CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING CE 212

Defects in Construction
Common defects in construction are

I. - DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

II. - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTIN III. - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK

IV. - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

•19/04/2025 5:51 am •Department of Civil Engineering •1

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I - DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

Defects in Construction Common defects occurring in brick work are

1. Sulphate attack on mortars

2. Unsound materials
3. Frost action
4. Corrosion of iron and steel
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 5. Crystallization of salts
Muhammad Usman Arshid 6. Linear changes

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  Sulphate attack is characterized
 It leads to expansion of mortar causing cracking of
by an initial horizontal cracking
brickwork, spalling of brick edges, deterioration of
of the mortar joint.
mortar, wide horizontal and vertical cracks in the plaster
 As it progresses it causes and falling of the plastered surface.
expansion and destruction of
the mortar leading ultimately to  Remedy
structural failure.
 It may be prevented by preventing moisture penetration.
 It is caused by an excess of
sulphates in the brick or other  Bricks of low sulphate content and the sulphate resisting
sources reacting with the cement should be used.
cement in the mortar .

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 Sulfate attack actually affects mortar and not brickwork. It

is however rare, but can be expensive to cure.

 Sulfate attack occurs when a chemical reaction happens

between sulfate in solution and an ingredient of Portland
cement. This causes the mortar to expand and crumble.

 The chemical reaction happens when excessive amounts

of water are in contact with the brickwork and mortar. The
sulfates are found in the naturally occurring soluble salts
of bricks. Re-pointing is recommended

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  Unsound materials cause the  Defects due to frost action would cause cracking in
formation of small pits at the brickwork.
mortar joints.
 Frost attack/damage is a common problem that usually
 Unsoundness in lime is caused occurs in older bricks, and those that were under-burnt
by the presence of un-slaked during the firing process.
particles of lime, present in the
mortar.  In newer construction, failure through frost attack tends
to be confined to areas of severe exposure, or where the
 Un-slaked lime particles may frost resistance of the brick was incorrectly specified.
be present in the bricks also.

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  The ability of brick to resist frost attack is determined by their
pore structure (in particular the percentage of fine pores in the
brick). Frost attack occurs through a combination of excessively
wet brickwork and freezing temperatures.

 When water turns to ice, there is a 9% increase in its volume. This

expansion can produce stress within the brick, which causes
spalling, with the brick face flaking off and/or crumbling.

 Mortar is also subject to frost attack. In a deteriorating state both

elements more readily absorb water which in turn increases the
rate of frost damage.

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3. Frost Action (Brick Categories)

Brick categories
 The destructive effect of frost is due to the 9%
For clay bricks there are three categories for frost resistance:
increase in volume that occurs when water at 0 C is
converted into ice at this temperature. Frost resistant (Class F2)
 When bricks and mortar are saturated and frozen, Moderately frost resistant (Class F1)
expansion within the pore spaces may set up stresses Not frost resistant (Class F0)
that cannot be withstood.
Bricks in the bottom category should not be used externally
unless protected adequately from moisture,
 It is not necessarily the coldest or wettest winters that while Class F1 bricks should not be used in saturated
lead to frost failure, but rather recurring freeze/thaw conditions or where they are subject to repeated freezing and
cycles of saturated brickwork. thawing. The water absorption of a brick is given as a
percentage as follows:

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 3. Frost Action (Brick Categories)

 Remedy  Failure of wall ties has become a significant

problem in recent years.
Prevention of water accumulation  The main cause of failures is rusting of metal ties,
would prevent this defect.
 Athough there can be other causes, such as

a. failure to properly bed the tie in the mortar joint,

b. poor quality mortar reducing the bond between
tie and mortar,

c. or not installing the requisite number of ties.

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 The obvious danger with rusting wall ties is the

Brickwork may get cracked due to corrosion of possible collapse of the outer leaf of the cavity
metals lying adjacent to it. wall. Other consequences of rusting wall ties
are:
Unprotected iron and steel are liable to get
corroded in moisture and they increase in  The rust will have a significantly greater volume
bulk, thereby causing cracks in masonry. than the original metal.

Protecting the metal surface with cement  This expansion of the tie may cause cracking
mortar up to a layer of 1 to 2 cm. thick is and distortion of the structure, particularly
essential to prevent corrosion. where strip ties have been used.

