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(i)
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• Head Office : B-32, Shivalik Main Road, Malviya Nagar, New Delhi-110017

• Sales Office : B-48, Shivalik Main Road, Malviya Nagar, New Delhi-110017

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Tel. : 011-26691021 / 26691713

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Typeset by Disha DTP Team

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DISHA PUBLICATION
All Rights Reserved

© Copyright Authors & Publisher

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without prior permission of the author and publisher. The
author and the publisher do not take any legal responsibility for any errors or misrepresentations that might have crept
in. We have tried and made our best efforts to provide accurate up-to-date information in this book.

For further information about the books from DISHA publIcAtIon,

Log on to www.dishapublication.com or email to [email protected]
 )(iii)
i(

Preface
We feel great pleasure in introducing the book, ‘ACE Biology for AIPMT/NEET Entrance Exam Vol- 2’. The book is essentially
examination oriented with an object to lighten the burden of the students.

(i)
The salient features of the book are as follows:
 The book has been written according to the Latest syllabus of AIPMT/NEET issued by MCI (2015)
 Each chapter begins with a title cover having major information of the content in ‘At a glance’
 The photographs and complicated figures have been made simple and ‘hand-drawn’.
 A number of ‘Connecting concepts’ have been added. They have also been made more purposeful and self explanatory

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 The key terms throughout the text have been printed in bold to draw more attention.

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 The MCQs of various national and state level entrance examination are up to date (2015)

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 In ‘Check points’ an attempt has been made to make the revision by the student more meaningful, which will help them to
retain the matter for a longer duration.

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 The total look of the book has been kept very friendly to the students and more attractive to the teachers.

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Since, there have been changes in syllabus of NCERT and AIPMT from time to time, certain topics, like ‘Biomedical Engineering’,
‘Growth and Regeneration’ and ‘Biology of Living World’ have been dropped from the book. Besides, the content of certain other

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chapters have been modified to make them more AIPMT oriented.

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Looking at the pattern of AIPMT, the authors have also added a new set of questions, ‘NCERT- BASED QUESTIONS’, after each and
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every chapter of the book. The students will find it very useful for the competitive exams.
 Besides, the following are the major highlights of the book :
ad

(i) Around 5000 questions in the ‘Window to Competitive Exams’ covering exams like AIPMT, AIIMS, AFMC, BHU, AMU,
ac

CPMT, JIPMER, Vellore, Wardha, DPMT, Kerala PMT, K-Cet etc.

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(ii) More than 1000 questions are covered under NCERT-Based QUESTIoNS.
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(iii) The printing and other type of errors have been specially taken care of.
ed

(iv) Most of the topics not covered in AIPMT and other PMTS have been removed.
(v) The questions that have become out dated, i.e., before 1995, have been dropped.
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Though attempt has been made to make the book error-free but shortcomings are inevitable. We shall be grateful to readers for
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pointing out and suggesting ways for the improvement of the book
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As always, we are grateful to Dr. O.P. Agarwal and the entire team of ‘Disha Publication’, to whose behest these editions have
finally seen the light. The members of Disha team cooperated with boundless enthusiasm and limitless energy. It was a pleasing
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experience to work with them.

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We express our sincere appreciations to all students and faculty members for their help in the improvement of this book.
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Authors

CONSULT THE AUTHOR

Dr. R.C. Narang M.Sc. (Gold medalist), Ph.D.
M.M. (P.G.) College, Modinagar (UP)
In case of any confusion regarding any question/ explanation given in the book you can contact the authors,
at [email protected] or [email protected] or put your query at aipmtbiology.com
 )(v)i(

contents
AIPMT 2016 Solved Paper V2-1-6

(i)
1
Chapter
Reproduction in Organism
1-20
• Asexual Reproduction • Sexual Reproduction

)i
2
Chapter
Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants
21-60
• Flower • Pre-fertilization : Structures and Events • Double Fertilization • Post Fertilization Structure and Events
• Apomixis and Polyembryony

3
Chapter
Human Reproduction
61-90
• Asexual Reproduction • Sexual Reproduction • Human Reproductive System • Gametogenesis • Menstrual Cycle

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• Human Development

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4
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Reproductive Health

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Chapter 91-102 m
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• Reproductive Health • Population Explosion • Contraceptives • Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) • Infertility
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• Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)

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5
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Principles of
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Inheritance and Variation

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Chapter 103-164
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• Terminologies of Mendelian Experiment • Mendels Laws of Inheritance • Experiments of Mendel • Incomplete Dominance • Co-dominance
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• Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance • Linkage and Recombination • Crossing Over • Sex Determination in Human and Other
Animals • Mutation • Human Chromosomes • Sex Chromatin • Mendelian Inheritance • II. Sex Chromosomal Traits • Pedigree
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Analysis
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(i)
(vi)

6
Chapter
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
165-200 )i(
(i)
• Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) • Nucleosides • Nucleotides • Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) • DNA as Genetic Material • Replication
• Transcription • Genetic Code • tRNA : The Adaptor Molecule • Translation • Regulation of Gene Expression • Human Genome Project (HGP)

7
Chapter
Evolution
201-258 )i
• Important Theories Regarding Origin of Life • Organic Evolution • • Geological Time Scale • Lamarckism
Evidences of Organic Evolution
• Neolamarckism • Darwinism • Neo-darwinism • Mutation Theory • Synthetic Theory • Speciation • Mimicry • Gene Pool
• Gene Flow/Gene Migration • Genetic Drift • Variations • Laws / Rules / Trends of Evolution • Isolation • Hardy-weinberg’s
Law • Zoogeographical Realms • Taxonomic Position • Similarities Between Modern Apes & Human

8
Chapter
Health and Diseases .c
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259-306
• Non- communicable Diseases • Communicable Diseases • Diseases Caused by Prions • Vaccination • Cancer • Immunity
• • Immune Disorders • Addiction
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Antigens
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Strategies for Enhancement in

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Food Production
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Chapter 307-336
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• Live Stock • Animal Husbandry • Poultry • Fishes and Fisheries • Insects and Their Products • Plant Breeding • Single Cell
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Protein (SCP) • Tissue Culture

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10
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Microbes in Human Welfare

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Chapter 337-356
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• Microbes in Household Products • Microbes in Industrial Products • Microbes in Sewage Treatment •

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Microbes in Production of
Biogas • Microbes as Biocontrol Agent • Microbes as Biofertilizers
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 )(vii)
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11
Chapter
Biotechnology : Principles and
Processes
357-384
(i)
• Recombinant DNA Technology • Process of Recombinant DNA Technology • Uses of Recombinant Proteins

12
Chapter
Biotechnology and its
Applications
385-408
)i
• Biotechnological Application in Agriculture • Transgenic Animals • DNA Fingerprinting • Disadvantages of Biotechnological Applications

13
Chapter
Organisms and Environment
409-432
• Abiotic Factors • How do Organisms Respond to Abiotic Factors? • Adaptations • Populations • Growth Models • Population
Interactions

14

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Ecosystem

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Chapter 433-468

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• Ecosystem – Structure and Function • Productivity • Decomposition • Energy Flow • Ecological Pyramids • Ecological Succession

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• Nutrient Cycling • Ecosystem Services • Importance of Ecosystem
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15
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Biodiversity and its Conservation

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Chapter 469-486
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• Level of Biodiversity • Extinction of Biodiversity • Conservation of Biodiversity

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16
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Environmental Issues
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Chapter 487-508
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• Air Pollution and its Control • Noise Pollution • Water Pollution and its Control • Solid Wastes and their
Disposal • Agrochemicals • Radioactive Pollution • Green House Effect and Global Warming • Ozone Depletion • Degradation of Natural
Resources • Deforestation, Reforestation and Forest-Conservation
 AIPMT 2016 SOLVED PAPER
1. Gause’s principle of competitive exclusion states that : 9. A complex of ribosomes attached to a single strand of RNA
(1) more abundant species will exclude the less abundant is known as
species through competition. (1) Polysome (2) Polymer
(2) competition for the same resources excludes species (3) Polypeptide (4) Okazaki fragment
having different food preferences. 10. Fertilization in humans is practically feasible only if
(3) no two species can occupy the same niche indefinitely (1) the sperms are transported into vagina just after the
for the same limiting resources. release of ovum in fallopian tube
(4) larger organisms exclude smaller ones through (2) the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously
competition. to ampullary isthmic junction of the fallopian tube
2. The two polypeptides of human insulin are linked together (3) the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously
by to ampullary - isthmic junction of the cervix
(4) the sperms are transported into cervix within 48 hrs
(1) hydrogen bonds
of release of ovum in uterus
(2) phosphodiester bond
11. Asthma may be attributed to
(3) covalent bond
(1) bacterial infection of the lungs

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(4) disulphide bridges
(2) allergic reaction of the mast cells in the lungs
3. Which of the following most appropriately describes
(3) inflammation of the trachea

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haemophilia ? (4) accumulation of fluid in the lungs
(1) Recessive gene disorder

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12. Select the incorrect statement :
(2) X - linked recessive gene disorder (1) FSH stimulates the sertoli cells which help in

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(3) Chromosomal disorder spermiogenesis
(4) Dominant gene disorder (2) LH triggers ovulation in ovary

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4. Name the chronic respiratory disorder caused mainly by (3) LH and FSH decrease gradually during the follicular
cigarette smoking

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phase
(1) emphysema (4) LH triggers secretion of androgens from the Leydig

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(2) asthma cells

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(3) respiratory acidosis 13. A tall true breeding garden pea plant is crossed with a dwarf
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(4) respiratory alkalosis true breeding garden pea plant. When the F1 plants were
5. A system of rotating crops with legume or grass pasture to selfed the resulting genotypes were in the ratio of
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improve soil structure and fertility is called (1) 1 : 2 : 1 :: Tall homozygous : Tall heterozygous : Dwarf
(1) Ley farming (2) 1 : 2 : 1 :: Tall heterozygous : Tall homozygous : Dwarf
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(2) Contour farming (3) 3 : 1 :: Tall : Dwarf

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(3) Strip farming (4) 3 : 1 :: Dwarf : Tall

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(4) Shifting agriculture 14. Which of the following is the most important cause of
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6. In context of Amniocentesis, which of the following animals and plants being driven to extinction ?
statement is incorrect ? (1) Over - exploitation
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(1) It is usually done when a woman is between 14-16 (2) Alien species invasion
(3) Habitat loss and fragmentation
weeks pregnant.
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(4) Co-extinctions
(2) It is used for prenatal sex determination
15. Which of the following is not a feature of the plasmids?
(3) It can be used for detection of Down syndrome
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(1) Independent replication

(4) It can be used for detection of Cleft palate
(2) Circular structure
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7. Which is the National Aquatic Animal of India ?

(3) Transferable
(1) Gangetic shark
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(4) Single - stranded

(2) River dolphin 16. In higher vertebrates, the immune system can distinguish
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(3) Blue whale self-cells and non-self. If this property is lost due to genetic
(4) Sea-horse abnormality and it attacks self-cells, then it leads to
8. Which of the following is required as inducer(s) for the (1) allergic response
expression of Lac operon ? (2) graft rejection
(1) Glucose (2) Galactose (3) auto-immune disease
(3) Lactose (4) Lactose and galactose (4) active immunity
V2-2 BIOLOGY

17. Match the terms in Column-I with their description in (3) Is produced by granulose cells in ovary and inhibits
Column-II and choose the correct option : the secretion of LH.
(4) Is produced by nurse cells in testes and inhibits the
Column-I Column-II
secretion of LH.
(a) Dominance (i) Many genes govern a 23. Which part of the tobacco plant is infected by Meloidogyne
single character incognita ?
(b) Codominance (ii) In a heterozygous (1) Flower (2) Leaf
organism only one (3) Stem (4) Root
allele expresses itself 24. Antivenom injection contains preformed antibodies while
(c) Pleiotropy (iii) In a heterozygous polio drops that are administered into the body contain
organism both alleles (1) Activated pathogens
express themselves (2) Harvested antibodies
fully (3) Gamma globulin
(d) Polygenic inheritance (iv) A single gene (4) Attenuated pathogens
influences many 25. Which of the following is not required for any of the
characters techniques of DNA fingerprinting available at present ?
(1) Polymerase chain reaction
(a) (b) (c) (d) (2) Zinc finger analysis
(1) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (3) Restriction enzymes

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(2) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (4) DNA-DNA hybridization
(3) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) 26. Which of the following structures is homologus to the wing
(4) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)

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of a bird ?
18. Joint Forest Management Concept was introduced in India (1) Dorsal fin of a Shark

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during (2) Wing of a Moth

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(1) 1960 s (2) 1970 s (3) Hind limb of Rabbit
(3) 1980 s (4) 1990 s (4) Flipper of Whale

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19. Pick out the correct statements : 27. Which of the following statements is not true for cancer
(a) Haemophilia is a sex-linked recessive disease cells in relation to mutations ?

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(b) Down’s syndrome is due to aneuploidy (1) Mutations in proto-oncogenes accelerate the cell cycle.
(c) Phenylketonuria is an autosomal recessive gene
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(2) Mutations destroy telomerase inhibitor.
disorder. (3) Mutations inactive the cell control.
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(d) Sickle cell anaemia is a X-linked recessive gene (4) Mutations inhibit production of telomerase.
disorder 28. Following are the two statements regarding the origin of life
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(1) (a) and (d) are correct (a) The earliest organisms that appeared on the earth were
(2) (b) and (d) are correct non-green and presumably anaerobes.
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(3) (a), (c) and (d) are correct (b) The f irst autotrophic organisms were the
(4) (a), (b) and (c) are correct chemoautotrophs that never released oxygen.
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20. Which of the following approaches does not give the defined Of the above statements which one of the following options
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action of contraceptive ? is correct ?

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(1) Barrier methods prevent fertilization (1) (a) is correct but (b) is false.
(2) Intra uterine devices Increase phagocytosis of (2) (b) is correct but (a) is false.
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sperms, suppress sperm (3) Both (a) and (b) are correct.
motility and fertilizing (4) Both (a) and (b) are false.
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capacity of sperms 29. Analogous structures are a result of

(3) Hormonal Prevent/retard entry of (1) Divergent evolution
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contraceptives sperms, prevent ovulation (2) Convergent evolution

and fertilization (3) Shared ancestry
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(4) Vasectomy Prevents spermatogenesis (4) Stabilizing selection

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21. The taq polymerase enzyme is obtained from 30. Which of the following is a restriction endonuclease?
(1) Thermus aquaticus (1) Hind II (2) Protease
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(2) Thiobacillus ferroxidans (3) DNase I (4) RNase

(3) Bacillus subtilis 31. The term ecosystem was coined by
(4) Pseudomonas putida (1) E.P. Odum (2) A.G. Tansley
22. Identify the correct statement on ‘inhibin’ (3) E. Haeckel (4) E. Warming
(1) Inhibits the secretion of LH, FSH and Prolactin. 32. When does the growth rate of a population following the
(2) Is produced by granulose cells in ovary and inhibits logistic model equal zero ? The logistic model is given as
the secretion of FSH. dN/dt = rN(1–N/K)
AIPMT 2016 SOLVED PAPER V2-3

(1) when N/K is exactly one. 38. In a testcross involving F1 dihybrid flies, more parental-
(2) when N nears the carrying capacity of the habitat. type offspring were produced than the recombinant-type
(3) when N/K equals zero. offspring. This indicates
(4) when death rate is greater than birth rate. (1) the two genes are located on two different chromosomes.
33. Which of the following would appear as the pioneer (2) chromosomes failed to separate during meiosis.
organisms on bare rocks? (3) the two genes are linked and present on the same
(1) Lichens (2) Liverworts chromosome.
(3) Mosses (4) Green algae (4) both of the characters are controlled by more than
34. Which one of the following is the starter codon ? one gene.
(1) AUG (2) UGA 39. It is much easier for a small animal to run uphill than for a
(3) UAA (4) UAG large animal, because
35. Depletion of which gas in the atmosphere can lead to an (1) it is easier to carry a small body weight.
increased incidence of skin cancers (2) smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate.
(1) Nitrous oxide (2) Ozone (3) small animals have a lower O2 requirement.
(3) Ammonia (4) Methane (4) the efficiency of muscles in large animals is less than
36. Seed formation without fertilization in flowering plants in the small animals.
involves the process of :- 40. The primitive prokaryotes responsible for the production
(1) Sporulation (2) Budding of biogas from the dung of ruminant animals, include the
(3) Somatic hybridization (4) Apomixis (1) Halophiles (2) Thermoacidiophiles

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37. Which of the following is wrongly matched in the given (3) Methanogens (4) Eubacteria
table ? 41. A river with an inflow of domestic sewage rich in organic

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waste may result in
Microbe Product Application
(1) drying of the river very soon due to algal bloom.

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(1) Trichoderma Cyclosporin A immunosup- (2) increased population of aquatic food web organisms.

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polysporum pressive drug (3) an increased production of fish due to biodegradable
(2) Monascus Statins lowering of nutrients.

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purpureus blood (4) death of fish due to lack of oxygen.
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cholesterol
(3) Streptococcus Streptokinase removal of
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clot from
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blood vessel
(4) Clostridium Lipase removal of
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butylicum oil stains

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V2-4 BIOLOGY

HINTS & SOLUTIONS

1. (3) Gause’s principle of competitive exclusion can be restated to say that no two species can occupy the same niche indefinitely
when resources are limiting. Certainly species can and do coexist while competing for some of the same resources.
Nevertheless, Gause’s theory predicts that when two species coexist on a long-term basis, either resources must not be
limited or their niches will always differ in one or more features; otherwise, one species will outcompete the other and the
extinction of the second species will inevitably result, a process referred to as competitive exclusion.
2. (4) Insulin is a hormone consisting of 2 polypeptide chains. Each chain is composed of a specific sequence of amino acid
residues connected by peptide bonds. In humans, chain A has 21 amino acids, and chain B has 30. Post translational
modifications result in the connection of these two chains by disulfide bridges. Cysteine residues on A7 and B7, as well as
A20 to B19 are covalently connected by disulfide bridges.

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3. (2) Hemophilia A and hemophilia B are inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. The genes associated with these conditions
are located on the X chromosome, which is one of the two sex chromosomes. In males (who have only one X chromosome),
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one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the condition. In females (who have two X chromosomes), a
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mutation would have to occur in both copies of the gene to cause the disorder. Because it is unlikely that females will have
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two altered copies of this gene, it is very rare for females to have hemophilia. A characteristic of X-linked inheritance is
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that fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to their sons.

4. (1) Emphysema results when the delicate linings of the air sacs in the lungs become damaged beyond repair. Most commonly,
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the toxins in cigarette smoke create the damage. Emphysema is called smoker’s disease.
5. (1) The growing of grass or legumes in rotation with grain or tilled crops as a soil conservation measure is called Ley farming.
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6. (4) Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT) is a medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of
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chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections, and also used for sex determination in which a small amount of amniotic
fluid, which contains fetal tissues, is sampled from the amniotic sac. Cleft palate is a developmental abnormality which
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can only be detected by sonography.

