ferent species of Galåpagos finches?

Natural Selection
After the voyage, Charles Darwin returned to England and
continued to think about his observations. He collected more
evidence on inherited traits by breeding racing pigeons. He also
studied breeds of dogs and varieties of flowers. In the mid 1800s,
Darwin developed a theory of evolution that is accepted by most
scientists today. He described his ideas in a book called On the
Origin of Species, which was published in 1859.

158 A CHAPTER 6 Adaptations over Time

Darwin's Theory Darwin's observations led many
Table 1 Principles of
other scientists to conduct experiments on inherited
Natural Selection
characteristics. After many years, Darwin's ideas became
known as the theory of evolution by natural selection.
1. Organisms produce more offspring
Natural selection means that organisms with traits best than can survive.
suited to their environment are more likely to survive

and reproduce. Their traits are passed to more offspring. 2. Differences, or variations, occur

All living organisms produce more offspring than sur- among individuals of a species.

vive. Galåpagos finches lay several eggs every few months.

Darwin realized that in just a few years, several pairs of 3. Some variations are passed

finches could produce a large population. A population is to offspring.

all of the individuals of a species living in the same area.

4. Some variations are helpful.
Members of a large population compete for living space,
Individuals with helpful variations
food, and other resources. Those that are best able to sur-
survive and reproduce better than
vive are more likely to reproduce and pass on their traits
those without these variations.
to the next generation.
The principles that describe how natural selection
5. Overtime, the offspring of
works are listed in Table 1. Over time, asnew data was
individuals with helpful variations
gathered and reported, changes were made to Darwin's
make up more of a population and
by natural selection. His
original ideas about evolution
eventually may become a separate
theory remains one of the most important ideas in the
species.
study of life science.

Applying Science
Does natural selection take place in a fish tank?

Fish Tank Observations

Could the observations that he makes
Date Observation
over several weeks illustrate the principles
June 6 6 fish are placed in aquarium tank.
of natural selection?
July 22 16 new young appear.

Identifying the Problem 3 young have short or missing

July 24 tail fins.

Alejandro keeps a detailed journal of his 13 young have normal tail fins.

observations, some of which are given in the

Young with short or missing tail fins die.
•July 28
table to the right.
August 1 2 normal fish die—from overcrowding?
Solving the Problem August 12 30 new young appear.
Refer to Table 1 and match each of
August 15 5 young have short or missing tail fins.

Alejandro's journal entries with the princi- 25 young have normal tail fins.

ple(s) it demonstrates. Here's a hint: Some

August 18 Young with short or missing tail fins die.

entriesmay not match any of the principles of

August 20 Tank is overcrowded. Fish are divided
natural selection. Some entries may match
equally into two tanks.
more than one principle.

SECTIONI Ideas About Evolution A 159

 Variation and Adaptation
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection empha-

Evolution of English sizes the differences among individuals of a species. These dif-
If someone from ferences are called variations. A variationis an inherited trait

Shakespeare's time were that makes an individual different from other members of its
to speak to you today, species. Variations result from permanent changes, or muta-
you probably would
tions, inan organism's genes. Some gene changes produce small
not understand her.
variations, such as differences in the shape of human hairlines.
Languages, like species,
change over time. In your Other gene changes produce large variations, such as an albino
Science Journal, discuss squirrel in a population of gray squirrels or fruit without seeds.
some words or phrases Over time, more and more individuals of the species might
that you use that your inherit these variations. If individuals with these variations con-
parents or teachers do
tinue to survive and reproduce over many generations, a new
not use correctly.
species can evolve. It might take hundreds, thousands, or mil-

lions of generations for a new species to evolve.

Some variations are more helpful than others. An adaptation
is any variation that makes an organism better suited to its envi-
ronment. The variations that result in an adaptation can involve
an organism's color, shape, behavior, or chemical makeup.
Camouflage (KA muh flahj) is an adaptation. A camouflaged
organism, like the one shown in Figure 4, blends into its environ-
Figure 4 Variations that ment and is more likely to survive and reproduce.
provide an advantage tend to
increase in a population over
Albinism can prevent an organism
time. Variations that result in
from blending into its environment.
a disadvantage tend to
Infer what might happen to an albino
decrease in a population lemur in its natural environment.
over time.

Camouflage allows organisms to blend

into their environments.

Infer how its coloration gives this scorpion

fish a survival advantage.

160 • A CHAPTER 6 Adaptations over Time

 Figure 5 About 600 years ago, European rab-
bits were introduced to the Canary Islands from
a visiting Portuguese ship. The Canary Islands
are in the Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast

of Africa. Over time, the Canary Island rabbits

became a separate species.

European rabbits, like the one above, feed

during the day and are fairly large.

Canary Island rabbits feed during the night.

Explain why large eyes might be considered a
helpful adaptation in Canary Island rabbits.