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 The rust-induced expansion in strip ties can lead  In moist climate, in damp places, like basements or
to secondary damage, such as under leaky gutters, masonry often gets disfigured by
the formation of a white deposit called efflorescence.

a. Redistribution of loads,  This deposit originates from the mortar and frequently
spreads over a part or entire face of the wall.
b. Buckling and bulging of wall,
 Absorbed water dissolves the salts of sodium,
c. and damage to the roof as the external leaf potassium and magnesium contained in the mortar and
while evaporating, forms a crystalline deposit on the
increases in height. surface.

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  Efflorescence is caused by a number of soluble salts including the
sulphate or carbonate compounds of calcium, sodium, potassium
and magnesium. The salts may originate in the bricks or they may
be introduced through the mixing water, cement or sand used for
the mortar mix, or even from the ground on which the bricks were
stacked and stored.

 As the salts are water soluble they are often removed by rainfall,
although they can usually be brushed off using a stiff brush if their
appearance is causing concern.

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 Efflorescence is a common sight in new

brickwork. It is caused by soluble salts in
solution being brought to the surface as water in
the wall dries out.
 It is usually a harmless, temporary problem,
often occurring in spring following a wet winter.

 The main concern is the unsightly appearance

caused by the white staining that it produces.
 Persistent efflorescence may indicate a design or
construction fault that allows the brickwork to
become, and to remain, saturated.
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 5. Crystallization of Salts (or efflorescence)

Brickwork may crack due to the shrinkage movements

arising from changes in moisture content. This defect is
more common with concrete and lime mortars.

Remedy

 Good quality bricks should be used in dry condition.

 All the work should be protected from rain.

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Remedy

a. Avoiding porous bricks in contact with limestone.

b. Protection of brickwork against contamination of salt-

bearing materials during building operations.

c. Bricks thoroughly soaked during construction

d. Correct design of D.P.C.

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 II - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES
(TYPES OF DAMPNESS)

a) Rising Damp

b) Condensation

c) Penetrating Damp

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2 - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES II - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

(RISING DAMP) (RISING DAMP)
 Is rising damp common in old buildings?  Rising damp is the upward movement of moisture
 Rising damp is commoner in old buildings than new ones but through walls and sometimes floors by capillary action
rarer than often supposed. Modern buildings keep water out from below the ground.
with a system of barriers:
 It can rise to 900mm or more in walls, depending on the
 Damp-proof courses (DPCs) have been required in walls since
1875 and damp-proof membranes (DPMs) in floors from the
masonry type, water-table level and evaporation rate.
1960’s. Most old buildings lack these and therefore damp
rises to some degree.
 Salt deposits generally form a horizontal tide-mark,
below which there is discoloration. Floors can display
 This is usually not a problem where the construction can moist patches and staining.
‘breathe’, allowing evaporation, and may actually be
advantageous in humidifying overly-dry centrally-heated  Rising damp is distinct from other forms of dampness,
buildings. Excessive dampness arises where the moisture such as rain penetration and condensation, which
equilibrium is disturbed, as with misguided attempts to seal 34 require different solutions. 36
surfaces.

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 2 - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES
(CONDENSATION)
 Condensation damp on walls

 Condensation is by far the most common form of

damp on walls. Generally, condensation damp on
walls is most evident when the condensation
festers and begins to develop black mould.

 Generally noticed on outside walls where the wall

is colder, however, it can be quite random and will
certainly appear more often within the winter
months.

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A wall affected by rising damp

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II - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

(CONDENSATION)
 It is not always the case whereby the cause of damp originates
from the outside. One of the most common causes of damp within
homes is due to condensation.
 Condensation occurs when large quantities of water vapour from
general everyday living becomes trapped within a property. When
the warm moist damp air comes into contact with cooler air, or a
surface which is at a lower temperature, the result is
condensation, this can prove ideal for the germination of the
commonly associated black mould.

 The key to solving condensation however is ventilation. By

simply improving the air ventilation within a property, you will
generally have an impact on the amount of condensation and
mould issues that you are having within a property.

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Mould growth caused by condensation

in dead air pocket behind books

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 II - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES
PENETRATING DAMP ON WALLS
 Penetrating damp (or moisture ingress as it is often known
by) is a damp issue that can affect all main walls at all
levels of a property.
 It can quickly saturate a wall and penetrate through to the
inner walls. You can generally tell if you have a penetrating
damp issue on your walls by examining the outside of the
property to look for
 defective water management systems such as broken
guttering or pipes. Defective pointing and plumbing can
also be a common reason for penetrating damp appearing
on walls.
 Internally, evidence of penetrating damp on walls can
include damp patches the never seem to dry out, damaged
plaster, water marks on masonry and damp musty smells. 41 43

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II.- DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

PENETRATING DAMP ON WALLS
 Penetrating Damp is also known as “rain
penetration” and can occur through walls, roofs,
window or door surrounds. Defects in roof tiles,
cracked pointing, blocked weep holes or defective
seals allow water to penetrate and enter the
property.