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7. (2) River Dolphin is the National Aquatic Animal of India. This mammal is also said to represent the purity of the holy Ganga
as it can only survive in pure and fresh water. Platanista gangetica has a long pointed snout and also have visible teeth in
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both the upper and lower jaws.

8. (3) Lac operon is an inducible operon. Lactose is the substrate for the enzyme beta-galactosidase and it also regulates switching
on and off of the operon. Hence, it is termed as inducer. Inducers function by disabling repressors. The gene is expressed
because an inducer binds to the repressor. The binding of the inducer to the repressor prevents the repressor from binding
to the operator. RNA polymerase can then begin to transcribe operon genes.
AIPMT 2016 SOLVED PAPER V2-5

9. (1) A polysome or polyribosome is a complex of an 15. (4) Plasmid has an extra chromosomal, double stranded
mRNA molecule and two or more ribosomes, which circular DNA.
is formed during the active translation process. They 16. (3) An autoimmune disease is a pathological state arising
were initially named as ergosomes in 1963. However, from an abnormal immune response of the body to
further research by Jonathan Warner and Alex Rich substances and tissues that are normally present in the
characterized polysome. body.
10. (2) The word ampulla is derived from the Latin word ‘flask’. 17. (2)
Being the second portion of the fallopian tube, it is 18. (3) Joint Forest Management originated in West Bengal
the intermediate dilated portion which immediately accidentally at the Arabari Forest Range in West
curves over the ovary. This is the common site of Midnapore, near Midnapore town in 1971. After the
human fertilization as both the ovum and sperms are initial successes in West Bengal and Haryana, the JFM
simultaneously transported here. schemes received national importance in the legislation
11. (2) A mast cell or a mastocyte is typically a white blood cell. of 1988.
It is a special kind of granulocyte, which is a part of the 19. (4) Sickle cell disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive
immune system and laden with histamine and heparin. pattern.
Besides these, mast cells also secrete the prostaglandin
20. (4) Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization
(PG) D2, and leukotriene (LT) C4, which are capable
or permanent contraception. During the procedure,
of inducing bronchoconstriction and mucosal edema,

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the male vas deferens are severed and then tied or
both features of asthma. sealed in a manner so as to prevent sperm from
12. (3) Considering the female reproductive endocrinology,

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entering into the seminal stream (ejaculate) and
ovulation is the process of the monthly release of the thereby prevent fertilization.

ot
viable oocyte from the ovary between the time of 21. (1) The Taq polymerase enzyme is obtained from Thermus

sp
menarche and menopause. During this time, there aquaticus which lives in hot springs.
is a surge in the production of LH and FSH, termed

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22. (2) In both females and males, inhibin inhibits FSH
as gonadotropins, thereby initiating estradiol and
production. In females, FSH stimulates the secretion

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progesterone secretion from the ovary. Both these
of inhibin from the granulosa cells of the ovarian
hormones are very important for the menstrual cycle.
y.
follicles in the ovaries. In turn, inhibin suppresses FSH.
m
13. (1)
In males, androgens stimulate inhibin production.
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It is secreted from the Sertoli cells, located in the

seminiferous tubules inside the testes.
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23. (4) Meloidogyne incognita is a nematode (roundworm) in

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the family Heteroderidae. It is commonly called the

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“southern root-knot nematode” or the “cotton root-

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knot nematode”.
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24. (4) Oral Polio Vaccine consists of a mixture of attenuated

(weakened) poliovirus strains of all three poliovirus
tm

Pollen → T t types.
T TT Tt 25. (2) Zinc-finger analysis is used for protein analysis. The
ee

Tall Dwarf zinc finger proteins are a super family of proteins

t Tt tt
//n

involved in numerous activities of plant growth and

Tall Dwarf
development.
s:

Phenotypic ratio : 3: 1 (Tall :Dwarf) 26. (4) Wings of a bird and flippers of a whale are modified
tp

Genotypic Ratio: 1:2:1 (Homozygous Tall : Heterozygous Tall : forelimbs.

ht

Dwarf)
27. (4) Telomerase production is increased in cancer.
14. (3) The primary cause of human-induced extinction events Telomerase has been examined in hundreds of studies
is simply human overpopulation of planet Earth. The as a potentially sensitive biomarker for screening, early
most important causal anthropogenic activities are
cancer detection, prognosis or in monitoring as an
habitat destruction and fragmentation.
indication of residual disease.
V2-6 BIOLOGY

28. (3) Both statements are correct because primitive 34. (1) The start codon is the first codon of a messenger RNA
atmosphere was reducing and chlorophyll appeared (mRNA) transcript translated by a ribosome. The start
later on. Chemoautotrophs were the first autotrophic codon always codes for methionine in eukaryotes
organisms unable to perform photolysis of water and and a modified Met (fMet) in prokaryotes. The most
never released oxygen. common start codon is AUG.
29. (2) Analogous structures are those that have the same 35. (2) The ozone layer or ozone shield refers to a region
function, but they are not derived from a common of Earth’s stratosphere that absorbs most of the
ancestor and have undergone different patterns of Sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contains high
development ie., Convergent evolution which is natural concentrations of ozone (O3) relative to other parts
selection that favors the same type of structure in of the atmosphere.
different ancestors. 36. (4) Apomixis (asexual seed formation) is the result
30. (1) A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an of a plant gaining the ability to bypass the most
enzyme that cuts DNA at or near specific recognition fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction:
nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites. Hind meiosis and fertilization. Without the need for male
II among these is a type of restriction endonuclease. fertilization, the resulting seed germinates a plant that
31. (2) Sir Arthur George Tansley was an English botanist develops as a maternal clone.
and a pioneer in the science of ecology who coined 37. (4) Clostridium butylicum is used for butyric acid
the term ecosystem. production
32. (1) In logistic growth model population growth equation 38. (3) When two genes in a dihybrid cross are situated on the
is described as same chromosome, the proportion of parental gene
combinations are much higher than the non-parental
or recombinant type. This is also called incomplete
N = population density at time t; linkage.
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase; 39. (2) Basal metabolic rate is inversely proportional to body
K = carrying capacity size. So smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate.
Hence more energy production.
When N/K = 1; 1 – =0
40. (3) Methanogens are microorganisms that produce
Therefore, =0 methane as a metabolic byproduct in anoxic conditions.
They are obligate anaerobic ancient and primitive
33. (1) Lichens produce small amounts of carbonic acids
bacteria. They are involved in methanogenesis.
from their “roots” and these slowly dissolve the rock,
releasing nutrients. Other nutrients are obtained from 41. (4) Domestic sewage rich in organic waste leads to increase
water-borne or air-borne particles of both organic and in Biological Oxygen Demand, which leads to decrease
inorganic materials. The body of a lichen contains an D.O.(dissolved oxygen) which leads to death of fishes.
alga; this is able to photosynthesise sugars, some of
which are passed on to the fungal component of the
lichen. In return the alga gets a tiny but significant
amount of shelter within the tissues of the lichen.
 Chapter 1
Reproduction in Organism

While going through the chapter pay special attention to the following – At a Glance
 Asexual Reproduction
Terms and Definitions –  Asexual Reproduction in plants
1. Agamospermy 2. Diplospory 3. Apospory • Agamospermy

4. Apogamy 5. Mitospores 6. Propagules • Spore Formation

• Vegetative Reproduction
Flow Chart – • Cutting

1. Types of agamospermy • Layering

• Grafting

Table – • Micropropagation

1. Approximate life span of some organism  Asexual Reproduction in

animals
2. Difference between asexual & sexual reproduction • Fission
3. Chromosome numbers in meiocytes & gametes. • Budding
• Fragmentation
• Cyst & spores
 Reproduction is the process by which all living organism give rise to new organisms similar
 Sexual Reproduction
to themselves. It is essential for the survival of the species since all the living beings have
 Pre-fertilization events
a similar life span.
• Gametogenesis
 All organisms are alike because they
• Gamete transfer
• are made up of cells.  Fertilization
• respond to external stimuli.  Post-fertilization events

• have various mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis.

• have heritable genetic material.
• take birth, grow, reproduce and die after completing their life span.
 The period from birth to death is known as life span. The life span of the organisms varies
from one organism to another organism.
2 BIOLOGY

Connecting Concepts Table 1.1 : Approximate Life span of some organisms

 Maximum life span – It refers to the Organisms Life span
maximum number of years survived
Mayfly One day
or the greatest age reached by any
member of a species. Man 65 years
 Average life span – It refers to the Elephant 65 years
average number of years survived or age
Parrot 140 years
reached by members of a population.
Tortoise 200 years
 Life expectancy – It refers to the
age at which half the population still Cat 35-40 years
survives. Therefore, maximum life span Dog 20-30 years
is the characteristic of species and
life expectancy is the characteristic of Monkey 26 years
population. Wheat 5 months
Banyan tree 300-500 years
Sequoia 3000-4000 years
 Reproduction ensures the continuity of the species, generation after generation. Genetic
variation is created and inherited during reproduction.
 Four basic processes of reproduction are – DNA replication, cell division, formation of
reproductive units and development of new individuals.
 Living organisms reproduce by two different modes of reproduction :
(i) Asexual reproduction
(ii) Sexual reproduction
 Rate of reproduction is faster in asexual reproduction.
 In lower organism, reproduction occurs commonly by fission and budding whereas in higher
organisms, reproduction occurs with the help of well developed sex organs.
Table 1.2 : Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
1. It occurs only in invertebrates and It occurs almost in all types of animals.
lower chordates.
2. It is always uniparental. It is usually biparental.
3. Gametes are not formed. Two types of gametes are formed.
4. It involves only mitosis. It involves both meiosis and mitosis.
5. Daughter organisms are genetically Daughter organisms genetically differ
identical to the parent. from their parents.
6. Since there is no variation, so it does Because of variations, it contributes to the
not contribute to evolution of the evolution of species.
species.
7. Occurs by fission, budding or Occurs by the formation of haploid gametes
fragmentation. which fuse to form a diploid zygote.
8. It is a quick method of multiplication. It is a slower method of multiplication.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Asexual reproduction is a type of process in which, the new organisms are produced without
the formation and fusion of gametes. In this case, all the genes and genetic contents are
received by the offspring from one parent through mitotic cell division. Offsprings are
genetically and morphologically identical to the parents and are termed as clones.
 Random mutation is the source of genetic variations in this type of reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction occurs most commonly in unicellular organisms, in plants and in
certain animals that have relatively simple organizations.
 In plants, asexual reproduction is of 3 types – agamospermy, spore formation and
vegetative reproduction. In animals, it is of following types – fission, budding,
fragmentation and cysts & spores.
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 3

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Agamospermy
 Agamospermy is a kind of plant apomixis in which the embryos and seeds are formed by
asexual reproductive methods without involving meiotic gametogenesis and sexual fusion
of gametes. It occurs widely in ferns and the flowering plants.
 Agamospermy is of three types–recurrent apomixis, adventitive embryony and
non-recurrent agamospermy.
Flow Charts 1.1 : Types of Agamospermy
Agamospermy
3 types

Recurrent Adventitive Non-recurrent

apomixis embryony apomixis
 A diploid (2n)  Formation of embryo  Embryo developed parthenogenetically
embryo sac is directly from the from haploid egg, synergid, antipodal
formed having diploid sporophytic cells.
diploid egg cell cells (nucellus or
which grow integument) of the
into diploid ovule, but never from two types
embryo. Eg. the egg.
Apple, Allium  Eg. Citrus, Opuntia.
In Citrus, a seed may
Apospory Apogamy
possess upto 40
two types  Aposporous formed  No gametic fusion
embryos (one normal
and rest adventive). gametophyte are involved.
generally diploid.  Such sporophytes are not
 Leads to polyploidy viable if produced from
Diplospory Apospory
Diploid Diploid formation. Hence new haploid gametophytes.
megaspore unicellular species in pteridophytes  Sporophyte
mother cell mother cell and bryophytes. give rise
 Gametophyte to
give rise Gametophyte
to
Sporophyte

Spore formation
 Fungi and simple plants such as algae reproduce through spores. Spores after certain time
give rise to young ones. In different organisms, the spores are of different kinds : zoospores,
sporangiospores, chlamydospores, conidia, etc., e.g., Phytophthora, Rhizopus.
 Spores taking part in asexual reproduction are called accessory spores or mitospores.

Conidia

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.1 : Asexual reproductive structures :
(a) Zoospores of Chlamydomonas (b) Conidia of Penicillium
4 BIOLOGY

Vegetative Propagation / Reproduction

 Regeneration or formation of a new individual from any vegetative part of the body is called
vegetative reproduction or vegetative propagation. The lower plants reproduce vegetatively
through budding, fission, fragmentation, gemmae, resting buds, spores, etc.
 Since the formation of these structures does not involve two parents, the process involved
is asexual.
 Importance of vegetative propagation are –
• Growing of some seedless fruits plants, eg. banana, rose, grapes, oranges etc.
• It is the only mean to produce genetically identical offsprings and preserve a stock
of desired variety.
• It is an easier, less expensive and a rapid method of propagation.
• Superior quality of flowers and fruits can be produced by the method of grafting.
• It also helps in removing common infections from the plant (parent).
 It is very common mode of reproduction and it may be natural vegetative propagation
or artificial vegetative propagation.
I. Natural Methods of Vegetative Propagation
 In natural methods of propagation, a portion of the plant gets detached from the body of the
mother plant. The detached portion may be a part of stem, leaf, root etc., which develops
into a new independent plant under suitable environmental conditions. These structures
are called vegetative propagules.
 Some of these are given below.
(i) Vegetative propagation by stems
The modified stems like bulbs, runners, rhizomes, corms, tubers, offsets, etc., help the
plant to multiply under favourable conditions.
Underground stem
Suckers – Chrysanthemum
Rhizomes – Ginger, Banana
Bulbs – Onion
Tubers – Potato
Creeping stems
Runners – Cyanodon, Oxalis
Stolons – Fragaria
Offset – Pistia
Aerial stem – Opuntia
(ii) Vegetative propagation by roots
The roots of some woody plants produce shoots which grow into new plants, e.g., Murraya,
Lebbeck tree ((Albizzia), Sisham ((Dalbergia sisso) etc. Modified tuberous roots of Sweet
potato, Asparagus, Dahlia, Tapioca, Tinospora etc. develop buds and each of which form
a new plant.
(iii) Vegetative propagation by leaves
The leaves generally do not help in vegetative propagation. However, in Bryophyllum
pinnatum and B. daigremontianum, develop along the leaf margins which on deattachment
produce independent plants. In elephant ear plant ((Begonia) also, leaf buds are produced
from petiole and veins throughout the surface of the leaf. Walking fern propagates through
leaf tips.
(iv) Vegetative propagation by reproductive parts
Flowers are primarily associated with sexual reproduction. But in Globba, American aloe
(
(Agave ), Onion ((Allium cepa), etc. special multicellular structures, called bulbils, occur
on the stem. These are the modifications of axillary buds. Bulbils grow into new plants
when shed from the mother plant.
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 5

Nodes
Buds

Leaves
Internode
Node
Adventitious Adventitious
roots root

(a) Runner – Oxalis (b) Rhizome – Ginger

Bud
Leaf scar
Leaves
Node Stem (Offset)

Roots

Root pocket
(c) Tuber – Potato (d) Offset – Pistia

Adventitious
cuds

Plantlets Leaf bases

(Fleshy)

Reduced stem
Adventitious
roots

(e) Buds of Bryophyllum leaf (f) Bulb – Onion (g) Bulbil of Agave

Fig. 1.2 : Vegetative propagules in angiosperms.

II. Artificial methods of vegetative propagation
 Several methods of vegetative propagation are man made and developed by plant
growers and horticulturists for commercial production of crops. They are called
artificial methods. In this method a portion is separated from the body of the plant
and then it is grown independently.
 The various modes of artificial vegetative reproduction are– cutting, layering,
grafting and micropropagation etc.
(i) Cutting
• The small piece of any plant (stem, root or leaf) used for propagation is called cutting.
Leaf cuttings are used to propagate Sansevieria, Begonia, Bryophyllum, Glocinia
and Kalanchoe.
• Root cuttings are used to propagate Citron and Tamarind.
Tamarind
• Stem cuttings are most commonly used for artificial propagation. When cuttings
(about 20-30 cm. long pieces of stem) from such plants are put into the moist soil, they
develop adventitious roots and buds at the base which develops into new plants.
• Grapes, Sugarcane, Rose, Bougainvillea, Carnation, Coleus, Duranta. etc. are
propagated by stem cuttings.
• Favourable time for planting of cuttings is the spring.
6 BIOLOGY

Check Point (ii) Layering

1. Match the following : • It differs from cutting in that the development of adventitious roots is induced before
Column I Column II the plant part is detached from the parent plant.
A. Suckers 1. Rhizopus
B. Zoospore 2. Ulothrie • The layering can be of different types - mound and air layering.
C. Bulbils 3. Agave • In mound layering lower branch of stem is bent and covered in such a way that
D. Chlamydospores 4. Mint

om
the tip of the branch remains above the ground. After a few days, the covered part
2. Give two examples of vegetative
propagation by roots and stems. of the stem produces adventitious roots. At this stage the branch is cut off from the
3. Air layering is used in the vegetative parent plant and it grows into a new plant. This method is commonly employed for

t.c
propagation of litchi, lemon etc. propagating Strawberry, Jasmine. Grape vine, Raspberry, etc.
(True or False).

o
4. Buds present in individual notches • Air layering (Gootee) is employed in plants with thick branches which can not be

sp
along the margin of a potato leaf easily bent. In this method, part of the stem is girdled (i.e., a ring of bark is removed)
are capable of forming new plants. or slit at an upward angle. This part is covered with moist moss or cotton and enclosed

og
(True or False, if false correct the
statement). in a polythene bag to prevent drying. The wrapped portion is called gootee. The roots
5. .................is a highly reduced stem appear after sometime and at that stage the branch is cut and planted. It grows into

bl
represented by a small disc like a new individual.

y.
structure upon which numerous
fleshy scale leaves are borne (which • This method is used in vegetative propagation of Litchi, Pomegranate, Orange, Lemon,

em
store food material). Guava, Bougainvillia, etc.
(iii) Grafting
•
ad
A new variety produced by joining parts of two different plants is called grafting.
The rooted shoot of one plant, called stock, is joined with a piece of shoot of another
ac
plant known as scion. The root stock is generally derived from a plant resistant to
diseases and efficient in water and mineral absorption. The scion is a stem cutting from
al

a superior quality plant. The grafting ends of both, stock and scion are cut obliquely
ic

and then placed over one another in such a way that the cambia of two come in close
contact. The two pieces are firmly held together by tape, rubber tubing etc. This results
ed

in fusion of cambia and formation of new vascular tissue.

tm

• Grafting is generally done between the related varieties or species. This method has
been practised for many economically useful plants, such as rose, mango, apple, pear,
ee

guava, citrus, rubber etc.

