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3 3

Revision Notes Contents

Changes in 3rd Edition……………………………….... 393
UNIT 1 – POLITICAL THEORY ………………………...7
Liberty, Equality, Justice, Rights, Democracy, Power, Citizenship,
Sovereignty, State, Normative Tradition of Political Theory, Post-
Behaviouralism, Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism, Multiculturalism,
Postmodernism, Ecologism, Marxism, Feminism.
Zionism, Philosophical Anarchism, Communitarianism.
Major Methodologies, Major Traditions and their Proponents, Debate on the
Decline of Political Theory.

UNIT 2 – WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT ……….62

Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Rousseau,
Hegel, Mary Wollstonecraft, J.S. Mill, Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci,
Hannah Arendt, Frantz Fanon, Mao Zedong, John Rawls, V.I. Lenin,
-ALL BOOKS OF WPT THINKERS- in Chronological Order.

UNIT 3 – INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT …………..80

Dharmashastra, Kautilya, Aggannasutta, Barani, Kabir, Pandita Ramabai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore,
M.K. Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, Iqbal,
M.N. Roy, V.D. Savarkar, B.R. Ambedkar, J.L. Nehru, Ram Manohar Lohia,
J.P. Narayan, Deendayal Upadhyaya, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotiba Phule,
Dadabhai Naoroji, -ALL BOOKS OF IPT THINKERS- in Chronological Order.

UNIT 4 – COMPARATIVE POLITICS ……………...109

Approaches to C.P. – Institutional Approach, Neo-Institutional Approach,
Political Economy Approach, Political Culture, David Easton Systems Approach,
Gabriel Almond Structural-Functionalism, Pressure Groups, Interest Groups,
State Theory, 3 Waves of Democratization by Huntington, Colonialism,
Imperialism, De-Colonization, Neo-Colonialism, Post-Colonialism, Nationalism.
4 4

Models of Representation, Electoral Systems, Party Systems, Elite Theory,

Political regimes: democratic and non-democratic regimes, Old vs New Social
Movements, NGOs & Civil Society Campaigns.
Political Development, Modernization Theory, Dependency School and World
Systems Theory, USA Constitutional Development, Mancur Olson - The Logic
of Collective Action, Types of Welfare State Models given by Richard Titmuss,
Democratic Transition and Consolidation by Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan,
Breakdowns of Modernisation by S.N. Eisenstadt, Role of Representative by
John Wahlke.
Revolutions: Theories and Approaches, Constitutions and Constitutionalism: A
Comparative Perspective.

UNIT 5 – INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ...………175

Theories of IR - Idealism, Realism, Liberalism, Social Constructivism,
Feminism in IR, Postmodernism in IR, Critical Theory in IR, English School,
Structural Marxism, Systems Theory, Game Theory IR, Decision Making Theory
Concepts of IR - Power, Security, Sovereignty, War, Human Rights,
Humanitarian Intervention, Major Nuclear Treaties in IR, Cold War.
Organisations of IR - United Nations, ICC vs ICJ, Bretton Woods Agreement,
IMF, World Bank, WTO, G20, G7, G4, BRICS, ASEAN, EU, AU, SCO, QUAD.
Beijing Consensus, Humanitarian Interventions, Globalization, Just War, UN
Peacekeeping, SDGs and MDGs, Problem Solving Theory, Modern Global
Capitalism.
International Terrorism.

UNIT 6 – INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY ………………220

India-Pakistan, India-Bangladesh, India-Afghanistan, India-Nepal, India-Bhutan,
India-Myanmar, India-Sri Lanka, India-Maldives, India-China, India-USA,
India-Russia, India-Japan, India-Israel, India-UAE, India-UK.
India-United Nations, India-ASEAN, India-SAARC, India-SCO, India-Africa
Relations, India-GCC, India-BRICS, India-QUAD, India-IOR, Sagar Panchayat,
India’s Extended Neighbourhood, INDIA-NAM, Nehruvianism, Alternative
Perspectives on IFP.

UNIT 7 – POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA ….251

5 5

Major Pre-Independence India Acts, Schedules, Parts of Constitution, Constitu-

ent Assembly Debates, Major Amendments of Constitution,
Major Articles of Constitution, 5 Writs, Union Executive: President, Prime
Minister and Council of Ministers, 3 Types of Emergency Provisions, Judiciary:
Supreme Court, High Court, Judicial Review, Judicial Activism, PIL, Union
Parliament: Structure, Role and Functioning, Parliamentary Committees,
Updated Landmark Judgements of India, Panchayati Raj Committees,
PRI Articles.
Mayo’s Resolution 1870, Parliamentary Proceedings, Supreme Court.
Governor, Chief Minister, State Legislature, Inter-State Council, Constitutional
and Statutory Bodies, Electoral Process and Election Commission of India,
Local Government Institutions: Functioning and reforms, Federalism in India.