Mini
Changes in the Sources of Genes over time, the genetic
makeup of a species might change its appearance. For example, Relating Evolution to
as the genetic makeup of a species of seed-eating Galåpagos Species
finch changed, so did the size and shape of its beak. Many kinds Procedure
of environmental factors help bring about changes. When indi- 1. On a piece of paper, print
viduals of thesame species move into or out of an area, they the word train.

might bring in or remove genes and variations. Suppose a fam- 2. Add, subtract, or change
one letter to make a new
ilyfrom another country moves to your neighborhood. They
word.
might bring different foods, customs, and ways of speaking with 3. Repeat step 2 with the
them. In a similar way, when new individuals enter an existing new word.
population, they can bring in different genes and variations. 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 two
more times.
Geographic Isolation Sometimes mountains, lakes, or 5. Make a "family tree" that
shows how your first word
other geologic features isolate a small number of individuals
changed over time.
from the restof a population. Over several generations, varia-
tions that do not exist in the larger population might begin to be Analysis
1. Compare your tree to those
more common in the isolated population. Also, gene mutations
of other people. Did you
can occur that add variations to populations. Over time, the two produce the same words?
populations can become so different that they no longer can 2. How is this process similar
breed with each other. The two populations of rabbits shown in to evolution by natural
Figure 5 have been geographically isolated from each other for selection?

thousands of generations.

SECTION 1 Ideas About Evolution A 161

 Red Giant Spectacled Sloth Sun Black Polar Brown
Raccoon panda panda bear bear bear bear bear bear

about 40 million 15-20 million 2 million

years ago years ago years ago

Common ancestor

Figure 6 The hypothesized evo-

The Speed of Evolution
lution of bears illustrates the punc-
Scientists do not agree on how quickly evolution occurs.
tuated equilibrium model of
evolution.
Many scientists hypothesize that evolution occurs slowly, per-
haps over tens or hundreds of millions of years. Other scientists
Discuss how the six species on the
far right are explained better by
hypothesize that evolution can occur quickly. Most scientists
agree that evidence supports both of these models.
punctuated equ/ibrium.

Gradualism Darwin hypothesized that evolution takes place

slowly. The model that describes evolution as a slow, ongoing
process by which one species changes to a new species is known
as gradualism. According to the gradualism model, a continu-
ing series of mutations and variations over time will result in a
new species. Look back at Figure 1, which shows the evolution
of the camel over tens of millions of years. Fossil evidence shows
a series of intermediate forms that indicate a gradual change
from the earliest camel species to today's species.

Punctuated Equilibrium Gradualism doesn't explain the

evolution of all species. For some species, the fossil record shows
few intermediate forms—one species suddenly changes to
another. According to the punctuated equilibrium model, rapid
evolution comes about when the mutation of a few genes results
in the appearance of a new species over a relatively short period
of time. The fossil record gives examples of this type of evolu-
tion, as you can see in Figure 6.

162 • A CHAPTER6 Adaptations over Time

Punctuated Equilibrium Today Evolution by the punctu- Figure 7 The fungus growing in

ated equilibrium model can occur over a few thousand or mil- this petri dish is Penicillium, the

lion years, and sometimes even faster. For example, many original source of penicillin. It pro-

The antibiotic penicillin

bacteria have changed in a few decades. duces an antibiotic substance that

originallycame from the fungus shown in Figure 7. But many prevents the growth of certain

bacteria species that were once easily killed by penicillin no bacteria.

longer are harmed by it. These bacteria have developed

resistance to the drug. Penicillin has been in use since
1943. Just four years later, in 1947, a species of bacteria
that causes pneumonia and other infections already had
developed resistance to the drug. By the 1990s, several dis-
ease-producing bacteria had become resistant to peni-
cillin and many other antibiotics.

How did penicillin-resistant bacteria evolve so

quickly? As in any population, some organisms have vari-
ations that allow them to survive unfavorable living con-
ditions when other organisms cannot. When penicillin
was used to kill bacteria, those with the penicillin-resist-
ant variation survived, reproduced, and passed this trait to

their offspring. Over a period of time, this bacteria popu-

lation became penicillin-resistant.

section review
Summary Self Check
Early Models of Evolution 1. Compare Lamarck's and Darwin's ideas about how evo-
lution takes place.
0 Evolution is change in the characteristics ofa
species over iffie. 2. Explain why variations are importantto understanding

o Lamarc change in a population over time.

roposed the hypothesis of inherited
ac Ired characteristics. 3. Discuss how the gradualism model of evolution differs

atural Selection from the punctuated equilibrium model of evolution.

Darwin proposed evolution by natural selec-

4. Describe how geographic isolation contributes to

evolution.
tion, a process by which organisms best
suited to their environments are most likely to 5. Think Critically What adaptations would be helpful for

survive and reproduce. an animal species that was moved to the Arctic?

0 Organisms have more offspring than can sur- 6. Concept Map Use information given in Figure 6 to
vive, individuals of a species vary, and many make a map that shows how raccoons, red pandas,
of these variations are passed to offspring. giant pandas, polar bears, and black bears are related

Variation and Adaptation

to a common ancestor.

Adaptations are variations that help an organ-

ism survive or reproduce in its environment.
Applying Math
7. Use Percentages The evolution of the camel can be
Mutations are the source of new variations.
traced back at least 56 million years. Use Figure 1 to
The Speed of Evolution
estimate the percent of this time that the modern
Evolution may be a slow or fast process camel has existed.
depending on the species under study.

Scienc ntine booka.msscience.com/self_check_quiz SECTIONI Ideas About Evolution A 163