• There are various methods of grafting like tongue or whip grafting, wedge grafting
//n

and crown grafting. Besides these a technique, called bud grafting, in which only
a single bud along with a small portion of bark having intact cambium instead of a
s:

scion is employed for propagations.

tp

• Bud grafting is widely practised in roses, plums, apple etc.

ht

(iv) Micropropagation
• It is the raising of new plants with the help of tissue culture technique.
Check Point • Small pieces of plant organs or tissues are grown aseptically in a suitable nutrient
1. State True or False : medium. Initially it results in the formation of undifferentiated mass of cells called
(i) Gemmule is a reproductive
structure in sponges.
callus which later differentiates to produce a large number of plantlets. These plantlets
(ii) In adverse environmental are then transferred to separate pots or nursery beds to obtain a large number of
conditions, an Hydra withdraw plants.
its pseudopodia and secretes a
three layered hard covering or
• Tissue culture technique is useful in obtaining virus free plants, homozygous
cyst around itself. diploids and in commercial micropropagation of Orchids, Carnation. Gladiolus,
(iii) To begin with a small outgrowth Chrysanthemum and other Ornamental plants. This method is also employed for
of the parents body to develops quick multiplication of plants.
into a miniature individual is
called fragmentation.
(iv) Multiple fission is the Asexual reproduction in Animals
commonest and simplest
method of reproduction. Fission
(v) In longitudinal binary fission, the
plane of cytoplasmic division
 Fission is the commonest and simplest method of reproduction. In fission body of an
coincides with the longitudinal individual undergoes division to produce 2 or more equal sized daughters.
axis of the individual as in
Euglena and Vorticella.  Fission is of two types - binary fission and multiple fission.
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 7
 Binary fission is one of the most common modes of asexual reproduction in which the
parent cell divides into two small and approximately equal sized individuals, e.g., Bacteria,
Amoeba.
 Modes of binary fission are : Simple binary fission (e.g., Amoeba), Longitudinal binary
fission (e.g., Euglena), Transverse binary fission (e.g., Paramecium) and Oblique binary
fission (e.g., Ceratium).
 Multiple fission : In this division, parent cell divides into many small daughter individuals
simultaneously, e.g., Plasmodium, Amoeba etc. It occurs during unfavourable condition.

Constriction Daughter
cells
Fig. 1.3 : Binary Fission in Amoeba

Cyst

Protoplast
Daughter
Parent cell cell

Fig. 1.4 : Multiple Fission in Plasmodium

Budding
 Budding is an unequal division of the parent where the identity of the parent body is still
maintained.
 Budding is in contrast to binary fission where parent body divides equally into two and
no identity of the parent is left.
 Budding is the formation of multicellular or unicellular outgrowth (called bud) on or
inside the parental body.
 Bud formed inside the body is called gemmules or statoblasts and formed on external
surface is called exogenous bud (e.g. Hydra).
 Budding is found in sponges, annileds coelenterate ((Hydra), (Syllis and tunicates (Salpa) Fig. 1.6 : Gemmules in sponge
among animals and among fungi it is formed in yeast.
Bud Enlarging bud Bud
Dividing
nucleus Nucleus
Parent cell of the
bud

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Fig. 1.5 : Budding in Yeast

Fragmentation
 In fragmentation the body may break into two or more fragments and each fragment
develops into a complete individual, e.g. Spirogyra.
 It is found in some flatworms (Microstomium), sea anemones among coelenterate and
echinoderms.
8 BIOLOGY

Cyst and Spores

 Cysts and spores are minute propagules which function as sporulation as well as penetrating
structures.
 In sporulation which occurs in many protozoa and bacteria the asexual reproduction occurs
by the division of nucleus into several daughter nuclei and then each daughter nucleus get
enclosed by small amount of cytoplasm to form a spore.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes by the process of
fertilization.
 It results in offspring that are not identical to the parents or to themselves.
 When male and female gametes are produced from male and female parents respectively,

om
then it is called unisexual reproduction, e.g. Man, Cow, etc.
 When both male and female gametes are produced from same individual, then it is called
bisexual reproduction, e.g. earthworm, tapeworm.

.c
 There are three phases in an organism’s life – juvenile phase, reproductive phase and

ot
old phase.

sp
• Juvenile phase or vegetative phase : All organisms have to reach a certain phase
of growth and maturity in their life, before they can reproduce sexually. This growth

og
period is known as juvenile phase or vegetative phase (in plants). Its duration varies
in different organisms.

bl
• Reproductive phase : When the organism starts reproducing in their life cycle, then

y.
this is known as reproductive phase.

em
• Some plants flower seasonally whereas others flower throughout the year.
• Plants like biennial & annual type show clear cut vegetative, reproductive and
ad
senescent phases but in perennial species. It is very difficult to clearly define these
phases.
ac

• Like Bamboo species flower only once in their life time, generally after 50-100 years,
produce large number of fruits and die. Another plant, Strobilanthus Kunthiana (neela
al

kuranji) flowers once in 12 years. This plant flowered during Sept.-Oct.

ic

• In animals the juvenile phase is followed by morphological & physiological changes

ed

prior to active reproductive behaviour.

• Among animals, such as birds living in nature lay eggs seasonally whereas birds in
tm

captivity lay eggs throughout the year.

ee

• Placental females show changes in ovaries, accessory reproductive ducts and hormones
during reproductive phase.
//n

• Oestrus cycle is the term for cyclical changes during reproductive phase in non-
primates mammals like cows, sheep, deers, dogs, tiger, etc. While such changes in
s:

primates is called menstrual cycle like humans, apes, monkeys, etc.

tp

• Senescence or old phase : In this phase, there is progressive deterioration in the body
and rate of metabolism that ultimately leads to death.
ht

 In flowering plants, sperms are produced inside the germinating pollen grains of anthers,
whereas egg is produced inside an embryo sac in ovule.
 Events in sexual reproduction can be grouped into three distinct stages :
(i) Pre-fertilization events
(ii) Fertilization
(iii) Post-fertilization events

Pre-fertilization events
 The event before the fusion of gametes is known as pre-fertilization events. Main pre-
fertilization events are : gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 9

Gametogenesis
 The process of formation of two types of gametes is known as gametogenesis. Gametes
(male or female) are haploid cells.
 In some algae, the two gametes are similar in appearance therefore, they are called
homogametes or isogametes.
 In majority of the sexually reproducing organisms gametes are different from each other.
So, they are called heterogametes. In heterogametic organism, male gamete is called
antherozoid or sperm and female gamete is called an egg or ovum.
 Sperm and egg cells are gametes or sex cells containing only one set of chromosomes
(haploid). Gametes are produced through meiotic division.
 Homothallic and monoecious terms are used to denote the bisexual or hermaphrodite
condition and heterothallic and dioecious terms are used to describe unisexual
condition.
 In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate i.e. bearing stamens while
the female is pistillate or bearing pistils. In some flowering plants, both male and female
flowers may be present on the same individuals (monoecious) or on separate individuals
(dioecious). Cucurbits and coconuts are bisexual plants whereas papaya and date palm
are unisexual plants.
 Earthworm, sponge, tapeworm, and leech bear both male and female reproductive organs,
and are called hermaphrodite or bisexual animals while cockroach is a unisexual
animal.
 In diploid organisms, specialized cells called meiocytes (gamete mother cells) undergo
meiosis.
 After meiosis, only one set of chromosomes goes into each gamete.

Clitellum

Oogonium
(female sex
organ)

Antheridium
Male Female (male sex organ)
(a) (b) (c)

Antheridiophore
Archegoniophore

Stamen

Carpel

Female thallus Male thallus

(d) (e)

Fig. 1.7 : Diversity of sexuality in organism (a) Bisexual animal (Earthworm);

(b) Unisexual animal (Cockroach); (c) Monoecious plant (Chara);
(d) Dioecious plant (Marchantia); (e) Bisexual flower (sweet potato)
10 BIOLOGY

Table 1.3 : Chromosome numbers in meiocytes (diploid, 2n) and gametes (haploid, n)
of some organisms.
Name of organism Chromosome numbers in Chromosome numbers
meiocytes (2n) in gametes (n)
Ophioglossum (a fern) 1260 630
Apple 34 17
Rice 24 12
Maize 20 10
Potato 48 24
Onion 32 16
Human beings 46 23
House fly 12 6
Rat 42 21
Dog 78 39
Cat 38 19
Fruit fly 8 4
Gametic transfer
 Once the male and female gametes are formed inside the gametangia, they are allowed to
come in contact with each other to facilitate their fusion (syngamy/fertilization).
 In most of the cases, male gametes is motile (algae, bryophytes & pteridophytes) and the
female gamete is stationary except for few fungi and algae in which both types of gametes
are motile.
 The transfer of gametes take place through different medium like water, air, etc. During their
transfer, a large number of male gametes fail to reach the female gametes. For compensating
the loss of male gametes, they are produced in large quantity than female gametes.
 In seed plants, pollen grains are the carriers of male gametes and ovule has the egg or
female gamete. Pollen grains produced in the anthers are transferred to the stigma by a
process, known as pollination.
 Pollination is of two types : self pollination and cross pollination.
 Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma within the same
flower, e.g. Pea.
 Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers of male flowers to the
stigma of female flower of different plant through the agency of air, water or animals
particularly insects.
 In dioecious animals, since male and female gametes are formed in different individuals,
the organism must evolve a special mechanism for gamete transfer.

Fertilization
 Fertilization is the complete and permanent fusion of two gametes from different or same
parent to form a diploid zygote. This process is also called syngamy and is the most vital
event of sexual reproduction.
 The terms syngamy and fertilization are frequently used, interchangeably.
 In case of animals, male gametes are transferred to female gamete by three distinct patterns
depending on whether fertilization and embryonic development occur within or outside
the maternal body. These are –
(i) External fertilization and External development.
(ii) Internal fertilization and External development.
(iii) Internal fertilization and Internal development.
 External fertilization and External development
• In this type of fertilization, parents release sperms and eggs into the surrounding
water, where fertilization takes place and zygotes develop into offspring. e.g., Obelia,
Nereis, Labeo and Frog.
• Here the physical contact between the parents may or may not occur.
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 11
 Internal fertilization and External development
• In this case, sperms are passed from the male into the female with an intromittent
organ. The animals which have this type fertilization usually produce fewer zygotes
because of protection provided by egg shells, e.g., Shark, Lizard, Birds etc.
 Internal fertilization and Internal development
• In this case, fertilization process and the development of gametes take place internally.
e.g., Mammals.
• There are some organisms in which the female gamete undergoes development to
form new organisms without fertilization. This process is known as parthenogenesis.
e.g. rotifers, honeybees and some lizards.
• Parthenogenesis is of two types : natural and artificial. Natural parthenogenesis is

om
a regular phenomenon in the history of some animals. Artificial parthenogenesis is
the phenomenon of producing complete individual without fertilization.
 Syngamy is the fusion of two entire gametes to form a zygote including the fusion of nuclei

t.c
while fertilization includes all the associated events that ultimately lead to syngamy.
On the basis of source of fusion of gametes, syngamy is of two types : endogamy &

o

exogamy.

sp
(i) Endogamy : It includes the fusion of two gametes of the same parent which is self-

og
fertilization, e.g., Taenia.
(ii) Exogamy : It includes the fusion of gametes produced from different parents which

bl
is cross-fertilization, e.g., Frog, humans.
 On the basis of structure of the fusing gametes, syngamy is of two types : isogamy &
anisogamy.
y.
em
(i) Isogamy : In case of isogamy, the fusing gametes are similar morphologically but
behaviourally, different, e.g., Monocystis.
(ii) Anisogamy (heterogamy) : In anisogamy, the gametes differ in form, size, structure
ad

and behaviour, e.g., frogs and humans.

ac

Post-fertilization events
al

 The events after the formation of zygote are known as post-fertilization events.
Two haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote (2n). Zygote is the vital link that ensures
ic


continuity of species between organisms of one generation and the next.
ed

 After the formation of zygote, it develops into an embryo & process is known as
embryogenesis.
tm

 During embryogenesis, a new individual forms by the process of cell division and
Check Point
differentiation.
ee

1. Which of the following parts in

 On the basis of a development of zygote, the animals are of two types : oviparous and
flowering parts are diploid ?
viviparous.
//n

Anther, Pollen, Male gamete, Ovary,

 The oviparous animals lay fertilized or unfertilized eggs in a safe place in the environment. Egg.
These eggs are covered by hard calcareous shell. After passing incubation period, the young
s:

2. Give an example of a plant which

ones hatch out from the eggs. For example, reptiles & birds. The viviparous animals give flowers once in a 12 years.
tp

birth to young ones. For example – Majority of mammals, including humans. 3. Fill in the blanks :
ht

 In flowering plants, the zygote is formed inside the ovule of the ovary. The ovary develops (i) Flowering plants in which
into fruit which develops a thick wall called pericarp. Under favourable condition, seeds male & female structures are
germinate to produce new plants. found on the same plants are
called.................... .
(ii) ..................... is a form of animal
sexual reproduction in which
a sperm cell is united with an
egg cell outside the body of the
S female species.
S P
S 4. Fusion of two gametes dissimilar
P S P in size as in some species
P of Chlamydomonas is called
anisogamous. (True or False)

Fig. 1.8 : A few kinds of fruit showing seeds (S) and protective pericarp (P)
12 BIOLOGY

EXERCISE - 1 | NCERT BASED QUESTIONS

1. In all the methods of asexual reproduction 10. Binary fission is found in

(1) offsprings produced are genetically identical to the (1) Amoeba (2) Paramecium
parents. (3) Planaria (4) All of these
(2) offsprings produced are genetically different from the 11. Which of the followings are exclusively viviparous ?
parents. (1) Bony fishes (2) Cartilagenous fishes
(3) offsprings produced may or may not be identical to (3) Sharks (4) Whales
the parents. 12. The polyestrous mammal is
(4) None of the above (1) man (2) rabbit
2. In sexual reproduction, offsprings resemble the parents (3) cat (4) horse
(1) structurally but not functionally. 13. Development of an egg without fertilization is called
(2) functionally but not structurally. (1) gametogenesis (2) metagenesis
(3) Both structurally and functionally. (3) oogenesis (4) parthenogenesis
(4) Neither structurally nor functionally. 14. What is true in the process of fertilization ?
3. Common method of asexual reproduction is by (1) Only one sperm reaches the egg and enters it.
(1) regeneration (2) budding (2) The entry of sperm activates the egg for completing
(3) archeocytes (4) gemmulation meiosis.
4. Asexual reproduction takes place in (3) Two haploid nuclei fuse and immediately divide to
(1) higher animals (2) lower animals produce two nuclei which are again haploid.
(3) plants (4) All of these (4) Only the acrosome of the sperm enters the egg.
5. As a result of binary fission number of individuals produced 15. The function of egg cell is/are
by one fission is (1) it supplies a haploid set of chromosomes to the future
(1) two (2) three embryo.
(3) four (4) five (2) it provides most of the cytoplasm to the embryo.
6. Fertilization is internal in (3) it supplies food reserves to the embryo.
(1) toads (2) frogs (4) All the above
(3) dog fish (4) cat fish 16. Two chief functions of leaves are
7. Which type of reproduction is found in Hydra ? (1) transpiration and respiration
(1) Polyembryony (2) Sexual and asexual (2) respiration and digestion
(3) Parthenogenesis (4) Encystment (3) photosynthesis and respiration
8. Gemmule formation in sponges is helpful in (4) photosynthesis and transpiration
(1) parthenogenesis 17. Phyllotaxy is
(2) sexual reproduction (1) mode of leaf arrangement on stem
(3) only dissemination (2) types of roots
(4) asexual reproduction (3) types of stem
9. What is the mode of reproduction in Amoeba ? (4) arrangement of sepals and petals in a flower
(1) Binary fission only 18. Raceme differs from spike in having
(2) Binary fission and multiple fission (1) bisexual flowers
(3) Binary fission and conjugation (2) sessile flowers
(4) Multiple fission only (3) pedicillate flowers
(4) unisexual flowers
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 13
19. When the gynoecium is present in the topmost position of 25. Berry is a fruit which is commonly
thalamus, the flower is known as (1) fleshy and multi-seeded
(1) inferior (2) epigynous (2) fleshy and single-seeded
(3) perigynous (4) hypogynous (3) dry and multi-seeded
20. Zygomorphic flowers are (4) fleshy and single or multi-seeded
(1) asymmetrical 26. Pepo fruit is generally found in
(2) monosymmetrical (1) cruciferae (2) cucurbitaceae
(3) completely symmetrical (3) leguminosae (4) malvaceae
(4) None of the above 27. A false fruit develops from

om
21. In epigynous flowers (1) complete flower
(1) ovary is superior (2) ovary

t.c
(2) calyx, corolla and androecium are all superior (3) any floral part excluding ovary
(4) None of the above

o
(3) calyx, corolla and androecium are all inferior

sp
28. The most common type of ovule in angiosperms is
(4) only accessory whorls are inferior
(1) anatropous (2) amphitropous
22. Internode between androecium and gynoecium is called

og
(3) orthotropous (4) circinotropous
(1) anthophore (2) androphore
29. In angiospermic life cycle

bl
(3) gynophore (4) carpophore
(1) sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte

y.
23. A true fruit is
(2) gametophyte is dependent on sporophyte

em
(1) a developed thalamus
(3) both sporophyte and gametophyte are independent
(2) a developed nucellus
(4) both sporophyte and gametophyte are of equal status

ad
(3) a developed ovary
30. In a normal embryosac, the ploidy level of egg cell, polar
(4) a developed ovule

ac
nuclei, synergids and secondary nucleus is
24. Caryopsis is (1) n, n, n, n respectively
al
(1) one-seeded fruit (2) two-seeded fruit (2) n, n, n, 2n respectively
ic
(3) four-seeded fruit (4) numerous-seeded fruit (3) n, 2n, 2n, n respectively
ed