UNIT 8 – POLTICAL PROCESSES IN INDIA ………329

Civil Society Organisations, Interest Groups, Pressure Groups,
Social Action Groups, Electoral Politics in India – Important Terms,
National Parties of India, State Parties of India, Famous Commentators
of Indian Politics, Social Movements in India, Tribal Movements,
Dalit Movements, Peasant Movements, Women's Movements,
ALL Reorganisation Order of States, Statehood Demands in India.

UNIT 9 – PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ………………347

Evolution of Public Administration, Events/Conferences of Public
Administration, Taylor's Scientific Management Theory, Bureaucratic Theory,
MP Follet Conflict Theory in Orgs, Elton Mayo's Human Relations Theory,
Simon's Decision Making Theory, Bernard's Communication Theory,
Riggs' Ecological Approach, Public Choice Theory,
Drucker's Management by Objectives (MBO), Systems Theory in Pub Ad,
Theories of Leadership, Theories of Motivation, Comparative Public
Administration – Ferral Heady, Behavioural Approach, New Public
Administration, New Public Management, Harold Lasswell – Policy Cycle,
Robert Dahl - Cross-Cultural Studies.
Development Administration, Organisational Communication: Theories and
Principles.
6 6

UNIT 10 - GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC POLICY IN

INDIA …………………………………………………….369
Governance, good governance and democratic governance, role of state, civil
society and individuals.
Right to Information (RTI), Citizens Charter, Consumer Protection Act,
Lokpal & Lokayuktas, MNREGA, Right to Education (RTE),
NITI AAYOG, Jan Sunwai, e-Governance, National Health Mission (NHM),
National Food Security Act 2013, Administrative Reforms Commission,
Bhagidari Approach to Development, Social Audit Law, Good Governance
Index, Updated - ALL MAJOR GOVERNMENT SCHEMES - in
Chronological Order.
7 7

UNIT 1 – POLITICAL THEORY

Political Concepts

Liberty
• Liberty is interpreted as the absence of all restraints on those actions of individual
which do not harm other individuals.

Liberty and Freedom

• Liberty is frequently assumed as synonymous to freedom.
• Atlantic Charter (1941), a declaration of 'Four Freedoms', which was drawn up during
the Second World War (1939— 45) by President Roosevelt of the United States and
Prime Minister Churchill of the United Kingdom to indicate their war aims.
• The four freedoms were: (DEC 2019)
i) Freedom of speech
ii) Freedom of worship
iii) Freedom from fear
iv) Freedom from want

Different views on Liberty :-

1 Liberal Individualist view of liberty:
▪ Negative Liberty (free from interference)
- The state was viewed as a necessary evil (Thomas Paine) (June 2020). Only to
maintain their liberty by protecting their person and property.
- Isaiah Berlin defined negative freedom as ‘an area within which a man can act
unobstructed by others’. He supported negative liberty. He views positive liberty
as a road to totalitarianism.
- Advocates of negative liberty prefers minimal state.
- Advocates: John Locke, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham (Dec 2021), James Mill,
Henry Sidgwick, Isaiah Berlin and Herbert Spencer.
▪ Positive Liberty (free to do something) (Shift 2 2022)
- Insisted on the positive role of the state in creating conditions under which men
could effectively exercise their moral freedom.
- John Stuart Mill introduced the conception of positive liberty and consequent
transition from negative liberalism to positive liberalism.
- According to Berlin, positive freedom means individual to be his own master.
8 8

- T.H. Green, One of the first modern liberals embrace ‘positive’ conception of
freedom and defined freedom as the ability of people ‘to make the most and
best of themselves’.
- Advocates: J. S. Mill (some scholars categorized him under negative liberty), T.H.
Green, L.T. Hobhouse and H.J. Laski.
▪ Idealist Theory of freedom
-The theory of freedom chiefly advanced by G.W.F. Hegel.
-He views the state as embodiment of Reason and holds that individual's freedom lies
in accepting the dictates of the ideal state.
▪ Gerald MacCallum on Liberty
- Liberty is single concept and not two concept i.e. negative and positive liberty.
- All claims of liberty can be concluded with this formula:
- X is (is not) free from y to do (not do, become, not become) z.
▪ C. B Macpherson’s concept of Creative Freedom
- Real freedom can be exercised through developmental power.
- Developmental power requires development of one's human potentialities and
their application to one's self-appointed goals.