 It is usually caused by water moving through

walls from the outside of the building.

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 II- DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES SYMPTOMS OF PENETRATING DAMP
PENETRATING DAMP ON WALLS 47

 Penetrating Damp often shows up as damp  The most common visual symptom of rain penetration is damp
patches on walls, cellings and floors which may patches on internal walls – often causing paint to flake or wallpaper
to peel. However damp masonry caused by penetrating damp can
darken when it rains, or whatever the cause of also result in a wide range of other symptoms including:
the damp is increased.
 Reduced thermal resistance of damp masonry – causing heat loss
 It is more likely to get penetrating damp if you and condensation
live in an older building with solid walls as  Moss and mould growth

opposed to newer builds with cavity walls which  Frost damage

offer some protection.  Rotting of embedded timbers

 Disfiguring carbonate deposits

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 II - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES
Traditional Measures for Preventing Penetrating Damp (Remedial Measures/ Prevention
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 A wide range of traditional  Before applying any remedial measure there should be free
measures are available to deal escape for any water that has already entered in the wall.
with the problem of rain
penetration through walls. These  Cement paints, bitumen paints, tar paints, emulsions, and
include: oils can be used to prevent dampness.

 Internal treatment consist of removing the old plaster,

 Cladding applying a slurry coat of neat cement with a water proofing
 External renders compound and then cement with a dense mortar, of 1: 2
 Weatherproof paints and coatings with water proofer added.
 Tile or slate hanging
 Timber boardings The following methods are also used for preventing
dampness in walls:

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9.2 - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES (Prevention)

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9.2 - DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES (Prevention)

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 If dampness is confined to one position near ground floor

level above the D.P.C., it may be due to a hole or crack in
D.P.C. through which moisture can pass into the wall.

 Dampness below ground level may be due to lack of sub-

soil drainage, absence of vertical D.P.C. or leaking drains.

 In the case of floors, remove the top concrete and sand

filling for a depth of 12” under the floor and refill it with
hard core or some dry material.

 Water-proofing cement may also prove beneficial.

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 III - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK III - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK
Defects in Plastering Efflorescence:
 The following defects may arise in plaster work.
 It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on
1. Blistering of plastered surface: This is the formation of small the surface due to presence of salts in plaster making
patches of plaster swelling out beyond the plastered surface, materials as well as building materials like bricks, sand,
arising out of late slaking of lime particles in the plaster cement etc and even water. This gives a very bad
appearance. It affects the adhesion of paint with wall
2. Cracking: Cracking consists of formation of cracks or fissures in surface. Efforescene can be removed to some extent
the plaster work resulting from the following reasons.
by dry bushing and washing the surface repeatedly.
 Imperfect preparation of background
 Structural defects in building
 Flaking:It is the formation of very loose mass of
pastered surface, due to poor bond between sucessive
coats.
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III - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK 3 - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK

Discontinuity of surface Peeling:

 It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered

 Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion surface, resulting in the formation of a patch. This also
or rapid drying results from imperfect bond.
 Popping: It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered
 Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to surface due to presence of some particles which expand
expansion or shrinkage.
on setting
 Rust Stains: These are sometimes formed when plaster is
 Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat
applied on metal laths
 Uneven surface: This is obtained purely due to poor
 Faulty workmanship.
workman ship.
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 III - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK

3. Excessive thermal changes either in background or in

plaster
4. Rapid drying
5. Insufficient drying between each coat of plaster

Repairing Cracks in Plaster Work

 Hair like cracks in plaster will generally disappear
with white washing.
 Wider cracks can be filled in by mortar of 1: 2: 7 by
weight of plaster of Paris, cement and sand.
 There are three basic defects in a concrete structure,
cracking, spalling, and disintegration.
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III - DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK

Cracks in plaster work are chiefly due to:

1. Structural defects in buildings and discontinuity of
surface
2. Plastering on very wet background
3. Old surfaces not being properly prepared
4. Over-rapid drying
5. Pitting and blowing are due to partly slaking and
hydration of the lime particles in plaster
Falling out of plaster is chiefly due to:

1. Lack of adhesion for not having formed a proper

“key” in the back ground
2. Excessive moisture in background
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IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

a - Settlement of foundation or soil

If there are local soft particles in the soil on which the
concrete is placed, or if there are any air pockets,
there will be a local settlement of the concrete due to
weight of the plastic mass. If this settlement occurs
after finishing of the concrete surface, cracks will
appear.