(4) n, 2n, 2n, 2n respectively

tm
ee
//n
s:
tp
ht
14 BIOLOGY

EXERCISE - 2 | Window to Competitive Exams

1. Woody perennial climbers are commonly called 14. Which of the following propagates through leaf tip ?
[BHU 95] [CBSE PMT'04]
(1) lianas (2) creepers (1) Walking fern (2) Sprout leaf plant
(3) rhizomes (4) runners (3) Marchantia (4) Moss
2. Vegetative reproduction by layering is found in 15. Saffron is produced from [MPPMT 04]
[AFMC'96] (1) stamens of Hibiscus
(1) jasmine (2) mango (2) style and stigma of Crocus plant
(3) rose (4) All of these (3) roots of Indigofera
3. Ovules are not found enclosed in ovary in [DPMT 96] (4) petals of Musa
(1) thallophyta (2) bryophyta 16. Modified stem present in Gladiolus is
(3) gymnosperms (4) angiosperms [Orissa PMT 2004]
4. The most important characteristic of living organisms is (1) bulb (2) rhizome
[JH PMT 98] (3) corm (4) bulbil
(1) growth (2) multiplication 17. A plant differs from an animal mainly in
(3) protoplasm (4) movements [BR PMT 2004]
5. The plant material which is widely used in the preparation (1) protoplasm (2) vital activities
culture medium is [AIIMS'98] (3) nutrition (4) reproduction
(1) Cycas revoluta (2) Cocus nucifera
18. The part which is grafting on stalk of another tree is
(3) Pinus longifolia (4) Borassus flabellifer
called [Haryana PMT'05]
6. Fruits are not found in [Bihar CEE 99]
(1) graft (2) bulbil
(1) angiosperms (2) dicots
(3) bud (4) scion
(3) monocots (4) Cycas
7. Which one of the plants using ‘Foliar adventitious buds’ as 19. In which one pair both the plants can be vegetative
method for vegetative propagation? [AIEEE'2000] propagated by leaf pieces? [CBSE'PMT'05]
(1) Banana (2) Ginger (1) Bryophyllum and Kalanchoe
(3) Bryophyllum (4) Colocasia (2) Chrysanthemum and Agave
8. Which branch of Botany deals with the study of vegetable (3) Agave and Kalanchoe
crops ? [CBSE'0l] (4) Asparagus and Bryophyllum
(1) Olericulture (2) Silviculture 20. Carrot is micropropagated through[Haryana PMT'2005]
(3) Agronomy (4) Agrostology (1) embryo (2) embryoids
9. The approximate number of plants so far discovered are (3) shoot culture (4) callus
[CG PMT 2001] 21. Rhizome which grows vertically upward is [AFMC 05]
(1) 1,00,000 (2) 2,00,000 (1) corm (2) stolon
(3) 2,50,000 (4) 3,43,225 (3) bulbil (4) rootstock
10. Roots are described as adventitious depending upon their 22. Endosperm of gymnosperms [HP PMT 05]
[Haryana PMT 01] (1) shield-shaped cotyledons
(1) function (2) protective covering of radicle
(2) place of origin (3) protective covering of plumule
(3) anatomy (4) None of the above
(4) position aerial or underground 23. Sweet potato is a modification of [Punjab PMT 05]
11. Thorns, spines, prickles in plants are utilized as organs of (1) stem
[Kerala PMT 01] (2) adventitious root
(1) defence mechanism (3) hypocotyl
(2) offence mechanism (4) flowering axis
(3) excretion 24. Which one of the following is a fruit ? [BR PMT 05]
(4) respiration (1) Ginger
12. If cotyledons are brought above the soil, the germination (2) Sweet potato
is [JH PMT 02] (3) Radish
(1) hypogeal (2) epigeal (4) Lady's finger
(3) vivipary (4) None of these 25. Corm is [CET CHD'06]
13. Root hairs occur in the [Orissa Jee 03] (1) swollen horizontal underground stem.
(1) root cap (2) compressed swollen vertically underground stem.
(2) region of cell elongation (3) swollen end of an underground stem.
(3) apical meristem (4) underground bud consisting of fleshy swollen storage
(4) region of maturation food.
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 15
26. Thorn is a modification of [MHCET 06] (a) statements (i) and (ii) alone are true
(1) stem (2) leaf (b) statements (ii) and (iii) alone are true
(3) stipule (4) root (c) statement (ii) alone is true
27. Plants with a short body are called [JIPMER 07] (d) all the three statements (i), (ii) and (iii) are true
(1) lianas (2) climbers 39. The type of asexual reproduction found in Hydra is
(3) trees (4) herbs [Kerala PMT 2009]
28. Branches of stem are [RPMT 07] (a) multiple fission (b) budding
(1) exogenous in origin
(c) sporulation (d) binary fission
(2) endogenous in origin
(3) partly exogenous and partly endogenous (e) gemmule formation
(4) superficial 40. Carrot is a [Bihar CEE 10]
29. Banana is [J&K Medical 07] (1) root (2) stem
(1) berry (2) pome (3) bud (4) flower
(3) pepo (4) lomentum 41. Which one of the following is a nut fruit ? [WB JEE 10]

om
30. Apomixis in plant means development of a plant (1) Betal nut (2) Ground nut
[BHU'08] (3) Cashew nut (4) Walnut

.c
(1) from root cuttings 42. Find out the wrongly matched pair. [Kerala PMT 2010]
(2) without fusion of gametes (1) tuber - potato

ot
(3) from fusion of gametes (2) rhizome - ginger

sp
(4) from cuttings of stem (3) bulbil - Agave
31. The formation of gametophyte from the sporophyte (4) leaf buds - banana

og
(without meiosis) is called [AMU'05; BHU'08] 43. Match the items in column I with those in column II and
(1) apospory (2) apogamy choose the correct option. [Kerala PMT 2010]

bl
(3) agametospermy (4) None of these
32. Plants are like animals in that [BVP 2008] Column I Column II

y.
(1) both respire in the day only A Binary fission 1 Algae

em
(2) both respire in the night only B Zoospore 2 Amoeba
(3) both respire day and night
(4) both respire when required C Conidium 3 Hydra
ad
33. Vivipary is the characteristic feature of [BR PMT 08] D Budding 4 Penicillium
(1) hygrophytes (2) xerophytes E Gemmules 5 Sponge
ac

(3) halophytes (4) mesophytes

34. Consider the following statements and choose the correct (1) A – 1; B – 4; C – 5; D – 3; E – 2
al

option. [Kerala PMT'2009] (2) A – 2; B – 1; C – 4; D – 3; E – 5

(I) The genetic constitution of a plant is unaffected in
ic

(3) A – 2; B – 4; C – 3; D – 5; E – 1
vegetative propagation.
ed

(II) Rhizome in ginger serves as an organ of vegetative (4) A – 1; B – 4; C – 3; D – 2; E – 5

reproduction. 44. One greenhouse gas contributes 14% to total global
tm

(III) Totipotency of cells enables us to micropropagate warming and another contributes 6%. These are respectively
plants. identified as [Kerala PMT 2010]
ee

(1) Statements (I) and (II) alone are true (1) N2O and CO2 (2) CFCs and N2O
(2) Statements (II) and (III) alone are true (3) methane and CO2 (4) methane and CFCs
//n

(3) Statement (II) alone is true 45. The wheat grain is a [JH PMT 11]
(4) All the three statements [(I) (II) and (III)] are true (1) fruit (2) seed
s:

35. Plants identical to mother plants can be obtained from (3) embryo (4) glume
[Bihar CEE 09]
tp

46. Match column I with column II and select the correct option.
(1) seeds (2) stem cutting
[Kerala PMT 2011]
ht

(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these

36. Which part of potato plant is eaten ? [JHPMT 09] Column I Column II
(1) Leaf (2) Fruit
(3) Stem (4) Flower (Name of the (Haploid chromosome
37. Vegetative propagation in mint occurs by: organism) number in gamete
[CBSE PMT 2009] A Ophioglossum 1 23
(a) offset (b) rhizome B Rice 2 24
(c) sucker (d) runner C Potato 3 12
38. Consider the following statements and choose the correct D Man 4 630
option [Kerala PMT 2009]
(i) the genetic constitution of a plant is unaffected in (1) A – 1, B – 2, C – 3, D – 4
vegetation propagation (2) A – 2, B – 3, C – 4, D – 1
(ii) rhizome in ginger serves as an organ of vegetative (3) A – 3, B – 4, C – 2, D – 1
reproduction (4) A – 4, B – 3, C – 2, D – 1
(iii) totipotency of cells enables us to micropropagate plants
16 BIOLOGY
47. The “Eyes” of the potato tuber are [CBSE PMT 2011] B. Crow 2. 140 years
(1) root buds (2) flower buds C. Parrot 3. 15 years
(3) shoot buds (4) axillary buds D. Crocodile 4. 1 – 2 years
48. What is common between vegetative reproduction and (1) A – 1; B – 2; C – 3; D – 4
apomixis? [CBSE PMT 2011M] (2) A – 4; B – 3; C – 1; D – 2
(1) Both are applicable to only dicot plants (3) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1
(2) Both bypass the flowering phase (4) A – 4; B – 3; C – 2; D – 1
(3) Both occur round the year 56. Find out the correct order of vegetative propagules of
(4) Both produces progeny identical to the parent plants like potato, ginger, Agave, Bryophyllum and water
49. What is the mode of reproduction in Amoeba ? hyacinth. [Kerala PMT 2012]
[AFMC 2011] (1) Offset, bulbil, lead bud, rhizome and eyes
(1) Binary fission only (2) Leaf bud, bulbil, offset, rhizome and eyes
(2) Binary fission and multiple fission (3) Eyes, rhizome, bulbil, leaf bud and offset
(3) Binary fission and conjugation (4) Rhizome, bulbil, leaf bud, eyes and offset
(4) Multiple fission only
57. Select the wrong statement : [AIPMT (NEET) 2013]
50. Seeds are regarded to be the product of sexual reproduction
because they [AFMC 2011] (1) Anisogametes differ either in structure, function or
(1) can be stored for a long period. behaviour.
(2) give rise to new plants. (2) In Oomycetes female gamete is smaller and motile,
(3) are the result of fusion of male gamete with the female while male gamete is larger and non-motile.
gamete. (3) Chalmydomonas exhibits both isogamy and anisogamy
(4) None of the above and Fucus shows oogamy.
51. Match list I with list II and select the correct option. (4) Isogametes are similar in structure, function and
[Kerala PMT 2011] behaviour.
58. Monoecious plant of Chara shows occurrence of :
List I List II
[AIPMT (NEET) 2013]
A Gemmules 1. Agave
(1) stamen and carpel of the same plant
B Leaf-buds 2. Penicillium
(2) upper antheridium and lower oogonium on the same
C Bulbil 3. Water hyacinth plant
D Offset 4. Sponges (3) upper oogonium and lower antheridium on the same
E Conidia 5. Bryophyllum plant
(4) antheridiophore and archegoniophore on the same
(1) A – 4, B – 5, C – 1, D – 3, E – 2 plant
(2) A – 4, B – 3, C – 2, D – 1, E – 5 59. Meiosis takes place in : [AIPMT (NEET) 2013]
(3) A – 3, B – 5, C – 4, D – 2, E – 1 (1) Conidia (2) Gemmule
(4) A – 4, B – 1, C – 5, D – 3, E – 2 (3) Megaspore (4) Meiocyte
52. The chromosomal number in the meiocytes of housefly is 60. What is common between vegetative reproduction and
[Kerala PMT 2011] apomixis? [AIIMS 2013]
(1) 8 (2) 12 (1) Both are applicable to only dicot plants
(3) 21 (4) 23 (2) Both bypass the flowering phase
53. Which one of the following is correctly matched (3) Both occur round the year
[CBSE PMT 2012] (4) Both produces progeny identical to the parent
(1) Onion - Bulb 61. Match the following and choose the correct combination
(2) Ginger - Sucker from the options given. [Kerala PMT 2013]
(3) Chlamydomonas - Conidia Column I: Column II:
(4) Yeast - Zoospores Name of the organism Chromosome number
54. Which plays an important role in the dispersal of spores in in meiocyte (2n)
Funaria? [AFMC 2012] (1) Housefly (1) 20
(1) Operculum (2) Capsule (2) Fruit fly (2) 34
(3) Peristome and annulus(4) Sporogonium (3) Apple (3) 8
55. Match the following and choose the correct combination (4) Maize (4) 12
from the options given. [Kerala PMT 2012]
(1) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Column I Column II
(2) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
(Organism) (Approximate life span)
(3) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
A. Butterfly 1. 60 years
(4) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 17

EXERCISE - 3 | Test Yourself

1. Asexual reproduction is common 5. Which of the following is cultivated through vegetative

(1) among single celled organisms only propagation?
(2) among plants only (1) Potato and sugarcane
(3) among single celled organisms, plants and all (2) Banana and ginger
animals
(3) Dahlia and rose
(4) among single celled animals, plants and animals with
simple organisations (4) All of the above
2. Which one of the following is not vegetative propagule ? 6. The site of origin of the new plantlets in potato, dahlia,
(1) Rhizome and sucker ginger and banana is
(2) Tuber and offset (1) floral buds present on stem.
(3) Bulbil (e.g. in Agave), leaf buds, bulb (2) internodes of modified stem.
(4) Antherozoid (3) nodes of modified stem.
3. Examine the figures given below and select the right options
(4) adventitious buds present on root.
out of (a - d); in which all the 4 items A, B, C and D are
identified correctly 7. Which of the following plants do not show clear cut
Eye vegetative, reproductive and senescent phase ?
(nodes) Germinating
eye buds Nodes (1) Perennial plants
Buds
(2) Annual plants
(3) Biennial plants
(4) Either (2) or (3)
8. Which of the following plants exhibits unusual flowering
Adventitious (B)
(A) root Adventitious
phenomenon?
buds (1) Mango and litchi
(2) Mango and maize
(3) Litchi and pea
(4) Bamboo species and Strobilanthus species
9. Which one of the following statements is false?
I. Bamboo species flower only once in their life time,
generally after 50 -100 years, produce large number
(C) (D)
of fruits and die.
(A) (B) (C) (D) II. In animals the juvenile phase is followed by
(1) Tuber Rhizome Bulb Leaf buds morphological and physiological changes prior to
(2) Offset Sucker Stolon Leaf buds active reproductive behaviour.
(3) Offset Sucker Stolon Leaf buds III. The reproductive phase is of same duration in all
(4) Tuber Rhizome Bulbil Leaf buds organisms.
4. Which one of the following option is true regarding the IV. Juvenile phase is the period of growth between the
given statements ? birth of an individual till it reaches reproductive
I. The plant was introduced in India because of its maturity.
beautiful flowers and shape of leaves. (1) I
II. It can propagate vegetatively at a phenomenal rate and (2) II
spread all over water body in a short period. (3) III
III. It is very difficult to get rid off these plants. (4) IV
(1) Dahlia 10. Which is not a fruit ?
(2) Water hyacinth (1) Bulb of onion
(2) Tomato
(3) Azolla (water fern)
(3) Pumpkin
(4) Mosses
(4) Cucumber
18 BIOLOGY

11. Anemophillous flowers have 21. Which plays an important role in the dispersal of spores in
(1) small, smooth stigma Funaria?
(2) large, smooth stigma (1) Operculum
(3) large feathery stigma (2) Capsule
(4) coloured beautiful flower (3) Peristome and annulus
12. The process of double fertilization was discovered by (4) Sporogonium
(1) Strasburger (2) Robert Koch 22. Pteridophyta are also called
(3) Nawaschin (4) Drouchet (1) vascular plants
13. The transformation from a single cell into an adult (2) vascular cryptogams
individual with many different kinds of cells is called (3) phanerogams

om
(1) development (2) evolution (4) None of the above
(3) adaptation (4) inheritance 23. The sori bearing leaves of fern are known as

.c
14. Agar-agar, a common substance used in research is (1) aphylls (2) sporophylls

ot
obtained from (3) torophylls (4) sclerophylls

sp
(1) septate fungi (2) blue-green algae 24. The sex organs that develop amongst the rhizoids of fern
(3) brown algae (4) red algae prothallus are

og
15. In which of the following plants, isogamy, anisogamy and (1) archegonia (2) antheridia

bl
oogamy all are found ? (3) sporangia (4) None of these
(1) Chlamydomonas (2) Ulothrix 25. Reproduction in Cycas takes place by

y.
(3) Oscillatoria (4) Spirogyra (1) vegetative method only

em
16. All algae have (2) sexual method only
(1) chlorophyll a and b (3) both, by vegetative and sexual methods
(2) chlorophyll b and carotenoids
ad
(4) fragmentation
ac
(3) chlorophyll a and carotenoids 26. The coralloid roots are
(4) phycobilins and carotenoids (1) aerial
al

17. The fungi are usually (2) phototropic

ic

(1) parasites or saprophytes (3) apogeotropic

ed

(4) positively geotropic

(2) lithophytes
27. The male cone of Cycas is made up of a group of
tm

(3) epiphytes
(1) microsporophylls
(4) insectivorous
ee

(2) megasporophylls
18. When a fungus is able to pass its complete life cycle on
(3) sporophylls
//n

one host it is called (4) archegonia

(1) heteroecious (2) autoecious 28. Fruits are not found in Cycas because
s:

(3) heterothallism (4) heterosporous (1) there is no fertilization

tp

19. Mycelium is the name given to the plant body of (2) there is no pollination
ht

(1) algae (3) seeds are not formed

(2) fungi (4) there is no ovary
(3) bryophyta 29. Which part of angiosperm is equivalent to the
(4) pteridophyta megasporophyll of Cycas ?
20. The chief characteristic of bryophyta is that (1) Stamen (2) Sepal
(1) their gametophytic generation is dependent on (3) Petal (4) Carpel
sporophytic generation. 30. Cycas is
(2) their sporophytic generation is dependent on (1) monoecious and seed bearing
gametophytic generation. (2) dioecious and seed bearing
(3) sporophytic generation is fully independent. (3) seedless monoecious
(4) None of the above (4) seedless dioecious
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM 19

31. Heterospory is the production of 37. A false fruit develops from

(1) sexual and asexual spores (1) complete flower
(2) haploid and diploid spores (2) ovary
(3) small and large spores (3) any floral part including ovary
(4) diploid and tetraploid spores (4) None of the above
32. A number of short stalked sporangia attached to placenta 38. During the process of fertilization it is usually found that
and covered by indusium is called of the two male gametes, one fuses with the egg and the
(1) ramenta second with the secondary nucleus. This is known as
(2) sorus (1) simple fertilization
(3) sporophyll (2) double fertilization
(4) cone (3) fusion
33. The chief characteristic of fern leaf is that they (4) None of the above
(1) have ramenta 39. The normal type of embryo sac is
(2) are microphyllous (1) 8-nucleate, 8 celled
(3) have ramenta and form 'fiddle head' when young (2) 8-nucleate, 7 celled
(4) are simple (3) 7-nucleate, 7 celled
34. When stamens are adnate to tepals it is known as (4) 7-nucleate, 8 celled
(1) epiphyllous 40. The tapetum
(2) epipetalous (1) is a nutritive layer which generally degenerates at
(3) episepalous maturity
(4) gynandrous (2) helps in dispersal of pollen grains
35. When accessory whorls (calyx and corolla) are absent in a (3) helps in the dehiscence of anther
flower, it is called (4) None of the above
(1) monochlamydous 41. When the anthers mature before the stigma, it is known as
(2) dichlamydous (1) dicliny
(3) achlamydous (2) heterostyly
(4) None of the above (3) protandry
36. A fruit developing from a complete inflorescence is called (4) protogyny
(1) composite fruit (2) aggregate fruit
(3) false fruit (4) amphisarca fruit
20 BIOLOGY

ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE 1 : NCERT BASED QUESTIONS 11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (1) 14. (4) 15. (1)
1. (1) 2. (2) 3. (2) 4. (2) 5. (1) 16. (1)
17. (1) Fungi are found everywhere. Due to lack of
6. (3) 7. (2) 8. (4) 9. (2) 10. (4)
chlorophyll pigments, they are unable to synthesize
11. (4) 12. (4) 13. (4) 14. (2) 15. (4)
their food molecules and must obtain from other
16. (4) 17. (1) 18. (3) 19. (4) 20. (2)
organisms, therefore, they are either saprophytes
21. (2) 22. (3) 23. (3) 24. (1) 25. (1) or parasites.
26. (2) 27. (4) 28. (1) 29. (2) 30. (2) 18. (2)
EXERCISE 2 : WINDOW TO COMPETITIVE EXAMS 19. (2) Plant body of fungi is simple. Their range
from unicellular, uninucleate forms like Yeast
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (3) 4. (3) 5. (2) and Syncytrium to thread-like structure called
6. (4) 7. (3) 8. (1) 9. (4) 10. (2) mycelium which is made up of a net like mass of
11. (1) 12. (2) 13. (4) 14. (1) 15. (2) tubular filaments called hyphae.
16. (3) 17. (3) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (4) 20. (2) 21. (3) 22. (2) 23. (2) 24. (2)
21. (4) 22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (4) 25. (2) 25. (3) 26. (3) 27. (1) 28. (4) 29. (4)
26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (1) 29. (1) 30. (2) 30. (2) 31. (3) 32. (2) 33. (3) 34. (1)
31. (1) 32. (3) 33. (3) 34. (4) 35. (2) 35. (3) 36. (1)
37. (2) When along with ovary some other parts participate
36. (3) 37. (3) 38. (4) 39. (2) 40. (1)
in the formation of fruit, such fruits are known as
41. (3) 42. (4) 43. (2) 44. (2) 45. (1)
false fruits. Examples: Apple, pear, strawberry etc.
46. (4) 47. (4) 48. (4) 49. (2) 50. (3)
38. (2) 39. (2)
51. (1) 52. (2) 53. (1) 54. (3) 55. (4) 40. (1) Tapetum is the innermost layer of anther wall and is
56. (3) 57. (2) 58. (3) 59. (4) 60. (4) characterized by either polyploid or multinucleate
61. (4) cells. It is a nutritive layer which degenerates at
maturity.
EXERCISE 3 : TEST YOURSELF
41. (3) When the anthers of a flower mature earlier than
1. (4) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (2) 5. (4) carpels, it is known as protandry, e.g., Jasminum,
6. (3) 7. (1) 8. (4) 9. (3) Foeniculum, Tagetus and Sunflower.
10. (1) Bulb is a highly reduced stem represented by a
small disc like structure upon which numerous
scale leaves are borne.
 Chapter 2
Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants
While going throu
While through
gh the chapter pay special attention to the following -
At a Glance
Terms & Definition :
 Flower
(1) Pedicel (2) Tetrasporangiate Tapetum (3) Microspore Mother Cell (MMC)
 Pre-fertilization : Structures &
(4) Translator apparatus (5) Pollinium (6) Pollen kit (7) Syncarpous (8) Apocarpous Events
(9) Filiform apparatus (10) Antipodal (11) Cleistogamy (12) Chasmogamy  Male Reproductive Units
(13) Geitonogamy • Stamen

Flow Chart : • Microsporangium

1. A brief working of female reproductive organ • Microsporogenesis

2. Pollination • Pollen grains

Tables :  Female Reproductive Unit

• Gynoecium (Pistil)
1. Some important flowers
• Megasporangium
2. Difference between self pollination & cross pollination
• Megasporogenesis
3. Difference between dicot and monocot embryo.
• Embryo sac
 Pollination
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves transformation of diploid sporophytic • Self Pollination
cells into haploid gametophytic cells by meiosis and subsequent fusion of haploid gametes • Cross Pollination
of opposite sex to form diploid zygote. The zygote then develops into an embryo which • Agents of Pollinations
ultimately forms a diploid plant body. In flowering plants, all these steps of sexual
• Pollen-Pistil Interaction
reproduction occur within specialized reproductive organs, called the flowers.
 Double Fertilization
 Sexual reproduction in plants includes microsporogenesis, megasporogenesis, pollination,
fertilization, embryogenesis and seed formation.  Post-fertilization Structure &
Events
 Endosperm
FLOWER
 Embryo
 Flowers are the most fascinating organs in plants found only in angiosperms i.e., plants in  Seed
which seeds are enclosed within fruit.
 Apomixis and Polyembryony
 Flowers and their parts are responsible for sexual reproduction in angiosperms and all
flower bearing plants reproduce sexually.
 The colour, fragrance, modification in shape of flower ensure its sexual reproduction.
 Fruits and seeds are the end products of sexual reproduction.
 Flowers are highly modified shoots, bearing nodes and modified floral leaves, which are
meant essentially for sexual reproduction in plant. The flower is commonly borne on
short or long stalk called the pedicel, it has upper swollen region known as receptacle or
thalamus or torus.
22 BIOLOGY

 Flowers, usually have four different kinds of floral members arranged in four whorls
(i.e., calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium). attached on the receptacle. Of these,
the two lower whorls (i.e., calyx and corolla) are sterile and considered as non-essential,
accessory or helping whorls. The two upper whorls (i.e., androecium and gynoecium) are
fertile and considered as essential or reproductive whorls.
(i) Calyx – It consists of number of green leafy sepals. It is the outermost whorl.
Calyx protects all the inner floral whorls in the bud condition and it synthesizes the
food of the plant body when green in colour.
(ii) Corolla – It consists of a number of usually bright coloured petals and is the second
whorl in the flower.
(iii) Androecium – This is the male whorl and consists of stamens and each stamen can
be regarded as modified leaf (microsporophyll) that consists of filament and anther.

om
The anther may contains two-four microsporangia that produce a large number of
pollen grains.

.c
Check Point (iv) Gynoecium or Pistil – It is present in the centre of the flower and is the female
reproductive whorl. Its unit is called carpel. Each carpel is made up of ‘3’ parts

ot
True or False
1. Carpel is unit of gynoecium. — ovary, style and stigma.

sp
2. Calyx is the innermost whorl. Ovary is the swollen basal part of the carpel that encloses ovules and each ovule
3. Calyx consists of number of green encloses embryo sac containing egg. Stigma is the receptive part of carpel whereas

og
leafy petals.
4. Stigma is the tubular structure which style is the tubular structure that joins stigma & ovary.
joins style & ovary. Thus, androecium & gynoecium are the two innermost whorl of flower in which

bl
5. Calyx and corolla are essential or sexual reproduction take place. Anther bears spores in sporangia and ovary contains
reproductive whorls.

y.
6. China rose and sunflower are orna-
ovules which bear embryo-sac with egg.

em
mental flowers
7. Anther produce pollen grains and Stigma
ovules possess egg
Style
ad

Stamen
Anther
ac

Filament
al

Petal
Ovary
ic

Ovules
ed

Thalamus
Sepal
tm

Pedicel
ee

Fig. 2.1 : L. S. of Flower

Table 2.1 : Some important flowers
//n

1. Ornamental
s:

Helianthus annus Sunflower

Lochnera rosea Periwinkle
tp

Nerium indicum Oleander

ht

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis China rose

Cherianthus Wall flower
Lilium Lily
2. Social and Cultural values
Michelia champaca Champa
Polyathia longifolia Ashok
Brassica campestris Mustard
Cassia fistula Amaltas
Acacia nilotica Babul
Oryza sativa Rice
Rauwolfia serpentina Sarpgandha
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 23

Functions of a flower
(i) Flowers are modifications of shoot to perform the function of sexual reproduction. The
fertile leaves become microsporophylls (stamen) and megasporophylls (carpels) which
bear anthers and ovules respectively. The anthers produce pollen grains and the ovules
possess eggs.
(ii) Flowers of most of the angiosperms are shaped variously to help diverse modes of
pollination.
(iii) Flowers provide seat for germination of pollen, development of pollen tube, formation of
gametes and fertilization.
(iv) The ovary part of the carpel gets transformed into fruit and the ovules are transformed into
seeds after fertilization.

om
(v) Some floral parts like calyx and various modifications in ovaries help in the dispersal of
fruits and seeds.

.c
PRE-FERTILIZATION : STRUCTURES AND EVENTS

ot
sp
 The process of fertilization starts much before the actual fertilization takes place. Formation
of flower and its component parts stamen and pistil are pre-requisite for fertilization.

og
 Pre-fertilization includes male reproductive unit, female reproductive unit and
pollination.

bl
Male Reproductive Unit

y.
Check Point

em
 Male reproductive unit includes / or studied under the following heads– True or False
• Stamen (structure of anther) 1. Carpel is unit of gynoecium.
• Microsporangium ad 2. Calyx is the innermost whorl.
3. Calyx consists of number of green
• Microsporogenesis leafy petals.
• Pollen grains
ac
4. Stigma is the tubular structure which
Stamen joins style & ovary.
al

5. Calyx and corolla are essential or

 Stamen is the male reproductive unit of angiosperms.
reproductive whorls.
 Stamen consists of anther, connective and filament.
ic

6. China rose and sunflower are orna-

 The long and slender stalk called as filament and the terminal structure is known as mental flowers
ed

anther. 7. Another produce pollen grains and

ovules possess egg
 Typically, angiospermic anther is bilobed which is connected by connective and dithecous
tm

i.e., each lobe has two theca. The bilobed structure of the anther is tetrasporangiate (four
sporangia). In transverse section, it appears as four sided tetragonal structure consisting of
ee

two microsporangia in each lobe.

 Microsporangia develops into pollen sac filled with pollen grains.
//n

 The number, form, and length of stamen varies from species to species.
s:
tp

Anther
ht

Pollen grains

Pollen
sacs Line of
dehiscence

Filament
(stalk)
(b)

(a)

Fig. 2.2 : (a) A typical stamen; (b) three–dimensional cut section of an anther.
24 BIOLOGY

Microsporangium
 A typical microsporangium usually appears circular in outline with sporogenous tissue at
the centre surrounded by four layers of different kinds of cells.
Connecting Concepts
Two types of Tapetum–amoeboid and
 Each microsporangium is surrounded by four layers that are as follows :
secretory. (i) Epidermis – It is the outermost single layered and protective in function.
In amoeboid or plasmodial tapetum, (ii) Endothecium – Inner to epidermis there is a single layer of radially elongated cells.
the inner and radial walls breakdown Cells possesses bands of callose and help in dehiscence of anthers at maturity.
at any early stage and these cells are (iii) Middle layers – Three to four layers of thin walled cells situated just below the
free in microsporangia. In secretory
or glandular tapetum, the tapetum
endothecium are known as middle layers. Cells are crushed or where persistent contain
remains as such throughout. starch and other reserve material to be consumed by the growing microspore mother
cells.
(iv) Tapetum – This is a single celled innermost layer surrounding the sporogenous tissue,
having dense cytoplasm and are multinucleated. Its main function is to provide nutrition

om
to the developing microspore mother cells (MMC) and pollen grains. Nutritional
functions like producing enzymes, IAA and food materials. In tapetal cells, nuclear

.c
division is not followed by cell division hence, binucleate or multinucleate condition

ot
is achieved.
Epidermis

sp
Endothecium
Middle layers

og
Tapetum
Microsporangium

bl
Connective tissue

y.
em
ad
Fig. 2.3 : T. S. of young anther
ac

Epidermis
Endothecium
al

Middle layers
ic
ed

Tapetum
Sporogenous
tm

cells
ee

Fig. 2.4 : A portion of enlarged microsporangium showing wall layers

//n

Epidermis
Endothecium
Middle layers
s:

Pollen grains
tp
ht

Dehisced anther wall

Fig. 2.5 : T. S. of a mature dehisced anther

Microsporogenesis
 Microsporogenesis is the process of formation of microspores or pollen grains.
 Each cell of sporogenous tissue serve as microspore mother cell (MMC). These MMCs
undergo meiosis and form microspore tetrad and become haploid.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 25
 As anthers mature microspores of the tetrad separate from each other and develops into Connecting Concepts
pollen grains. In Drosera, Typha, Elodea, Hydrilla,
 Each microspore is a unicellular haploid, oval or rounded structure. etc. all the four pollen grains do not
 Each microsporangium contains numerous pollen grains which are released after dehiscence separate and thus form compound
pollen grains. In the members of the
of anther wall. family Cyperaceae (Cyprus), out of 4
 Dehiscence of anther is of 4 types– pollen in a tetrad, 3 degenerate and
(i) Longitudinal dehiscence (e.g. Datura). one remains alive. So one meiosis
produces one pollen. Sometimes more
(ii) Transverse dehiscence (e.g. Ocimum).
than four pollens are produced from
(iii) Porous dehiscence (e.g. Solanum). one microspore mother cell. It is called
(iv) Valvular dehiscence (e.g. Beberis). as polyspory e.g., Cuscuta. In Calotropis
(Asclepiadaceae) and some orchids all
the pollen grains of an anther lobe form
a typical structure called pollinium.

om
Meiosis I Meiosis II Pollinium of each anther lobe protrudes
to one side and forms a rod like sterile

.c
structure called retinaculum or caudicle.
Retinaculae of both pollinia are attached

ot
to a dotted, dark-coloured gland called
corpusculum, which lies on the stigma.

sp
Microspore mother cell Microspore dyad Microspore tetrad
Corpusculum and stigma together are
Fig. 2.6 : Microsporogenesis
called translator apparatus.

og
Pollen grains Translator Stigma

bl
apparatus Corpusculum
 Within each “pollen sac” there are fine powdery granular mass of cells called pollen grains.
(adhesive, bilobed)
These are male reproductive bodies of a flower.

y.
Caudicle
 Generally these are spherical, measuring 20-25 micrometres in diameter.

em
(hygroscopic)
 Pollen grains consist of outer “exine” and inner “intine”. Term intine and exine were Pollinium
given by Fristsche (1837).
ad
 Exine is tough, cutinized layer often with spinous outgrowth but sometimes smooth. Exine Fig. : A pair of pollinia
ac

is composed of sporopollenin which is resistant to physical and biological decomposition.

It protect the pollens from environmental extremes. Germ pores or germ slits are the
al

apertures present on exine layer of the pollen grain. At these pores, sporopollenin is
absent.
ic

 Exine is differentiated into inner endexine and outer ektexine. Ektexine is formed of
ed

3 layers–(i) inner continous foot layers (ii) middle discontinuous baculate layer and
tm

(iii) outer discontinuous tectum. Check Point

 Tectum provides a characteristic sculpturing or designs over the surface of pollen grains. 1. Match the Following
ee

 Intine is thin, delicate, cutin and pectocellulosic layer lying internal to exine. Column I Column II
A. Stamen (i) Oily & sticky
 Pollen grains in pine are provided with two distinct wings.
//n

layer, help in
 When pollen grains germinate, intine grows out into a tube called pollen tube, through pollination
B. Microsporangium (ii) Secretes ubisch
s:

germ pore present on exine. bodies

Mature pollen grain contains two cells – a large, nucleated vegetative cell which is irregular C. Tapetum (iii) Male
tp


reproductive
in shape with abundant food reserve and a small spindle shape generative cell.
ht

unit
 In most of the angiospermic species, pollen grains are shed at two-celled stage while the D. Pollenkit (iv) Surrounded
others shed them at three-celled stage. by four layers.
2. Give example (2) in which pollinium
• Pollen grains of many species are the cause of severe allergies and respiratory problems, like is found.
- asthama and bronchitis. Parthenium or carrot grass is a well known pollen allergen. 3. State true or false.
(i) Intine is composed of
• Pollen grains are rich in nutrients therefore used as food supplements. Athletes and race sporopollenin.
horses use these as tablets to enhance performance. (ii) Cells of endothecium helps
in dehiscence of anthers at
• Viability period of pollen grains varies from species to species like in cereals (rice & maturity.
wheat) it is 30 minutes while in some plants they may be viable for months, e.g., Rosaceae, (iii) Ocimum shows transverse
dehiscence of anther.
Leguminoseae. (iv) Caudicle and stigma are
• Viability of pollen grains can be retained for longer duration by keeping them in liquid together form translator
mechanism.
nitrogen (–196°).
26 BIOLOGY

Conducting
strand

Stomium

Tube cell
Germ pore
Exine
Intine

om
Filament
Anther

t.c
Generative cell
Pollen grain
Stigma

o
sp
Pollen tube Style

og
Ovule

bl
y.
Ovary
em Male gametes
ad
ac
al

Pollen tube
Nuclei move
ic

down the
ed

tube
Tube nucleus
tm

Fig. 2.7 : Pollen development in flowering plants.

ee

Exine
Connecting Concepts
//n

Terms related to pollen grains Exine

 Palynology-Study of pollen grains or Germpores Intine
s:

microspores. Vegetative cell

tp

 Geopalynology-Study of fossil pollen

grains. Generative cell
ht

 Aeropalynology-Study of pollens
found in air or atmosphere.
 Iatropalynology-Study of pollens in
Fig. 2.8 : Pollen Grain
criminology and medical aspects.
 In insect pollinated flowers, the exine of the pollen grain is covered with a yellowish, viscous
 Melittopalynology-Study of pollen
grains in honey.
and sticky substance called pollenkit. This is perhaps the protective envelope which also
sticks to the body of the insects and thus helps in pollination. It is chiefly made up of lipids
and carotenoids. In monocots germ pores are absent and there is one germinal furrow. The
development of male gametophyte from pollen grain is called microgametogenesis.
 Function of pollenkit :
• It helps in insect attraction (entomophily).
• It helps in adhering with the body of insects and thus helps in the dispersal of pollen
grains.
• It prevents the pollen grains by UV radiation.
• It indirectly takes part in sporophytic incompatibility.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 27

Female Reproduction Unit

 Female reproductive unit includes / studied under the following heads-
• Gynoecium / Pistil
• Megasporangium / ovule
• Megasporogenesis
• Embryo sac
Gynoecium / Pistil
 Gynoecium or pistil is the female reproductive part and carpel is the unit of
gynoecium.

om
 Carpel is considered to be modified leaf bearing ovules or megasporophylls. The folded
carpel bears one or more ovules along the ventral suture .

t.c
 Gynoecium may be compressed of one or more carpel.
 When gynoecium consists of more than one carpel, it is called multicarpellary and when

o
gynoecium comprises of single carpel, it is called monocarpellary, e.g. pea, beans.

sp
 If there are more than one carpel and they are fused then called “syncarpous”
(e.g. mustard lemon and lily) or when carpels lie free from each other then called “apocarpous”

og
(e.g. rose).

bl
 Carpel is distinguished into three parts - stigma, style and ovary.
In pistil, stigma is a small rounded or lobed head which serves as a landing platform for

y.

the pollen grains. Style is slender stalk supporting the stigma and Ovary is the swollen
basal part, which contains one or more chambers called locules.
em
 Ovary contains one or more little rounded or oval eggs like bodies on its inner side called
ad
ovules (megasporangium).
 Ovules are borne on a ridge of tissue called placenta lying on the inner wall of the ovary.
ac

Arrangement of ovules on the placenta is called placentation.

al

 There may be one or more than one ovules in an ovary.