The Contemporary Debates

- Main advocates: Isaiah Berlin, F.A. Hayek, Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick
- Isaiah Berlin: showed, negative and positive liberty are not merely two distinct
kinds of liberty; they can be seen as rival of a single political ideal.
- Hayek: Liberty consists in 'absence of coercion' in the sphere of individual activity
by other individuals or the state.
- presents three other meanings of freedom:-
i) 'political freedom' (participation of men in the choice of their government)
ii) 'inner freedom' (extent to which a person is guided by his own considered
will in his actions)
i) 'freedom as power' (the extent of the choice of alternatives open to us)
- Milton Friedman: sought to identify a competitive market society as a necessary
condition of freedom.
- He defines freedom as 'the absence of coercion of a man by his fellow men'.
- Robert Nozick: the state comes into existence for the performance of limited
functions.
- All inequalities of wealth and power are based on individual differences in efforts
and that it would not be just to reduce these inequalities by redistributive transfers
by state.

2. Marxist view of liberty:-

- Marx in his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844) laid down the humanist
foundations of freedom.
9 9

- For Marx freedom means the ability to achieve the totality of :-

o human goods
o satisfaction of aspirations
o rational control of the process of production
- Herbert Marcuse: presented the theme of alienation in contemporary Western
society (concept of One Dimensional Man).
- He has given a blueprint of society where alienation will be removed and freedom
will be restored.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Adam Smith: An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of Nation (1776)
- Jeremy Bentham: Principles of Legislation (1789)
- Marx: Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844)
- Marx and Engels: Holy Family (1844), Communist Manifesto (1848)
- J.S. Mill: On Liberty (1859)
- Henry Sidgwick: Methods of Ethics (1874),Principles of Political
Economy (1883); The Elements of Politics (1891); The Development of European
Polity (1903).
- Herbert Spencer: The Man Versus the State (1884)
- Engels: Anti-Duhring (1878)
- T. H. Green: Prolegomena to Ethics (1883) and Lectures on the Principles of
Political Obligation (1885–88)
- L.T. Hobhouse: Elements of Social Justice (1922)
- Isaiah Berlin: Two Concepts of Liberty (1958), Four Essays on Liberty (1969) (June
2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
- F.A. Hayek: Constitution of Liberty (1960)
- Milton Friedman: Capitalism and Freedom (1962) (Dec. 2024)
- Herbert Marcuse: One-Dimensional Man (1964), Eros and Civilization (1966)
- Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974) (March 2023 Shift 1)

Equality
➢ Equality is a principle of correcting the unjust inequalities in society.

Dimensions of equality:-
1 LEGAL EQUALITY
- The principle of equality was first put forward as the demand for legal equality.
- J.J. Rousseau: observed that extension of legal equality to all citizens was the
primary characteristic of civil society. He had differentiated between natural and
conventional inequality. (Dec 2019)
i) Natural or physical inequality: inequalities based on differences of age,
health, bodily strength and qualities of mind and soul.
10 10

ii) Conventional inequality: inequalities based on different privileges that

some men enjoy to the exclusion of others, such as inequalities of wealth,
prestige and power.
- Ernest Barker: The idea of legal equality thus emanates from moral considerations
and serves as the basis of equal rights of men.
2 POLITICAL EQUALITY
- Nobody will be barred from holding political office, right to be represented in
decision-making bodies etc.
- Alexis de Tocqueville: believed that equality was the great political and social
idea of his era.
- According to him in America the first phase of the democratic revolution was
political in nature, and the second phase would be social and economic.
- In his book A Grammar of Politics (1925) Harold J. Laski has said that “Political
equality, therefore, is never real unless it is accompanied by virtual economic
equality: political power”. (June 2023 Shift 1)
3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC EQUALITY
- Marxian ideology seeks to secure socio-economic equality by the replacement of
the capitalist system by the socialist system, through socialization.
- Liberal theory seeks to promote socio-economic equality by small and piecemeal
adjustments within the capitalist system itself.

