EXTERNAL FORCED

CONVECTION
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Fluid flow over solid bodies frequently occurs in practice such as
the drag force acting on the automobiles, power lines, trees, and
underwater pipelines; the lift developed by airplane wings;
upward draft of rain, snow, hail, and dust particles in high winds;
and the cooling of metal or plastic sheets, steam and hot water
pipes, and extruded wires.

Free-stream velocity: The velocity of the fluid relative to an

immersed solid body sufficiently far from the body (outside the
boundary layer).

It is usually taken to be equal to the upstream velocity V,

(approach velocity) which is the velocity of the approaching fluid
far ahead of the body.

The fluid velocity ranges from zero at the surface (the no-slip
condition) to the free-stream value away from the surface.

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 Drag: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction.
The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the
normal direction to flow tend to move the body in that direction,
and their sum is called lift.

Both the skin friction (wall shear) and pressure contribute to the
drag and the lift.

(a) Drag force acting on a flat plate parallel to the

flow depends on wall shear only.
(b) Drag force acting on a flat plate normal to the
flow depends on the pressure only and is
independent of the wall shear, which acts
normal to the free-stream flow. DR. SENA CİMİLLİ DURU-TEK 466E HEAT TRANSFER 6
The drag force FD depends on 1
✓ the density of the fluid,
✓ the upstream velocity V,
✓ the size, shape, and orientation of the body.
The drag characteristics of a body is represented by the
dimensionless drag coefficient CD defined as:
A: frontal area for blunt bodies—bodies that tend to block the flow.
The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress τw is called the skin friction drag (or just
friction drag) since it is caused by frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure P
is called the pressure drag.

For parallel flow over a flat plate,

the pressure drag is zero, and thus
the drag coefficient is equal to the
friction coefficient and the drag
force is equal to the friction force.

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At low Reynolds numbers, most drag is due to friction drag.

The friction drag is also proportional to the surface area.

The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to the difference between the pressures
acting on the front and back of the immersed body.
The pressure drag is usually dominant for blunt bodies, negligible for streamlined bodies.

1
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When a fluid separates from a body, it forms a separated region between the body and the
fluid stream.
Separated region: The low-pressure region behind the body
where recirculating and backflows ocur.
✓ The larger the separated region, the larger the pressure drag.

Wake: The region of flow trailing the body where the effects of
the body on velocity are felt.

Viscous and rotational effects are the most significant in the

boundary layer, the separated region, and the wake.

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Heat Transfer

The fluid properties are then assumed to remain

constant at those values during the entire flow.

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PARALLEL FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES

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PARALLEL FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface
roughness, upstream velocity, surface temperature, and the type of fluid, among other
things, and is best characterized by the Reynolds number.
The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat
plate:

The value of the Reynolds number varies for a flat plate along the flow.
**The actual value of the engineering critical Reynolds number for a
flat plate may vary somewhat from 105 to 3x106, depending on the
surface roughness, the turbulence level, and the variation of
pressure along the surface.
Generally accepted value for the critical Reynold number:

Laminar and turbulent regions of the

boundary layer during flow over a
flat plate DR. SENA CİMİLLİ DURU-TEK 466E HEAT TRANSFER 14
 Friction Coefficient

The boundary layer thickness and the local friction

coefficient at location x

The average friction coefficient over the entire plate

Combined laminar + Turbulant flow

The average friction
coefficient over the entire
plate
ε: surface roughness

For laminar flow, the friction coefficient depends on only the Reynolds number, and the surface roughness has no effect. For turbulent
flow, however, surface roughness causes the friction coefficient to increase severalfold, to the point that in fully turbulent regime the
friction coefficient is a function of surface roughness alone, and independent of the Reynolds number 15
Heat Transfer Coefficient
The local Nusselt number at a location x for laminar flow over a flat plate:

*hx is proportional to Rex0.5 and thus to x-0.5 for laminar flow. Therefore, hx is
infinite at the leading edge (x=0) and decreases by a factor of x-0.5 .

*These relations are for isothermal and smooth surfaces.

✓ The local friction and heat transfer coefficients are higher in

turbulent flow than they are in laminar flow.

**hx reaches its highest values when the flow becomes fully turbulent, The variation of the local friction and
heat transfer coefficients for flow over
and then decreases by a factor of x-0.2 in the flow direction.
a flat plate.

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 The average Nusselt number over the entire plate

Laminar

Turbulent

Laminar+ Turbulent

For liquid metals

the dimensionless Peclet number

For all liquids, all Prandtl numbers

Graphical representation of the
average heat transfer coefficient for
a flat plate with combined laminar
and turbulent flow
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 Uniform Heat Flux
For a flat plate subjected to uniform heat flux instead of uniform temperature, the local Nusselt
number:

These relations give values that are 36 percent higher for laminar flow and 4 percent higher for turbulent
flow relative to the isothermal plate case.
When heat flux qs is prescribed, the rate of heat transfer to or from the plate and the surface temperature
at a distance x are determined from

As is the heat transfer surface area

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 TEK 466E-HEAT TRANSFER
EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES

WEEK
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Heat Transfer Coefficient

Flows across cylinders and spheres, in general, involve flow separation, which is
difficult to handle analytically. Therefore, such flows must be studied
experimentally or numerically.

Flow across cylinders and spheres has been studied experimentally by numerous
investigators, and several empirical correlations have been developed for the
heat transfer coefficient.

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 Churchill and Bernstein

Although the two relations are

considered to be quite accurate, the
Whitaker results obtained from them can be
off by as much as 30%.

The relations for cylinders above are for single cylinders or cylinders oriented such that the flow
over them is not affected by the presence of others. Also, they are applicable to smooth surfaces.

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