• Ovary with single ovules – Sunflower, mango, paddy and marigold.
ic

• Ovary with many ovules – Pea, water melon, mustard and water lily.
ed

Stigma Free
tm

Carpels
Style
ee

Stigma
//n
s:
tp

Syncarpous
ht

Ovary
Ovary
Thalamus
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.9 : Gynoecium

(a) A syncarpous pentacarpellary pistil of Hibiscus. (b) A syncarpous multicarpellary pistil
of Papaver.
Papaver (c) A syncarpous multicarpellary gynoecium of Michelia.

Megasporangium (Ovule)
 The integumented nucellus or megasporangium is called ovule.
 Each ovule is attached to the placenta by a slender stalk known as “funicle”
 Point of attachment of the body of the ovule with the funicle is known as “hilum”
 In anatropous ovule, funicle continues beyond the hilum along the body of ovule forming
a sort of ridge called – raphe.
28 BIOLOGY

 The body of the ovule consists of a parenchymatous cells called nucellus. Nucellus is
surrounded by one or two coverings termed as integuments.
 Small gap is left at the integuments at one end of the ovule which is called micropyle.
 Basal part of the ovule is called the chalaza.
 Large oval cell called “embryo sac” or “female gametophyte” is embedded in the nucellus
towards the micropylar end.
Chalaza

Raphe

om
Nucellus

t.c
Integuments
Antipodal

o
Cells

sp
Central Cell
Embryo Sac

og
Secondary
Nucleus

bl
Egg
Synergids

y.
(oosphere)
Vascular

em
Strand

ad Funiculus
Micropyle
ac
Fig. 2.10 : Structure of a typical ovule (anatropous ovule) prior to fertilization
al

Types of ovule in relation to integuments are -

• Unitegmic : Ovule with a single integument, e.g., synpetalous or gamopetalous
ic

dicotyledons.
ed

• Bitegmic : Ovule with two integuments as in polypetalous (Archichlamydeae)

tm

dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

• Aril : This is a collar-like outgrowth from the base of the ovule and forms third
ee

integument. Aril is found in litchi, nutmeg, etc.

• Caruncle : It is formed as an outgrowth of the outer integument in the micropylar
//n

region. Caruncle is common in the ovules of Euphorbiaceae. e.g.,, Castor ((Ricinus).

s:

• Ategmic : In some parasites like Loranthus, Viscum, Santalum etc., there is no

integument. Such an ovule is called ategmic.
tp

• Kinds of ovules : Depending upon the shape and orientation, the ovules of angiosperms
ht

are classified into following types :

• Orthotropous or Atropus : The micropyle, chalaza and funicle are in straight line.
This is most primitive type of ovules, e.g., Betel, Piper, Polygonum.
• Anatropous : The body of the ovule is completely inverted (turn at 180° angle) so that
micropyle and hilum come to lie very close to each other, e.g., 82% of angiosperm
families.
• Hemianatropous : Ovule turns at 90° angle upon the funicle or body of ovule is at
right angle to the funicle, e.g., Ranunculus.
• Campylotropous : Ovule is circled more or less at right angle to funicle. Micropylar
end is bent down slightly, e.g., in members of Leguminosae and Cruciferae,
Capsella.
• Amphitropous : Curvature of ovule is more and embryo sac becomes curved like
horse shoe, e.g. Lemna, Poppy, Alisma.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 29
• Circinotropous : The ovule is initially orthotropous but becomes anatropous due to
unilateral growth of funicle. The growth continues till the ovule once again becomes
orthotropous. As a result funicle completely surrounds the body of the ovule, e.g.,
Opuntia (prickly pear).
Micropyle
Chalaza
Integuments
Nucellus
Embryo sac
Integuments
Nucellus
Embryo sac

om
Chalaza Micropyle
(a)

t.c
Funiculus (b)
Funicle

o
Integuments

sp
Chalaza Nucellus Embryo sac Nucellus

og
bl
Micropyle

y.
Embryo sac
Micropyle
(c)
Funicle
(d)
emFunicle
ad
Integuments Funicle
Micropyle
Nucellus
ac

Embryo sac
al

Chalaza Embryo sac

ic

Micropyle Funicle Chalaza

ed

(e) (f)
tm

Fig. 2.11 : Different forms of the ovule in longitudinal section (a) Orthotropous, (b) Anatropous,
(c) Hemianatropous, (d) Campylotropous, (e) Amphitropous, (f) Circinotropous
ee

Megasporogenesis
//n

 The process of formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell (MMC) is known
as megasporogenesis.
s:

 Single MMC with dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus gets differentiated from
tp

nucellus near the micropylar region. This MMC undergoes meiosis to form ‘4’ haploid
ht

cells called megaspores.

Female gametophyte (Embryo sac)

 Out of the four haploid megaspores, either few of them degenerate or all take part in
embryo sac formation.
 Depending upon the number of megaspores taking part in formation of female gametophyte,
it is classified into following 3-types :
(i) Monosporic type – When only one megaspore undergoes division to form female
gametophyte while other three degenerates. All nuclei are genetically identical.
(ii) Bisporic type – When two nuclei take part in the development of female
gametophyte.
(iii) Tetrasporic type – When all the four nuclei take part in female gametophyte
development.
30 BIOLOGY

 Female gametophyte development in monosporic type :

Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis
Functional  → ' 2 '  → ' 4 '  → '8'
Megaspore Nuclei Nuclei Nucleate
Embryo sac
These mitotic divisions are not accompanied by immediate wall formation i.e., it is free-
nuclear type. After the formation of ‘8’-nuclei, walls are laid down, thus forming female
gametophyte or embryo sac.
 A mature embryo sac consists of egg apparatus, central cell and antipodals.
(i) Egg apparatus
• It consists of two synergids and one egg cell lying at the micropylar end.
• Synergids bear prominent structure called ‘filiform’ apparatus which are finger like
projections. This apparatus is present in upper part of each synergid.
• Synergids guide the path of pollen tube towards the egg, help in obtaining nourishment
from the outer nucellar cells and also function as shock absorbers during the penetration
of pollen tube into the embryo sac.
• Cytoplasm of egg is inactive, rich in ribosomes, and contains plastids. During
fertilization first male gamete fuses with the egg nucleus this process is called syngamy
or true fertilization which results in diploid structure called the zygote.
(ii) Central cell : Two polar nuclei form the central cell. It is associated with the egg apparatus
and antipodals through the plasmodesmatal connections.
Before fertilization, nuclei of central cell become fused and form a diploid nucleus called
secondary nucleus. Secondary nucleus takes part in the process of triple fusion, which leads
the formation of a primary endosperm mother cell. It divides by mitotic divisions and
forms a nutritive structure called endosperm, which provides nutrition to the developing
embryo.
(iii) Antipodals : Three cells present at the chalazal end constitute antipodals. Their protoplasm
contains a rich amount of starch, protein, lipids, ascorbic acids, oxidases.
It limits the chalazal expression and transfer nutrients and growth hormones to developing
embryo sac or to developing embryo.
Thus, a typical mature embryo sac of angiosperm is 7-celled, 8 nucleate structure i.e.,
3 antipodal cells, 3-egg apparatus cells and one central cell (2 polar nuclei).
Primary Integument
Archesporial Cell Primary Parietal
Cell
Ovule Parietal
Primordium Cell
Haploid Egg Apparatus
(A) Primary (B) Megaspores
Parietal (C)
Cell

Polar Secondary
Degenerating Polar Nuclei
Nucleus
Megaspores Nucleus

(D)
Functional (E)
Megaspore (F) (G) (H) (I)
Antipodal
Cells
Fig. 2.12: Development of embryo sac
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 31

Antipodals Check Point

Fill in the blanks
1. _________ is the unit of gynoecium.
Central cell 2. __________ consists of 3 parts –
Stigma, _______and________ .
Polar nuclei 3. Mango, paddy have ovary with
________ ovules.
Embryo sac

}
Egg cell 4. ________ is the point of attachment
Egg apparatus of the body of the ovule with the
Synergids funicle.
5. In _________ ovule, micropyle,
chalaza and funicle are in straight
Filiform line.
apparatus 6. Ranunculus have ________ ovule in
which ovules turns at 90° angle upon
the funicle or body of ovule is at right
Fig.2.13 : Normal or Polygonum type of embryo sac
angle to the funicle.
7. ________ bears prominent structure
Flow Chart 2.1 : A brief working of female reproductive organs. called __________ apparatus which
are finger like projections.
Gynoecium / Pistil 8. __________ limits the chalazal
(Female reproductive organ & consists of one or many carpels) expression and transfers nutrients
and growth hormones to developing
embryo.

Carpels
(Unit of gynoecium)
consists of

Stigma Style Ovary

Pollen receptive Pollen tube Contains one
organ receptive part or more

Ovules

contains

Embryo sac
(Female gametophyte)

In the middle of embryo Towards the chalazal pole

sac contains of embryo sac
consists of
Egg apparatus
Secondary Antipodals
consists of nucleus Provide nutrition
Consists two polar to the embryo
nuclei (in most cases) sac
each comes from a pole,
meet into the centre of
Egg Synergids the pollen sac and forms
Acquires middle Occupy lateral position a diploid secondary
position in most egg of egg cell. nucleus. It fuses with the
apparatus second male gamete
during triple fusion &
forms a triploid primary
Female gamete endospore mother cell
or (PEMC)
Egg nucleus
32 BIOLOGY

Pollination
 The process of transfer of pollen grains, from an anther to the stigma of the same flower
or of different flower is called pollination. This process of pollination occurs only in
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
 Pollination is facilitated by various factors like wind, water, insects, birds and animals.
 Pollination in angiosperms generally takes place in 2-celled stage (rarely 3 celled stage)
of microspores or pollens i.e. vegetative cell and generative cell.
 Pollination that occurs in closed flowers is called cleistagamy and the flowers are called
cleistogamous flower.
 In cleistogamy flowers do not expose their reproductive parts. Anthers and stigma lie
close to each other. Pure autogamy occurs since there is no chance of cross-pollination.
Cleistogamy is the most efficient floral adaptation for promoting self-pollination. E.g.,
Viola mirabilis and Oxalis autosella.
 If the pollination occurs in opened flower, which expose their sex organ, it is called
chasmogamy and the flowers are called chasmogamous flower.

Chasmogamous
flower

Cleistogamous
flower

Fig.2.14 : Cleistogamous flowers

 In chasmogamy, pure autogamy is not possible because pollen from other flower can also
lend on stigma.Majority of angiosperms have chasmogamous flowers, e.g. Catharanthus,
Mirabilis.

Types of Pollination
 Pollination is of two types - self pollination and cross pollination.
Self pollination
 It involves the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same or genetically similar
flower. It occurs always in crops with bisexual flowers, e.g. wheat, barley etc.
 Self pollination is a rule in cleistogamous flower.
 It is of two types — autogamy and geitonogamy.
 Autogamy is a kind of pollination in which the pollen from the anthers of a flower are
transferred to the stigma of the same flower.
 Geitonogamy is a kind of pollination in which the pollen from the anthers of one flower
are transferred to the stigma of another flower borne on the same plant. It usually occurs
in plants which show monoecious condition (unisexual, male and female flowers are borne
on the same plant). Geitonogamy involves two flowers but these belong to the same parent
plant.
 Merits : Pollen grains are not wasted and the purity of the generation is maintained.
 Demerits : New and healthier varieties are not formed. It results in weaker progeny,
producing weaker seeds and plants.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 33

Cross pollination
 Cross pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower of one plant to the
stigma of the flower of another plant. It is also called xenogamy.
 It is performed with the help of external agency.
Insect
Stigma Anthers
Cross
Pollination
(Xenogamy)
Self Stigma
Pollination Flower
(Autogamy)
Self
Pollination
(Geitonogamy)

(B)
(A)
Fig. 2.15 : Self and Cross-pollination
 Dichogamy, dicliny, herkogamy, heterostyly and self sterility are the main reasons or
adaptations for cross pollination in bisexual flowers.
(i) Dichogamy – Maturation of male and female sex organs occurs at different times in
a bisexual flowers, e.g., Cruciferae family.
(ii) Herkogamy – Male or female sex organs themselves prove as a barrier to prevent
self pollination, e.g., Cyprepedium, Orchids.
(iii) Dicliny or Unisexuality – Effectively prevents self-pollination. Presence of unisexual
flowers in plants that prevents self pollination, e.g., Castor, Maize and Papaya.
(iv) Heterostyly – Presence of styles of different heights in flower of many plants to
prevent self-pollination, e.g., Primula vulgaris, Oxalis.
(v) Self sterility (self-incompatibility) – Plants in which pollen from same flower is
incapable of bringing about fertilization, due to the presence of similar self sterile
gene, e.g., Tobacco, Potato.
 Advantages of cross pollination are-
• It increases the adaptability of offsprings.
• It induces genetic recombination and hence variation in progeny.
• Plants produced are more disease resistants.
• New and more useful varieties are produced.
 Disadvantages of cross pollination are-
• It is highly wasteful method because the plants are able to produce a number of devices
for helping the pollen grains to use external agencies for transport.
• This method is dependent on external agents.
• Very good characters of the race get diluted.
• Some undesirable characters can enter a race.
 In nature cross pollination is a better method of pollination because-
• it avoids recessive lethal or harmful genes to become homozygous.
• it produces healthier plants due to phenomenon of hybrid vigour.
34 BIOLOGY

• it keeps the variability and hence adaptability of the race interact so that an adverse
environment does not destroy the species.
Table 2.2 : Difference between self pollination and cross pollination
Self Pollination Cross Pollination
1. It is the process of deposition of pollen It is the process of the deposition of
Check Point grains from anther of a flower to the pollen grains from anther of a flower to
1. In _______, pollination occurs by stigma of the same or genetically the stigma of a different flower of another
lever or turn pipe mechanism. similar (another flower) of the same plant.
2. Autogamy and geitonogamy are two
plant.
type of ________ pollination.
3. In clerstogamy, flower donot expose 2. Externally pollinating agency is not External pollinating agency is required
their reproductive organs/ parts. required. like wind, water, bird etc.
(True or false)
4. Self pollination is a rule of chasmog- 3. It results in the production of pure line It results in the production of zygotes
amous flower. (true or false) homozygous offsprings. with higher degree of heterozygosity.
5. Mention any two reasons or ad-
aptations for cross pollinations in 4. It is achievable only in those plants It is possible in all unisexual plants which
bisexual flowers. which produces bisexual flowers or are dioecious. It may also occur in plants
6. Give two examples each of self & have monoeious conditions which produces bisexual flowers.
cross pollination.
5. Examples-Wheat, rice, pea, tomato Examples- Maize, bajra, cabbage,
citrus etc. cauliflower, apple, banana, papaya etc.

Agents of Pollinations

om
 Cross pollination involves external agents for the transfer of pollen grains of one flower
to the stigma of another flower.

.c
 There are two main groups of agents : (i) Abiotic agents like wind and water (ii) Biotic

ot
agents which include animals of different types such as insects, birds, bats, snails, etc.

sp
Abotic agents
(i) Anemophily

og
 In anemophily pollen grains reach the stigma through winds.
 Lots of pollen grains are formed as
compared to the number of ovules available
bl
y.
for pollination.
m

 Pollen are small, light, smooth and dry.

de

 Female reproductive organ i.e., stigma is

large and feathery for trapping the wind-
ca

borne pollen grains.

a

 Wind pollinated flowers have few ovules

al

or even one ovule in the ovary, because the

chances of pollination is rare. Anemophilous
ic

flowers are small and inconspicuous with

ed

long and versatile stamens. e.g., Sugarcane,

Maize, Wheat, Bamboo, Pinus, Papaya,
tm

Grasses, Typha, Datepalm, Coconut,

Mulberry, Chenopodium etc. This type of
ee

pollination mainly observed in Graminae. A

//n

tassel of maize gives rise to 20-25 million

pollen grains.
s:

Fig. 2.16: A wind-pollinated plant showing compact

tp

inflorescence and well-exposed stamens

ht

(ii) Hydrophily
 Pollination by water is called hydrophily and it is rare in nature.
 Floral envelop of these plants are highly reduced or absent. Thus, exposing stamen and
stigma.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 35
 Pollination can occur within water, e.g., Zostera, Ceratophyllum or on the surface of water,
e.g., Vallisneria.
In Vallisneria (ribbon weed), female flower reaches on the surface of water and assumes
horizontal position due to elongation of its stalk, male flowers or pollen grains are released
on to the surface of water. They are carried passively by water currents & some of which
eventually reach to the stigma.
 Both wind & water pollinated flower do not need to attract insect or birds thus, they are
not very colourful and do not produce nectar.
 Pollen grains of most of the water pollinated species are coated by mucilage that protects
them from wetting.
 Water is an important medium for fertilization in algae, bryophytes & pteridophytes.