OTHER IMPORATNT FACTS:-

➢ R.H. Tawney, Harold J. Laski and C.B. Macpherson regard liberty and equality as
complementary principles.
➢ Alexis de Tocqueville, Lord Acton, Isaiah Berlin, F.A. Hayek regard equality as
impediment to liberty.
➢ Reverse Discrimination: issue was raised in US. It means discrimination in favor of the
deprived sections results in discrimination against the general category.
➢ Affirmative Action: Public policy accords special concession in matters of admission
to education and training, appointments, promotions etc. to those who were
deprived.
➢ The concept of Meritocracy: introduced by Michael Young in his work The Rise of
Meritocracy (1961)
• Presented a hypothetical system of social organization in which the top
positions are assigned to the most talented and highly educated members of
a Society.
➢ The concept of Complex Equality: advocated by Michael Walzer in his work ‘Spheres
of Justice’ (1983).
• Concerned with the just distribution of different goods to different people
• Implies a system of distribution in which different goods should be distributed
for different reasons and in different quantities.
11 11

➢ Equality: Thoughts of Amartya Sen (June 2023 Shift 2)

Amartya Sen, a renowned economist and philosopher, has made significant contributions to
the concept of equality. His thoughts on equality are primarily centered around the idea of
capabilities.

• Sen’s Capability Approach is defined by its focus on the moral significance of

individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value.

• A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings
and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to
which they have real access.
He writes a chapter on ‘Equality of What?’ in his book “Choice, Welfare and Measurement
(1982)” where he gives his concept of - ‘Basic Capability Equality’. Here, Amartya Sen tries to
construct a Theory of Equality Rejecting the claims of Three Theories of Equality namely:
1) Utilitarian equality
2) Total Utility equality
3) Rawlsian concept of equality.
Amartya Sen's main thesis is none of these three is individually, nor is the combination of
three a sufficient basis for describing the Equality - Aspect of Morality. (June 2023)
• Amartya Sen argues that this gap can be narrowed by the idea of 'Basic Capability
Equality’. (June 2023)
• The focus on basic capabilities can be defined - as a natural extension of John Rawls's
concern with primary goods, shifting attention from "goods" to "what goods do to
human beings." (June 2023)
• Amartya Sen argues that Rawls's focus is limited to only the "goods" such as "income",
rather than "on what income does" to increase or decrease the capability of a person
to access resources. (June 2023)
• If human beings were all very much alike each other, this would not have mattered a
great deal, but there is evidence says Sen, that the conversion of goods to capabilities
varies from person to person substantially, and the equality of former may vary a lot
from the equality of latter.
In summary, Amartya Sen’s thoughts on equality revolve around the idea that equality should
be measured not just by material wealth, but by the capabilities and freedoms that individuals
have to lead the kind of lives they value.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- J.J. Rousseau: Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), Social Contract (1762)
- Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America (1835)
- R.H. Tawney: Equality (1938)
12 12

- Harold J. Laski: State in Theory and Practice (1935), Parliamentary Government in

England (1938)
- Ernest Barker: Principles of Social and Political Theory (1951)
- C. B. Macpherson: The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (1962)
(Dec 2021) (Dec. 2024), DEMOCRATIC THEORY: ESSAYS IN RETRIEVAL (1973), Life
and Times of Liberal Democracy (1977)

Justice
➢ The maintenance of what is just especially by the impartial adjustment of conflicting
claims or the assignment of merited rewards or punishments.
➢ Justice, in Plato's sense, is the power of individual concentration on duty.
➢ Procedural justice: it is necessary to determine a just procedure for the allocation of
social advantages, then its outcome will automatically be accepted as just.
- The exponents of procedural justice: Herbert Spencer, F.A. Hayek, Milton
Friedman and Robert Nozick.
➢ Substantive justice (Social or distributive justice): the allocation of social advantages
itself should be just—the procedure for making such allocation is a secondary issue.

Different Perspectives of Justice:-

1 Liberal Perspective (Individual Liberty):-
- John Rawls pointed out that Justice is the first virtue of a good society.
- The Idea of Justice flows from individual. (June 2019)
- The Veil of ignorance is his component of social contract theory, allows us to test
ideas for fairness. Justice as Fairness (June 2019)
- Rawls gave two Principles of Distribution
1. Principle of Equal Liberty (similar liberties for all)
2. Principle of Difference Principle (raise the level of the least advantaged in the
society)
2 Libertarian perspective (minimal role of the state):- (December 2023)
- Robert Nozick: Principles of Entitlement- entitlement to bits of the natural world
and the products of their labour should be based on the principles of justice.
- Nozick identifies three principles on which this entitlement would conform to
justice:
1. Initial Acquisition: whereby an individual comes to appropriate some previously
unowned bits of the natural world
2. Voluntary Transfer: if individual use others' labour and pay them as per market
rates, he become owner of the product of their labour
3. Rectification: the area where the state will be justified to intervene in order to
restore justice
13 13