Remedy
The occurrence may be prevented by giving proper
attention to compacting and draining the soil below.

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 IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

b - Movement of formwork or disturbance of c - Internal settlement of concrete

concrete during setting
Remedy
Any movement of the formwork, which occurs Surface cracks can be closed by delayed finishing of
between the times that the concrete begins to lose its concrete surface. Commencing the curing operation
fluidity and the time that it has fully set, will cause as soon as possible, after placement of concrete, is
cracks to appear in the structure. also beneficial. It reduces the amount of differential
settlement between the surface and interior volume
Remedy of the suspension. Proper vibratory compaction is a
must.
• Formwork should be properly designed particularly
with respect to the details and deflection
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IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

c - Internal settlement of concrete

Fluid concrete before attaining initial set, is subjected d - Setting shrinkage
to settlement of the heavier particles through the Volume changes during the initial setting of concrete
fluid matrix. Since the surface concrete hardens first, tend to cause the formation of shallow surface cracks.
if such settlement is not prevented, local cracking will Setting shrinkage is normally considered after 24
occur. hours.

Still worse condition may be where the reinforcement Remedy

consists of a heavy material of closely spaced bars.  Providing the movement of joints (such as expansion
Instead of surface cracks, a plane of general joints) will reduce the effect of cracking due to
separation may be formed.. shrinkage.

 Provide an adequate quantity of distribution

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 IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

e - Corrosion of reinforcement

The reinforcement is normally placed within a few

inches of the surface. If the reinforcement is exposed
to air and water, it will corrode.

The volume of the oxide produced by corrosion is

about 8 times that of the parent metal, and the result
is that the concrete cover is cracked and spalled.

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IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

5 - Corrosion of reinforcement e - Corrosion of reinforcement

Remedy Remedy

Prevention of corrosion of the reinforcement requires Sea water is a common source, and using it as mixing
that the steel be kept away from contact with water water for concrete is to be discouraged, because the
in the presence of oxygen. salts are completely digested during hydration of
cement.
This can best be accomplished by encasing the bars
in a dense concrete mass and providing adequate Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides, used to accelerate
cover. the setting of concrete, will also promote corrosion, if
present in excess amount. If used, their quantity
Avoid complicated details in the design, which would must not exceed 2%.
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IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 9.4 - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

e - Corrosion of reinforcement 6 - Chemical deterioration of concrete

Concrete is chemically stable, but deteriorates if
Remedy subjected to aggressive chemical agents, such as
Sulphate, acids.
Good concrete has 2% absorption of water, however,
it is permissible up to 10%. But exceeding this %age It causes expansion, cracking and disruption of the
will increase the corrosion effect. concrete mass.

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IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IV - DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

f - Chemical deterioration of concrete f - Chemical deterioration of concrete

Remedy Remedy

 High alumina cement is a remedy for sulphate attack.  A facing of ceramic tile set in acid-proof mortar is an
 In acid environments, the use of limestone aggregate excellent precaution.
will somewhat prevent the attack.
 Even a little thing, like frequent cleaning for the
 A more positive answer however is, to form a
protective coating. Bituminous coatings work nicely concrete surface with water is a big help.
for exposure to sulphate or weak acid solutions.

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 MEP
 The term, "MEP," stands for "Mechanical,
Electrical and Plumbing,"

 A type of engineering which focuses on the

disciplines needed to build safe, working
structures for human use and occupation.

 The mechanical aspect focuses on heating, cooling and

ventilation.
 The electrical aspect focuses on providing power to all
outlets and appliances.

 The plumbing aspect focuses on the delivery of water

and the draining of waste water. 85

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MEP
 The mechanical part of MEP is also known as HVAC.

 It is responsible for the installation and maintenance of

air conditioning, heating and ventilation.

 When necessary, it also handles tasks such as smoke

control and exhaust

 The electrical part is responsible not only for outlets

and appliances but also lighting, switches, fire alarms,
security systems, as well as lightning protection when
necessary. 86

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