Female
flower

Stigma

Female
Male flower
flower

Fig. 2.17 : Pollination by water in Vallisneria

Biotic agents
(i) Entomophily Connecting Concepts
 Salvia is excellent example of insect
 Pollination by insects like bees, wasps, butterflies and flies etc is called entomophily. pollination in which pollination occurs
 Bees are responsible for over 80% of all pollination done by insects. by lever or turn pipe mechanism. Other
examples of insect plants are Yucca
 Plants pollinated by insects are colourful with fragrance and have abundant nectar which (by Tageticula moth), Orchid Ophrys
attracts insects. speculum (by Colpa aurea a hairy wasp)
Ficus by Blastophaga), etc. Yucca is
 Apart from search for nectar insects also visit flower to lay eggs. e.g., Amorphophallus – pollinated by Pronuba (= Tegaticula)
moth deposit its eggs within the ovary of this flower and the flower in turn gets pollinated yuccasella which passes its larval stage
by young moth. inside the ripening ovary. The flower
of orchid Ophrys resemble in shape
 There are some insects which consume pollen from male organs and nectar from female colour and odour to female wasp of
flower without facilitating pollination. Such insects are called as pollen or nectar Colpa aurea (mimicry). The male wasps
robbers. pollinate the flowers mistaking them as
female (pseudocopulation)
(ii) Ornithophily
 Pollination by birds is called ornithophily. The most common bird pollinators are sunbird,
humming bird, crow, bulbul, parrot, mynah etc.
 Flowers are colourful and rich in nectar. Flowers are brightly coloured & produce plenty
of nectar and large quantities of pollen. Humming bird pollinates while hovering over the
flowers & sucking nectar. The birds can derive about half of its body weight of nectar in
a single day. The nectar is chiefly made of sugars provides a sweet drink to the bird.
 E.g., C
Calcistemon (Bottle brush), Erythrina (Coral tree).

alcistemon
Other documents randomly have
different content
The sun-round passed on. Then a cloud obscured the light, a fine
and fleecy cloud that would be gone shortly.
All tarried in silence, breathless, fearing they knew not what—but
expecting no good.
Then the sun burst forth again, and the circle of fire appeared
beyond the line.
At once Rogier stood up.
"You men of Caio, you have thought to deal with a fool, and to
deceive me by your craft. But I know what has been done, and will
make you to understand on whom ye have practised your devices.
Pabo, the chief and Archpriest, is not dead. It was not he who was
consumed in the presbytery. Ye played a stage mystery before our
eyes to make us believe that he was dead, and that you were
burying him. Pabo is alive and is among you, and you know where
he is concealed."
The interpreter was interrupted by outcries of, "We know not. If that
were not he, we cannot say where he be. We found a man burned
to a cinder. Were we in error in supposing him to be our chief? Show
us that it was so!"
Rogier remained unmoved by the clamor.
"Ye are like a parcel of lying, quibbling women," he said. "Pabo is in
hiding. Ye are all leagued together to save him. But have him from
his lurking-den I will."
"We cannot say where he is. There is not one of us who knows."
"You will admit that he whom ye pretended to be Pabo was some
other?"
They looked doubtfully at each other.
"We could not tell. The dead man was found in the ruins of the
burnt house. We thought it was Pabo."
"Ye did not. Ye contrived the device between you."
"We will swear that we know not where he is. Bring forth the staff of
Cynwyl."
"The staff has been stolen. But I will not trust your oaths. Did not
the wife of Pabo swear thereon?" Then Rogier laughed. "She was
crafty as the rest of you, and deceived us in her oath. Nay, I will
trust no oaths. I will place my reliance on something more secure.
Hey! bring forward my bassinet!"
At his order, one of the attendants went to the door and received a
steel cap from a soldier without.
"In this bassinet," said Rogier, "there are short willow twigs. There
are more twigs than there are householders and notables here
assembled. Of these twigs all but six are blank; but on half a dozen
a death's head has been scored with a dagger point, rubbed in with
black. He who draws such a figured twig shall be hung on the
gallows, where is suspended your church bell—one to-day, a second
to-morrow. On Sunday, being a sacred day, none; on Monday a
third, on Tuesday a fourth, on Wednesday a fifth, on Thursday the
sixth. And on Friday ye shall all assemble here once more, and again
draw the lots. I shall hang one of you every day till Pabo be
delivered up to me, alive."
Then there broke forth cries, protests, entreaties; there were hands
stretched towards the window through which the sun entered, in
oath that the whereabouts of Pabo was not known; there were arms
extended to Rogier in assurance that Pabo was actually dead. Some
cried out that they had had no cognizance of any plot to deceive.
Many folded their arms in sullen wrath or despair.
Then Rogier lifted his sword and commanded silence. "No word
spoken," said he, "will move me from my purpose. One thing can
alone rob the gallows of its rich burden—the delivery of your late
chief, Pabo."
"We cannot do it. We know not where he is."
"Then let justice take its course. This I will suffer. When each has
drawn his lot from the cap, he shall bring it in his closed fist to me,
and open it where I stand in the ray of sunlight. If he have an
unmarked stick, he shall go forth by the door unmolested. But he
who shall have the death's head in his hand shall tarry here. And
when all six are selected, then will I suffer each in turn to be
conducted to his home, there to bid farewell to his family, and so to
dispose of his worldly affairs as pleaseth him. I will allow each one
hour to effect this; then he will return hither. The first man who
draws the bad lot shall be strung to the gallows to-day. If ye be wise
men, he will be the only one who will go to make a chime of bells. If
Pabo be delivered to me before noon to-morrow, then no second
man shall hang. If he be given up on Monday before mid-day no
third man shall swing. But—if you remain obstinate, I will go on
hanging ye to the last man. Come, in your order, as ye sit; draw to
the bassinet and take out your lot. I lay the steel cap on what ye call
the seat of your chief."
Then the old man advanced, he who had protested against the
occupation of the chair, and said—"I am ready to die, whether in my
bed or on the gibbet matters little to me. God grant that I be the
man taken. My time at best is but short. Another year to me matters
not a hair."
He walked to the bassinet, without hesitation drew his lot, carried it
to the Norman—who stood in the sun-ray—and unclosed his
withered hand. In it was an unmarked stick.
"Pass forth," said Rogier.
"Nay," said the old man. "My son comes after me—let him draw."
A tall, well-built man walked boldly to the cap, drew, and
approached the sunbeam.
"Open!" ordered Rogier.
He held a marked stick.
"On one side—food for the crows," said the Norman.
Then the old man fell on his knees. "I beseech you take me and
spare him. He has a young wife and a child. He has life before him,
mine is all behind."
"Away," ordered Rogier. "The lot decides—the judgment is with
heaven, not with me."
"Father," said the young man, "I am willing to die for my chief."
Then followed several who went free, and escaped into the open air,
where they drew long breaths, as though their lungs had been
cramped within.
The next who drew the death's head was a mean little man with
pointed, foxy face and red hair. He fell into convulsions of terror,
clung to Rogier, implored for life, promised to betray whatever he
knew—only, unhappily, he did not know where Pabo was concealed,
but undertook, if pardoned, to find out. The bishop's brother
spurned him from him with disgust. Then came three with blanks
and were sent outside.
The third taken was Howel.
"One can but die once," said he, and shrugged his shoulders. "My
old woman will have to look out for a second husband. May he be
better than the first."
He stepped aside without the exhibition of much feeling, but avoided
the whimpering wretch who had drawn the death's head before him.
"Hah!" said Iorwerth the Smith, as he opened his palm and disclosed
the marked twig, "I thought something would fall to me for striking
that blow which disabled the captain's arm. Would to heaven I had
aimed better and broken his skull! He did not know me, or I should
have been hung before this." Singularly enough, the very next to
draw was also one who drew an unlucky stick, and this was Morgan
the Sacristan.
"Since the Sanctuary of David has been invaded, and the wild beast
of the field tramples on the vineyard, I care not; and now the secret
of where is hid the rod of Cynwyl will perish with me."
Next came a whole batch who drew blanks, and gladly escaped with
their necks.
The last to draw the death's head looked steadily at it, and said:
"She is always right. I thought so; now I'm sure of it. My wife said to
me, 'Do not go to the meeting?' I said, 'Why not?' Like a woman,
she couldn't give a reason; but repeated, 'Do not go.' I have come,
and now shall swing with the rest. It's a rough way of learning a
lesson. And having learnt it—can no more practise it."
 CHAPTER XV
TWO PEBBLES
Tidings of the blow to be struck, reaching the hearts of many
families—six only at first, but with prospect of more afterwards—had
spread through the tribal region. Those who had drawn the
unmarked sticks hurried to their homes, not tarrying to learn who
were all the unfortunates; and, although relieved for the present
were in fear lest they should be unfortunate at a subsequent
drawing.
All knew that Pabo was in concealment, and that his place of
concealment was known to none, not even to his wife or to Howel.
They had not a clue as to where he was. Some supposed that he
had fled to the mountains of Brecknock, others to Cardigan; some,
again, that he had attached himself to Griffith ap Rhys, who was
traversing South Wales, stirring up disaffection and preparing for a
general rising of the Welsh against their oppressors.
Yet hardly half a dozen men desired that he should be taken, and
thus free themselves from death. The great and heroic virtue of the
Celt lies in his devotion to his chief, for whom he is ready at once to
lay down his life.
The hideous prospect that lay before the unfortunate people of Caio
was one of illimited decimation. Would Rogier weary of his
barbarous work? Would it avail to send a deputation to the bishop?
It was doubtful whether the latter was not as hard of heart as his lay
brother.
Gwen, the wife of Howel, was as one stunned. She leaned with both
hands against the wall of her house, her head drooping between
them, with dry, glazed eyes, and for long speechless.
Morwen was now in Howel's house. She had returned to it.
She was pale, and quivering with emotion under the weight of great
horror, unable to speak.
Her eyes were fixed on the despairing woman, from whose lips
issued a low moan, and whose bosom heaved with long-drawn,
laborious breaths. Morwen was well aware what sacrifices the tribe
was making and would have to make for her husband's safety, and
this gave inexpressible pain to her.
The moans of the poor woman cut her to the heart. At length,
unable to endure it longer, she went to her, put her arms round her,
and drew her to herself. Then, all at once, with a cry, the wife of
Howel shook herself free, and found words—
"Monday! It is on Monday that he must die, and that is our thirtieth
wedding-day? For all these years we have been together, as one
soul, and it will tear the heart out of my body—and to be hung on
the gallows—the shame, the loss—and Howel so clever, so shrewd!
Where has been his wit that he could not get free? He always had a
cunning above other men. And on our wedding-day!" She ran to a
coffer and opened it, and drew forth a knitted garment, such as we
should nowadays call a jersey.
"See, see!" cried the wretched woman. "I have been fashioning this;
a thought of him is knitted into every loop I have made, and I have
kissed it—kissed it a thousand times because it was for him. He feels
the cold in the long winters, and I made this for him that he might
be warm, and wherever he was remember me, and bear my kisses
and my finger-work about him. And he must die, and shiver, and be
cold in the grave! Nay, shiver and be cold hanging on the gallows,
and the cold winds sway him. He shall wear my knitted garment.
They will let me pass to him, and I will draw it over him."
Then in at the door came the old man, who had been left when his
son was taken. He was supporting that son's wife, and at the same
time was carrying her child, which she was incapable of sustaining.
She was frantic with grief.
"I have brought one sorrowful woman to another," said the old man.
"This is Sheena. She must not see it. They are taking my son now to
——. Keep her here, she is mad. She will run there, and if she sees,
she will die. For the child's sake, pity her, make her live—calm her."
She had been allowed an hour with her husband in their house, and
then the soldiers had led him away, bound his hands behind his
back, and had conducted him towards the church.
She had followed with the child, crying, plucking at her hair with the
one free hand, thrusting from her the old man who would hold her
back, striving to reach, to retain her husband, her eyes blinded with
terror and tears, her limbs giving way under her.
The five men confined within the court-house heard her piercing
cries, her entreaties to be allowed once more to kiss her husband,
her screams as she was repulsed by the guards. They shuddered
and put their hands to their ears; but one, the foxfaced man, whose
name was Madoc, burst into a torrent of curses and of blasphemy till
Morgan the Sacristan went to him in reproof, and then the wretched
man turned on him with imprecations.
"Come now, man," said the smith, "why shouldst thou take on so
frantically? We leave wives that we love and that love us; but thy old
cat, good faith! I should esteem it a welcome release to be freed
from her tongue and nails."
On nearing the gallows, where stood Rogier, that captain ordered
the removal of Sheena; and when she saw a ladder set up against
the crosspiece that sustained the bell, her cries ceased, she reeled,
and would have let the child drop had not her father-in-law caught it
from her.
"One kiss—one last kiss! I have forgot something to say—let him
bless his child!" she entreated.
Rogier hesitated and consented, on the condition that she should
then be at once removed. Thereupon the desolate woman staggered
to the foot of the gallows, threw her arms round her husband's
neck; and the man who acted as executioner relaxed the rope that
bound his wrists, that he might bring his hands before him and lay
them on his infant's head. Then the death-doomed man raised his
eyes to heaven and said, "The benediction and the strength of God
and the help of our fathers David and Cynwyl be with thee, my son,
and when thou art a man revenge thy father and thy wronged
country."
At once the cord was drawn again, and his hands rebound. The old
man took his daughter-in-law in one arm whilst bearing the babe in
the other, and seeing that consciousness was deserting Sheena,
hurried her to the house of Howel. There, after a moment of dazed
looking about her, she sank senseless on the floor.
Morwen flew to her assistance, and Howel's wife somewhat rallied
from her stupefaction.
At that same moment in burst Angarad, the wife of foxfaced Madoc.
"Where is she?" she shouted, her eyes glaring, her hair bristling with
rage. "She is here—she—the wife of our chief. Are we all to be
dragged to the gallows because of him? Is every woman to become
a widow? He call himself a priest! Why, his Master gave His life for
His sheep, and he—ours—fleeth and hideth his head, whilst those
whom he should guard are being torn by the wolves."
"Silence, woman!" exclaimed the old man wrathfully. "I joy that my
son has given up his life to save his chief."
"But I am not content to surrender my Madoc," yelled the beldame.
"Let us have the hated Saxon or the worst Norman to rule over us,
rather than one who skulks and dares not show his face. My Madoc
will be hung to-morrow, as they have hung Sheena's man now. I
have seen it. They pulled him up."
"Be silent," shouted the old man, and tried to shut her mouth.
"I will not be silent. I saw it all. They drew him up, and then a man
sprang from the ladder upon his shoulders and stamped."
A cry of agony from the wife of Howel, who flung out her hands, as
before, against the wall, and stayed herself there. Sheena heard
nothing—she was but returning to consciousness.
"Why do you not bring him back?" asked the hag, facing Morwen
with fists clenched, fangs exposed, and eyes glaring. "Why do you
keep him hidden, that we all may be widows—and you be happy
with your man? What shall I do without my Madoc? Who will support
me? Am I young enough to maintain myself? Is the whole tribe to
be dragged down, that you and your husband may live at ease and
be merry?"
"Woman," said Morwen, trembling, "I do not know where he is
concealed."
"Then find him, and let him come forward to save us all. Shame, I
say, shame on him!—the false shepherd—the hireling—who fleeth
and careth not for the sheep!"
The rattle of arms was heard, and at the sound Morwen slipped out
of the room into the inner apartment that she might not be seen.
Immediately two men-at-arms entered, leading Howel between
them.
"He is granted one hour," said the man who could speak a few words
of Welsh. "On Monday he dies."
"Clear the room!" said the old man; and to the soldier: "Remove this
frantic woman." He indicated Angarad; and he himself, with their
assistance, drew her—swearing, struggling, spluttering with rage—
from the house. Sheena remained where she had been laid—as yet
barely conscious. Howel's wife dropped into her husband's arms,
moaning, still powerless to weep.
In the inner chamber, dimly lighted by a small window covered with
bladder in place of glass, on a bed sat Morwen, with her hands
clasped between her knees, looking despairingly before her. Every
word of the cruel woman had cut her heart as the stab of an
envenomed poignard.
Did Pabo know what was being done at Caio? No—assuredly not.
She who had read his thoughts and knew his heart was well aware
that he would readily die himself rather than that any of his people
should suffer. He knew nothing. They, with a rare exception only,
would meet their fate, the men give their necks to the halter, the
women submit to be made widows rather than that their master and
chief should fall into the hands of his enemies. Brave, true, faithful
hearts! But was it right that they should be called on to endure such
sacrifices? She shuddered. What, would she have him taken and die
an ignominious death? Him whom she loved better than any one—
with a one, soul-filling love? Could she endure such a sacrifice as
that? Then she heard the step of Howel coming to the door.
He entered and was with her alone.
"Morwen," said he, in a low voice, "I shall be able shortly to do no
more for my dear chief. Should you ever see him again, tell him from
us all—all but perhaps one who is beside himself with fear—that we
die willingly. But with him I can no more communicate. That must be
done by you. It is expedient that he should fly farther; search will be
made everywhere for him. Where he is, that I know not, though I
may have my suspicion. Do this—at nightfall mount the valley of the
Annell till you come to the stone of Cynwyl."
"The stone of Cynwyl," repeated Morwen mechanically.
"Take a pebble out of the brook and place it upon the rock. That will
be a sign that he is not safe, and must fly to other quarters."
"What other tokens be there?"
"Two pebbles was to be the sign that all was safe and he was to
return. That is not the case at this present time. Remember, then—
One pebble."
"And two calls him hither?"
"Two pebbles. But remember, One only."
"Two pebbles," said Morwen, but so that none heard it: it was said
to her own heart.
 CHAPTER XVI
A SUMMONS
The days spent on the mountain had not been as cheerless as that
first night. The fire burned now continually on the hearth, the light
peat smoke was dissipated at once by the wind, which was never
still at the fall of the year at the altitude where was planted the
hovel of the hermit.
The supply of food was better than at first. One night Pabo had
found a she-goat attached to a bush near the stone of Cynwyl; and
he had taken her to his habitation, where she supplied him with
milk. On another night he had found on a rock a rolled-up blanket,
and had experienced the comfort at night of this additional covering.
But no tidings whatever had reached him of what went on in Caio.
This was satisfactory, and his anxiety for his flock abated. But he
knew that the enemy was quartered in the valley, because no call
had come to him to return to it. At nights he would steal along the
mountain-top that he might, from Bronffin, look down on the
sleeping valley, with its scattered farms and hamlets; and on Sunday
morning he even ventured within hearing of the church bell, that he
might in spirit unite with his flock in prayer. He concluded that one of
the assistant priests from a chapelry under the great Church was
ministering there in his stead. He knew that his people would be
thinking of him, as he was of them.
During the day he made long excursions to the north, among the
wild wastes that stretched interminably away before his eyes, and
offered him a region where he might lie hid should his present
hiding-place be discovered.
None could approach the hut unobserved, a long stretch of moor
was commanded by it, and the rocks in the rear afforded means,
should he observe an enemy approach, of getting away beyond their
reach into the intricacies of the wilderness.
At first Pabo was oppressed by the sense of loneliness. No human
face was seen, no human voice heard. But this passed, and he
became conscious of a calm coming over his troubled heart, and
with it a sense of freedom from care and childlike happiness.
The elevation at which he lived, the elasticity of the air, the brilliance
of the light, unobstructed, as below, by mountains, tended towards
this. Moreover, he was alone with Nature, that has an inspiriting
effect on the heart, whilst at the same time tranquilizing the nerves
—tranquilizing all the cares and worries bred of life among men. It
was a delight to Pabo to wander through the heather to some brow
that overhung the Ystrad Towy or the valley of the Cothi, and look
down from his treeless altitude on the rolling masses of wood, now
undergoing glorious change of color under the touch of autumn. Or
else to venture into the higher, unoccupied mountain glens, where
the rowan and the rose-bramble were scarlet with their berries, and
there he seemed to be moving in the land of coral.
It was a delight to observe the last flowers of the year, the few stray
harebells that still hung and swayed in the air, the little ivy-leafed
campanula by the water, the sturdy red robin, the gorse persistent in
bloom. He gathered a few blossoms to adorn his wretched hovel,
and in it they were as a smile.
The birds were passing overhead, migrating south, yet the ring-ouzel
was still there; the eagle and hawk spired aloft on their lookout for
prey; the plover and curlew piped mournfully, and the owl hooted.
The insects were retiring underground for the winter. Pabo had not
hitherto noticed the phases of life around him, below that of man,
now it broke on him as a wonder, and filled him with interest, to see
a world on which hitherto he had not thought to direct his
observation. There is no season in the year in which the lights are
more varied and more beautiful than in autumn, the slant rays
painting the rocks vermilion, glorifying the dying foliage, enhancing
the color of every surviving flower.
But the fall of the year is one in which Nature weeps and sighs over
the prospect of death; and there came on Pabo days of blinding fog
and streaming rain. Then he was condemned to remain within,
occasionally looking forth into the whirls of drifting vapor, charged
with a strange dank scent, or at the lines of descending water. He
milked his goat, collected food for it, and heaped up his fire.
Then it was that sad thoughts came over him, forebodings of ill; and
he mused by his hearth, looking into the glow, listening to the moan
of the wind or the drizzle of the rain, and the eternal drip, drip from
the eaves.
He had thus sat for hours one day, interrupting his meditations only
by an occasional pace to the door to look out for a break in the
weather, when there came upon him with a shock of surprise the
recollection that there was more in the hermit's scroll than he had
considered at first. Not much. He unfurled it, and beside the bequest
of the hut, only these words were added: "For a commission look
below my bed."
What was the meaning of this? It was strange that till now Pabo had
given no thought to these concluding words.
Now he thrust the fire together, cast on some dry bunches of gorse
that lit the interior with a golden light, and he drew the bed from the
place it had occupied in the corner of the chamber.
Beneath it was nothing but the beaten earth that had never been
disturbed.
The bed itself was but a plank resting on two short rollers, to sustain
it six inches above the soil. Nothing had been concealed beneath the
plank, between it and the ground—no box, no roll of parchment.
Nothing even was written in the dust.
Pabo took a flaming branch and examined the place minutely, but in
vain.
Then he threw off the blanket and skins that covered the pallet. He
shook them, and naught dropped out. He took the pillow and
explored it. The contents were but moss; yet he picked the moss to
small pieces, searching for the commission and finding none. Then
he drew away the logs on which the plank had rested. They might
be hollow and contain something. Also in vain. Thoroughly perplexed
to know what could have been the hermit's meaning, Pabo now
replaced the rollers in their former position and raised the plank to
lean it upon them once more.
At this something caught his eye—some scratches on the lower
surface of the board. He at once turned it over, and to his
amazement saw that this under side of the pallet was scored over
with lines and with words, drawn on the wood with a heated skewer,
so that they were burnt in.
The fire had sunk to a glow—he threw on more gorse. As it blazed
he saw that the lines were continuous and had some meaning,
though winding about. Apparently a plan had been sketched on the
board. Beneath were these words, burnt in—

Thesaurus, a Romanis antiquis absconditus in antro Ogofau.