3 Democratic socialism perspective:-

- Harold J. Laski has attempt to combine the concept of liberal freedom with the
goal of socialist justice.
- Seeks to provide for democratic rights and civil liberties along with socio-economic
rights of citizens.
- It seeks to modify Marxian socialism.
4 Anarchist perspective:-
- William Godwin the first modern defender of anarchism argued that all inequality
among human beings is created by the condition of society.
- Other advocates: P.J. Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin, Mahatma Gandhi, Leo Tolstoy,
George Sorel, Murray Bookchin.
5 Marxist Perspective:-
- Seeks to replace the capitalist system by the socialist system and a classless society
will come into existence.
- Private property is the source of exploitation and injustice in society.
6 Subaltern perspective:-
- Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of the ‘subaltern’ in social theory.
- Subaltern perspective of justice believes that the subaltern groups are capable of
organizing themselves and shaping human history.
7 Feminist perspective:-
- Mary Wollstonecraft: woman was not only deprived of the right to vote, but was
deemed to be unfit for education, was debarred from many occupations, and
had no legal right to own property.
- John Stuart Mill: women were in no way inferior to men in their talents, and
pleaded to give them full legal and political rights.
8 Communitarian perspective:-
- Michael Walzer: The requirements of justice could only be identified in the
context of a particular community, its practices and institutions.
- Other advocates: Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor.
➢ David Miller identified three principles of Social Justice
1. To each according to his needs
2. To each according to his rights
3. To each according to his desire

➢ According to Aristotelian theory of Justice, there are three types of justice

1. Distributive justice
2. Retributive Justice
3. Commutative Justice
14 14

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- William Godwin: Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793)
- P.J. Proudhon: What is Property (1840)
- Leo Tolstoy: War and Peace (1868-69)
- Mikhail Bakunin: Statism and Anarchy (1873)
- Peter Kropotkin: Mutual Aid—a Factor of Evolution (1890-96)
- George Sorel: Reflections on Violence (1908)
- Harold J. Laski: Liberty in the Modern State (1930), State in Theory and Practice
(1935) and A Grammar of Politics (1938)
- Antonio Gramsci: Prison Notebooks (1948)
- John Rawls: A Theory of Justice (1971), Justice as Fairness (1985)
- Murray Bookchin: Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1974)
- Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)
- Michael Sandel: Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1982), July 2016In
Democracy's Discontent (1996)
- Michael Walzer: Spheres of Justice (1983) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Charles Taylor: Philosophy and Human Sciences (1985) July 2016

Rights
➢ Rights are meant to safeguard the individual from the irresponsible and arbitrary use
of power by the ruling class.

➢ Negative rights: acts of the individual shall not be restricted by the state.

➢ Positive rights: prescribe the responsibility of the state in securing rights of

individuals.

Different theories of rights:-

1 Conventional theories:-

- NATURAL RIGHTS:

• These rights are not granted by the state, but they come from the very nature
of man.

• These rights are inalienable and cannot be separated or taken away from the
individual as they are inherent and prior to the society and state. (Shift 2 2022)

• This theory was broadly developed on two important bases: the contractual
basis (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) and the teleological basis (Thomas Paine, T.H.
Green).
15 15

- THEORY OF LEGAL RIGHTS:

• The theory of legal rights holds that all rights of man depend on the state
for their existence.

• Jeremy Bentham is the greatest champion of this theory. He rejects the

doctrine of natural rights as unreal and ill founded.

• He dismissed the idea of natural rights as "rhetorical nonsense" because

he believed that rights are not inherent in human beings, but are instead
created by laws and governments. (June 2023 Shift 1)

- HISTORICAL THEORY OF RIGHTS:

• Rights are differing from state to state and from time to time because of
the different levels of historical development of society.

• Edmund Burke the greatest champion of historical theory of rights

criticized the French Revolution for it was provoked by a conception of
abstract rights of man.

• He glorified the English Revolution (1688) which sought to reassert the

customary rights.

- SOCIAL-WELFARE THEORY OF RIGHTS:

• Rights are, in essence, conditions of social welfare.

• Important advocates - Roscoe Pound and Zechariah Chafee.

2 Social-democratic perspective:

- Seeks to achieve the objectives of individual liberty and social justice together.

- Laski's theory of rights takes three essential aspects into consideration: interests
of the individual; interests of the various groups and interest of the community.

- Laski holds that rights are not concessions granted by the state. On the contrary,
they are superior to the state.

3 Marxist Perspective:

- Marx and Engels realized that the so-called 'rights of man' designed to serve the
interests of a particular class

- Perfect equality and justice are possible only under communist society.

Karel Vasak in 1979, has categorized human rights into three generations:
16 16

• First Generation Rights – Civil & Political Rights

• Second Generation Rights – Social and Economic Rights
• Third Generation Rights – Cultural, Collective and Environmental Rights

Rights – Hobhouse
• Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, an English liberal political theorist and sociologist, has
made significant contributions to the concept of rights.
• Hobhouse was one of the leading and earliest proponents of social liberalism. His
works, culminating in his famous book “Liberalism” (1911).
• L.T. Hobhouse says “Rights are what we may expect from others and others from us,
and all genuine rights are conditions of social welfare.” (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Hobhouse’s rights theories: Social liberalism, rational tests, and welfare rights. Focus
on solutions, not punishment.
• Hobhouse’s theories on rights are centered around the idea of social liberalism and
welfare rights. He believed that rational tests could be applied to values and that they could
be self-consistent and objective.
• He emphasized dealing with problems in society through rational means, highlighting
that rather than punishing people for their wrongdoings, society can help provide a solution
to make sure that no one’s rights are infringed upon.
• Hobhouse’s work presents a positive vision of liberalism in which the purpose of
liberty is to enable individuals to develop, not solely that freedom is good in itself.
• He distinguished between property held ‘for use’ and property held ‘for power’.
Governmental co-operation with trade unions could therefore be justified as helping to
counter the structural disadvantage of employees in terms of power.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Thomas Paine: Rights Of Man (1791)
- T. H. Green: Prolegomena to Ethics (1883) and Lectures on the Principles of
Political Obligation(1885–88)
- Jeremy Bentham: Principles of Legislation (1789)
- Harold J. Laski: A Grammar of Politics (1925) (June 2023 Shift 2), The Dilemma of
Our Times (1952), Liberty in the Modern State (1930),Reflections on the
Revolution of Our Time (1943),State in Theory and Practice (1935)
- Roscoe Pound: Social Contract Through Law (1942), Rights, Interests, and
Values(1958)
- Zechariah Chafee: Freedom of Speech (1919), Free Speech in the United States
(1941)
17 17

Democracy
➢ A system in which the government of a country is elected by the people.
➢ The essential conditions of democracy are Liberty, Equality and Independence of
Judiciary (Shift 1 2022)
➢ procedural aspects of democracy – political equality, effective institutions, free and
fair elections, legislative assemblies and constitutional governments, and good voter
turn outs;
➢ Substantive aspects of democracy – socio-economic equality of citizens, tolerance for
different opinions, ruler accountability, respect for the rules, and a strong political
engagement.

Different views of Democracy:-

1 Classical Concept of Democracy:
- Main Exponents: Plato, Aristotle, Dicey, James Bryce.
- Plato: decried democracy because the people were not properly equipped with
education 'to select the best rulers and the wisest courses'
- Aristotle: placed democracy among perverted forms since it signified the rule of
the mediocre seeking their selfish interests, not the interest of the state
- Dicey: treated democracy as a form of government under which majority opinion
determines legislation.
- James Bryce: finds the justification of democracy in the concept of relativity, by
comparing its merits and demerits with other forms of government.
2 Liberal democracy: (Dec. 2024)
- Principles of liberal democracy include:
(a) Government by consent
(b) Public accountability
(c) Majority rule
(d) Recognition of minority rights
(e) Constitutional Government.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: the exponent of popular sovereignty, In his concept of
the 'social contract', sovereignty not only originates in the people, it continues to
stay with the people in the civil society.
- Jeremy Bentham: envisaged liberal democracy as a political apparatus that would
ensure the accountability of the governors to the governed.
- John Stuart Mill: declared the principle which will establish 'the nature and limits
of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual'.

3 Contemporary theories of Democracy:-

18 18

➢ Elitist theory:
- Hold that every society consists two categories: (a) the elite or the minority within
a social collectivity and (b) the masses or the majority which is governed by the
elite.
- Main advocates: Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, Robert Michels, Karl
Mannheim, Joseph A. Schumpeter, Raymond Aron, Giovanni Sartori.
- Vilfredo Pareto: divided the elite class into two categories: governing elite and
non-governing elite. In a democratic system, there is a circulation process amongst
the members of the elite and non-elite where one elite replaces another. The role
of ordinary people in such transformation is not that of principal actors, but as
supporters of one elite or another.
- Gaetano Mosca: The ruling class controls most of the wealth, power and prestige
in society and exercises all power, whatever form of government might be
adopted.
- Robert Michels: (iron law of oligarchy) implied that every organization reduced to
an 'oligarchy', that is the rule of the chosen few.
- Karl Mannheim: 'In a democracy the governed can always act to remove their
leaders or force them to take decisions in the interests of the many.'
- Championed the reconciliation between the elite theory and the democratic
theory
- Joseph A. Schumpeter: democracy is not a government of the people, the role of
the people is reduced to choosing their rulers from the competing elites.
- Raymond Aron: the initiative remains in the hands of the elite; the masses are left
to play the passive role of choosing the ruling elite and to pressurize them in their
functioning.
- Giovanni Sartori: any notion of self-governing people is a delusion. Government is
necessarily the business of competent leaders; the people exercise their right to
govern only at elections.
➢ Pluralist Theory:
- A.F. Bentley and David Truman interpreted democracy as a political game played
by a great variety of groups.
- Robert Dahl: developed a model of the democratic process which he described as
polyarchy.
- Policy-making is actually done neither by the representatives, nor by elite, but is a
product of the interaction among the groups.
➢ Radical theory of democracy
- Expand the scope of democracy by combining the essential features of procedural
and substantive democracy.
- C.B. Macpherson identifies three variants of democracy:-
• Liberal democracy, which needs a more humane touch.
• Communist countries might qualify as democracies
19 19