Then followed in Welsh some verses—

In the hour of Cambria's need,

When thou seest Dyfed bleed,
Raise the prize and break her chains;
Use it not for selfish gains.

The lines that twisted, then ran straight, then bent were, apparently,
a plan.
Pabo studied it. At one point, whence the line started, he read,
"Ingressio"; then a long stroke, and Perge; further a turn, and here
was written vertitur in sinistram. There was a fork there, in fact the
line forked in several places, and the plan seemed to be intricate.
Then a black spot was burnt deeply into the wood, and here was
written: Cave, puteum profundum. And just beyond this several dots
with the burning skewer, and the inscription, Auri moles prægrandis.
Pabo was hardly able at first to realize the revelation made. He knew
the Ogofau well. It was hard by Pumpsaint—a height, hardly a
mountain, that had been scooped out like a volcanic crater by the
Romans during their occupation of Britain. From the crater thus
formed, they had driven adits into the bowels of the mountain.
Thence it was reported they had extracted much gold. But the mine
had been unworked since their time. The Welsh had not sufficient
energy or genius in mining to carry on the search after the most
precious of ores. And superstition had invested the deserted works
with terrors. Thither it was said that the Five Saints, the sons of
Cynyr of the family of Cunedda, had retired in a thunder-storm for
shelter. They had penetrated into the mine and had lost their way,
and taking a stone for a bolster, had laid their heads on it and fallen
asleep. And there they would remain in peaceful slumber till the
return of King Arthur, or till a truly apostolic prelate should occupy
the throne of St. David. An inquisitive woman, named Gwen, led by
the devil, sought to spy on the saintly brothers in their long sleep,
but was punished by also losing her way in the passages of the
mine; and there she also remained in an undying condition, but was
suffered to emerge in storm and rain, when her vaporous form—so it
was reported—might be seen sailing about the old gold-mine, and
her sobs and moans were borne far off on the wind.
In consequence, few dared in broad daylight to visit the Ogofau,
none ever ventured to penetrate the still open mouth of the mine.
Pabo was not devoid of superstition, yet not abjectly credulous. If
what he now saw was the result of research by the hermit, then it
was clear that where one man had gone another might also go, and
with the assistance of the plan discover the hidden treasure which
the Romans had stored, but never removed.
And yet, as Pabo gazed at the plan and writing, he asked, was it not
more likely that the old hermit had been a prey to hallucinations,
and that there was no substance behind this parade of a secret?
Was it not probable that in the thirty years' dreaming in this solitude
his fancies had become to him realities; that musing in the long
winter nights on the woes of his country he had come on the
thought, what an assistance it would be to it had the Romans not
extricated all the ore from the rich veins of the Ogofau. Then, going
a little further, had imagined that in their hasty withdrawal from
Britain, they might not have removed all the gold found. Advancing
mentally, he might have supposed that the store still remaining
underground might be recovered, and then the entire fabric of plan,
with its directions, would have been the final stage in this fantastic
progress.
How could the recluse have penetrated the passages of the mine?
It was true enough that the Ogofau were accessible from Mallaen
without going near any habitation of man. It was conceivable that by
night the old man had prosecuted his researches, which had finally
been crowned with success.
Pabo felt a strong desire to consult Howel. He started up, and after
having replaced the plank and covered it with the bedding, left the
hut and made his way down into the valley of the Annell, to the
Stone of Cynwyl.
Notwithstanding the drizzle and the gathering night, he pushed on
down the steep declivity, and on reaching the brawling stream
passed out of the envelope of vapor.
The night was not pitch dark, there was a moon above the clouds,
and a wan, gray haze pervaded the valley.
As he reached the great erratic block he saw what at first he thought
was a dark bush, or perhaps a black sheep against it.
All at once, at the sound of his step on the rocks, the figure moved,
rose, and he saw before him a woman with extended arms.
"Pabo!" she said in thrilling tones. "Here they are—the two pebbles!"
"Morwen!"
He sprang towards her, with a rush of blood from his heart.
She made no movement to meet his embrace.
"Oh, Pabo! hear all first, and then decide if I am to lose you forever."
In tremulous tones, but with a firm heart, she narrated to him all
that had taken place. This was now Sunday. Two men had been
hung. On the morrow Howel would be suspended beside them.
These executions would continue till the place of retreat of the
Archpriest was revealed, and he had been taken.
She did not repeat to him the words of Angarad, Madoc's wife—now
widow.
"Pabo!" she said, and tears were oozing between every word she
uttered, "It is I—I who bring you this tidings! I—I who offer you
these two pebbles! I—I who send you to your death!"
"Aye, my Morwen," he said, and clasped her to his heart, "it is
because you love me that you do this. It is right. I return to Caio
with you."
 CHAPTER XVII
BETRAYED
A congregation exceptionally large under existing circumstances
assembled on Sunday morning before the church of Caio. Fear lest
the Normans and English quartered in the place should find fresh
occasion against the unhappy people, were they to absent
themselves as on previous Sundays, led a good many to swallow
their dislike of the man forced upon them as pastor, and to put in an
appearance in the house of God.
They stood about, waiting for the bell to sound, and looked
shrinkingly at the hideous spectacle of the two men suspended by
the bell, and at the vacant spaces soon to be occupied by others. At
the foot of the gallows sat Sheena moaning, and swaying herself to
her musical and rhythmic keening.
Around the Court or Council-House stood guards. All those standing
about knew that within it were Howel and three others, destined to
execution during the week.
They spoke to each other in low tones, and looks of discouragement
clouded every face. What could these inhabitants of a lone green
basin in the heart of the mountains do to rid themselves of their
oppressors and lighten their miserable condition? Griffith ap Rhys,
the Prince, had appeared among them for a moment, flashed on
their sight, and had then disappeared. Of him they had heard no
more.
Some went into the church, prayed there awhile, and came out
again. The new Archpriest had not put in an appearance.
It was then whispered that he had left Caio during the week, and
was not returned.
Sarcastic comments passed: such was the pastor thrust on them
who neglected his duties.
But Cadell was not to blame.
He had left Llawhaden, and had made a diversion to Careg Cennen
by the bishop's orders. The road had been bad and his horse had
fallen lame, so that he had been unable to reach his charge on
Saturday afternoon. To travel by night in such troubled times was
out of the question, and he did not reach Caio till the evening closed
in on the Sunday.
It was not, however, too dark for him to see that the frame
supporting the bell presented an unusual appearance. He walked
towards it, and then observed a woman leaning against one of the
beams of support.
"Who are you? What has been done here?" he asked.
"There is my man—I am Sheena. They have hung him, and I am
afraid of the night ravens. They will come and pluck out his eyes. I
went to see my babe, and when I returned there was one perched
on his shoulder. I drove it away with stones. There will be a moon,
and I shall see them when they come."
"Who are you?"
"I am Sheena—that is my man."
"Go home; this is no place for you."
"I have no home. I had a home, but the Norman chief drove us out,
me and my man, that he might have it for himself; and we have
been in a cowshed since—but I will not go there. I want no home.
What is a home to me without him?"
"Who has done this? Why has this been done?" asked Cadell.
"Oh, they, the Saxons, have done it because we will not give up our
priest, our chief. And my man was proud to die for him. So are the
rest—all but Madoc."
"The rest—what do you mean?"
"They will hang them all, down to the last man, for none will betray
the chief. They will go singing to the gallows. There was but Madoc,
and him the devils will carry away; I have seen one, little and black,
slinking around. I will sit here and drive devils away, lest coming for
Madoc they take my man in mistake."
Cadell was shocked and incensed.
He hasted at once to the house in which Rogier was quartered. He
knew that he had turned out the owners that he might have it to
himself.
Rogier and two men were within. They had on the table horns and a
jug of mead, and had been drinking.
Said one man to his fellow, "The Captain shall give me Sheena,
when she has done whimpering over her Welshman."
"Nay," quoth the other, "she is a morsel for my mouth, that has been
watering for her. He cannot refuse her to me."
"You, Luke! You have not served him so long as have I."
"That may be, but I have served him better."
"Prove me that."
"I can interpret for him, I know sufficient Welsh for that."
"Bah! I would not dirty my mouth with that gibberish."
"You have not the tongue wherewith to woo her."
"But I have a hand wherewith to grip her."
"The captain shall decide between us."
"Be it so. Now, captain, which of us is to comfort Sheena in her
widowhood?"
"It is all cursed perversity of Luke to fancy this woman. Before long
there will be a score of other widows for him to pick among. There is
even now that wild cat, Angarad."
"I thank you. Let the captain judge."
Then said Rogier. "Ye be both good and useful men. And in such a
matter as this, let Fortune decide between ye. There is a draught-
board; settle it between you by the chance of a game."
"It is well. We will."
The men seated themselves at the board. The draught-men
employed were knucklebones of sheep, some blackened.
While thus engaged, Cadell came in.
"Rogier!" he exclaimed, "what is the meaning of this? There be men
hung to my belfry."
"Aye! And ere long there shall be such a peal of bells there as will
sound throughout Wales, and this shall be their chime: 'Pabo, priest,
come again!' By the Conqueror's paunch, I will make it ring in every
ear, so that he who knows where he is hidden will come and declare
it."
"Consider! You make the place intolerable for me to perform my duty
in."
"Thy duty! That sits light on thy shoulders, I wot. Here have the
poor sheep been waiting for their shepherd all the morn, and he was
away."
"I have been with the bishop."
"I care not. I shall find Pabo ere long."
"But his fatherliness holds that Pabo the Archpriest was burnt."
"And we know that he was not."
"If there be found one calling himself Pabo—and he is in no mighty
desire that such should be discovered—then let him be esteemed an
impostor—a false Pabo."
"How so?"
The chaplain looked at the men and did not answer.
"But none has as yet been discovered," said Rogier.
"Do not press to find one—not in this manner."
"I shall not desist till he is given up. I have said so, and will be as
good as my word."
As he spoke, a face looked in at the door, then, after an inspection, a
body followed, and Goronwy approached stealthily.
He stood before Cadell with his eyes twinkling with malevolence, and
his sharp white face twitching with excitement, nodding his head, he
said—
"He is here—he, Pabo, and she also whom the great Baron, the
bishop's brother, desires; they are both here. Know well that it is I
who have told you this, and it is I who claim the reward."
"The reward!"
"Aye, the Archpriesthood, which thou wilt resign for a rich benefice.
Let me tell thee—here thou canst not live. They will hate thee, they
will not receive the Sacraments from thy hand, they will baptize their
children themselves rather than commit them to thee. The word of
God, coming from thy lips, will have lost all savor. They will die and
be buried on the mountains under cairns, as in the old pagan times,
rather than have thee bless their graves. No—this is no place for
thee. What the captain has done has driven barbed iron into their
souls; they will have none of thee. But I am of the stock of Cunedda
—me they will welcome, and I will be the bishop's henchman."
"Pabo here!" exclaimed Cadell, and looked round at Rogier, who had
understood nothing that had passed in this brief colloquy, as it had
been spoken in Welsh. The man who did understand the tongue was
too deeply engrossed in his game to hearken.
"Aye, aye, Pabo is here—he and Morwen. I have just seen them;
they came together down the glen, and are in the house of Howel
ap John. Be speedy and have them secured, or they may again
escape. Pabo is for you—and for him," he pointed to the Norman
captain, "for him the comely Morwen, whom he has been looking for.
Say, didst thou obtain for me the promise from the bishop?"
"What says this misshapen imp?" asked Rogier.
Then the young man sidled up to him, and, plucking at his sleeve
and pointing through the door, said: "Là—Pabo! Morwen, là!"
"By the soul of the Conqueror," exclaimed the Norman, "if that be so,
Pabo shall be strung up at the door of his church at daybreak!"
Turning to his men, with his hand he brushed the knucklebones off
the board. "Ye shall conclude the game later—we have higher sport
in view now."
The men started to their feet with oaths, angry at the interruption,
especially he who considered that he had won an advantage over his
fellow.
"I would have cornered him in three moves!" he shouted.
"Nay, not thou; I should have taken thy men in leaps!"
"Another time," said Rogier. "The man we seek has run into our
hands." Then to the boy: "Where is he hiding?"
Goronwy understood the question by the action of his hands, and
replied in the few words he had picked up of French, "Là—maison,
Howel."
"He shall be swung at once," said Rogier; "and then the first object
on which the eyes of all will rest when they come out of their houses
with the morrow's sun will be this Archpriest they have been hiding
from me."
"Nay," said Cadell, "that may not be. I have orders to the contrary
under the hand and seal of the bishop." He unfolded the
instructions.
Rogier cursed. "Well," said he, "Pabo to me matters but little—so
long as I lay my hand on Morwen."
 CHAPTER XVIII
CAREG CENNEN
Before dawn Pabo was on his way, bound to Careg Cennen, riding
between four soldiers. He had been taken in the house of Howel. It
had been his intention to deliver himself up early on the morrow;
but he was forestalled.
He regretted this, for more reasons than one. He had been unable to
make final arrangements for the protection of Morwen, and he had
been unable to communicate with Howel as he desired, relative to
the secret of the treasure in the Roman gold-mines.
The owls were hooting and night-jars screaming as the cavalcade
proceeded along the Sarn Helen towards the broad valley of the
Towy by that of its tributary the Dulais. As they reached the main
river, the dawn was lightening behind the Brecknock Mountains, and
the water sliding down toward the sea shone cold as steel.
With daylight men were met upon the road, and occasionally a
woman; the latter invariably, the former for the most part fled at the
sight of the armed men. But some, less timorous remained, and
recognizing the Archpriest, saluted him with respect and with
exclamations of lamentation at seeing him in the hands of the
common enemy. At Llandeilo the river was crossed, and Pabo was
conveyed up a steep ascent into the tributary valley of the Cennen.
But this stream makes a great loop, and the troopers thrust their
horses over the spur of hill about which the torrent sweeps.
Presently the castle came in view, very new and white, constructed
of limestone, on a crag of the same substance, that rises
precipitously for five hundred feet sheer out the ravine and the
brawling stream that laves the foot of the crag.
After a slight dip the track led up a bold stony rise to the castle gate.
The situation is of incomparable wildness and majesty. Beyond the
ravine towers up the Mynydd Ddu, the Black Mountain, clothed in
short heather, to cairn-topped ridges, two thousand feet above the
sea, the flanks seamed with descending threads of water; while
further south over its shoulder are seen purple hills in the distance.
A solitary sycamore here and there alone stands against the wind on
the ridge about which the Cennen whispers far below.
The bishop had already arrived at the castle. He had followed up his
emissary pretty quickly, anxious that his own view of the case should
be maintained in the event of the capture of Pabo.
He and Gerald of Windsor were on excellent terms. Between them
they were to divide the land, so much to the crook and so much to
the sword; and whom the latter did not consume were to be
delivered over to feel the weight of the crozier. In the subjugation of
Wales, in the breaking of the spirit of the people, church and castle
must combine and play each other's game.
The staff of the bishop has a crook above and a spike below, to
signify the double power that resides in his hands, that of drawing
and that of goading. The time for the exercise of the curved head
might come in the future, that for the driving of the sharp end was
the present, thought Bernard.
No sooner did he learn of the arrival of Pabo than he bade that he
should be brought into his presence, in the room given to him by his
host on whom he had intruded himself—a room facing south,
overhanging the precipice.
The weather was mild, and the sun shone in at the window. There
was no fire.
"So!" said the prelate, fixing his gray dark-rimmed irises on the
prisoner, "you are he who give yourself out to be the Archpriest of
Caio?"
"I am he," answered Pabo.
The bishop assured himself that the strongly built upright man
before him was bound and could not hurt him; and he said to the
attendants, "Go forth outside the door and leave this dissembler with
me. Yet remain within call, and one bid Gerald, the Master, come to
me speedily."
The men withdrew.
"I wonder," said Bernard, and his words hissed through the gap in
his teeth, "I wonder now at thy audacity. If indeed I held thee to be
Pabo, the late Archpriest of Caio, who smote me, his bishop, on the
mouth and drew my blood, there would be no other course for me
but to deliver thee over to the secular arm, and for such an act of
treason against thy superior in God—the stake would be thy due."
"I am he, Lord Bishop, who struck thee on the mouth. The insult
was intolerable. The old law provided—an eye for an eye, and a
tooth for a tooth. If thou goest by the law of Moses deal with me as
seems right. What the Gospel law is, maybe thou art too recent in
Holy Orders and too new to the study of the Sacred Scriptures to be
aware."
"Thou art insolent. But as I do not for a moment take thee to be the
deceased Pabo——"
"Lord Bishop, none doubt that I am he."
Bernard looked at him from head to foot.
"Methinks a taller man by three fingers' breadth, and leaner in face
certainly, as also browner in complexion, and with cheek-bones
standing out more forcibly."
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