• Third World countries, could also conform to the ideals of some historical
theories of democracy.
➢ Deliberative democracy (June 2024 Shift 1)
- Concept of deliberative democracy embodies an attempt to reconcile two
different models of democratic thought: 'Democracy as a popular rule' and
'Democracy as the bulwark of personal freedom'. (November 2017) (December
2023)
- Exponents of deliberative democracy: Michael Walzer, J. Cohen (June Shift 2 2023)
and J. Rogers Bernard Manin, S.L. Hurley and J.S. Fishkin.
➢ Marxist theory of democracy
- V.I. Lenin: “Democracy for an insignificant minority, democracy for the rich—that
is the democracy of capitalist society”
- Lenin advanced the concept of 'democratic centralism' as a principle of
organization of the socialist state. This was designed to lend a democratic
character to the so-called dictatorship of the proletariat.
- 'concept of socialist democracy' denotes a state characterized by domination of
the proletariat, It is established by the proletariat after overthrowing the capitalist
order by a violent revolution
- Henri Lefebvre: "The dictatorship of the proletariat means concrete democracy,
i.e. the coercive power of a majority over a minority."

➢ Subaltern perspective
- Concerned with the exploited, oppressed and marginalized groups because of
division of society into the ruling and subaltern groups
- The concept of the 'subaltern' was introduced in social theory by Antonio Gramsci
- New Democracy as hegemony of the workers, peasants and other marginalized
sections of the society. (June 2019)
➢ Cosmopolitan Democracy
➢ Cosmopolitan democracy is an idea advanced by political theorists in the context of
globalisation.
➢ Cosmopolitan democracy is a form of democracy that operates at supranational levels
of governance and is based on the idea of transnational or global citizenship.
➢ Cosmopolitan democrats believe that the era of the sovereign state is coming to an
end, and there are transformative possibilities in globalization and regionalization
which can lead us towards greater and more substantive democratization
➢ The idea of cosmopolitan citizenship goes beyond traditional citizenship of a state
arguing for global citizenship.
➢ Immanuel Kant (June Shift 2 2023) and David Held the one of the main proponents of
cosmopolitan democracy.
20 20

➢ At the core of Kant’s Cosmopolitan Democracy is the belief that the establishment of
a World Federation of Free Republics or Democracies would be the best means to
achieve Perpetual Peace.
➢ Kant argued that Democracies, where power is vested in the hands of the People, are
more inclined to pursue Peaceful Relations with other nations. He believed that
democracies, by their nature, would be less likely to engage in aggressive wars and
would prioritize diplomatic resolutions to conflicts.
➢ The three components of Kant’s hypothetical treaty for a Permanent Peace are –
➢ First Definitive Article: The Civil Constitution of Every State shall be Republican.
➢ Second Definitive Article: The Right of Nations shall be based on a Federation of Free
States.
➢ Third Definitive Article: Cosmopolitan Right shall be limited to Conditions of Universal
Hospitality.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Gaetano Mosca: The Ruling Class (1896)
- James Bryce: The American Commonwealth (1893), Modern Democracies
(1921)Dec 2021
- Dicey: Law and Opinion in England (1905)
- Robert Michels: Political Parties (1911)
- Vilfredo Pareto: The Mind and Society (1915-19)
- Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia (1929)
- Joseph A. Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942)
- Raymond Aron: Social Structure and the Ruling Class (1950) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Giovanni Sartori: Democratic Theory (1958) (July 2016)
- Robert Dahl: A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956)
- C.B. Macpherson: The Real World of Democracy (1966), Democratic Theory—
Essays in Retrieval (1973)
- Michael Walzer: Spheres of Justice (1983) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- J. Cohen and J. Rogers: On Democracy: Toward a Transformation of American
Society (1983)
- Bernard Manin: On Legitimacy and Political Deliberation', Political Theory (1987)
- S.L. Hurley: Natural Reasons: Personality and Polity (1989)
- J.S. Fishkin: Democracy and Deliberation (1991)

Power
➢ Possession of control, authority, or influence over others.
➢ Power is an instrument of coercion and has a physical effect. (Shift 2 2022)

Different perspective of power:-

1 Class perspective:
21 21

- This theory recognized 'class' as the organizing category for exercising power in
society.
- Owners of the means of production are 'dominant class', and they forced the rest
of society to do hard work.
- This doctrine of class struggle was strongly endorsed by Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg,
Mao Zedong etc.
2 Elite theory of power:
- Vilfredo Pareto: used the term 'elite' to indicate a superior social group.
- Gaetano Mosca: Mosca's ruling class was distinguished by its capacity of
organization.
- Robert Michels: propounded 'Iron Law of Oligarchy'. This theory argued that every
Organization is eventually reduced to 'oligarchy', that is the rule of the chosen few.
- C. Wright Mills preferred the term 'power elite' to 'ruling class'(Dec 2015)
3 Gender Perspective:-
- Friedrich Engels observed that the transition to monogamy and the overthrow of
mother right was the world-historic defeat of the female sex.
4 Group perspective:-
- Alexis de Tocqueville observed that the absence of intermediary groups in France
was responsible for the French Revolution whereas the United States was able to
maintain democracy due the presence of such groups.
- Robert Dahl's model of democracy, described as 'polyarchy', postulated that
society is controlled by a set of competing interest groups.
5 Constructive view of power:-
- Main exponents: Hannah Arendt, C.B. Macpherson and Mahatma Gandhi
- Hannah Arendt: distinguished between 'violence' ‘authority’ and 'power
- 'violence': when rulers use force to fulfil their design against the wishes of the
people, ‘Authority’: Authority is linked with command-obedience relationship
based on violence
- ‘Power’: power essentially belongs to the people. Only power but never violence
can create legitimate authority, She suggests that power is 'not the property of an
individual'.

Other thinkers described power as:-

➢ Robert Dahl: Power as Decision Making
➢ Peter Bachrach and Mortan Baratz: Power as Agenda Setting
➢ Steven Lukes: Power as Thought Control
➢ Michel Foucault: Power is Everywhere
➢ C.B. Macpherson: Development is Power
➢ Kenneth Boulding: three faces of power:-
1. Destructive Power
2. Productive Power
22 22

3. Integrative Power

Famous Quotes
▪ “A perpetual and restless desire for power after power, that ceaseth only in
death”- THOMAS HOBBES Dec 2021

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Friedrich Engels: The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
- Gaetano Mosca: The Ruling Class (1896) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Robert Michels: Political Parties (1911)
- Vilfredo Pareto: The Mind and Society (1915-19)
- Mahatma Gandhi: Young Italy (1925)
- C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite (1956) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Robert Dahl: A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956) and Who Governs? (1961),
Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy (1982)
- Hannah Arendt: On Violence (1969) (June 2023 Shift 2)
- C.B. Macpherson: Democratic Theory—Essays in Retrieval (1973)

Elite Theory of power

Elite theory explores how a minority of individuals or groups, termed 'elites,' exercise power
over the majority. It came as criticism of Democracy and socialism. The elite theory was
first started in Central and Western Europe.

Early 20th Century Sociologists: Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, and Robert Michels ad-
vanced elite theory. (all 3 were from Italy)

Key Thinkers and Their Contributions

1. Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923)

o Book: The Mind and Society (1915-1919)

o Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian sociologist, is best known for his psychological
theory of elites. He believed that the ruling elite possesses certain psychologi-
cal traits like cunning, ambition, and leadership.
o Concept of Elite: Introduced the term 'elite' to describe a superior group with
high ability in any field. His theory of elite known as “Theory of Circulation
of Elite”
o Division of Elites:
▪ Governing Elite: Current holders of power.
▪ Non-Governing Elite: Competitors aiming to replace the governing
elite.
23 23

o Circulation of Elites: Constant competition between elites ensures that power

shifts among capable individuals, but the masses remain excluded from power.
He said, "History is a graveyard of aristocracies"
o He gave “Residues” list which elite must possess for stable: Combination,
Preservation, Expressiveness, Sociability and sexuality.
o He gave “derivations” which are classified by Pareto in four broad categories:
(1) affirmations; (2) appeals to authority; (3) appeals to principles; and
(4) verbal acrobatics. Pareto used this categorisation in content analyses of
ideologies.
o Qualities of Elites: Intelligence, talent, courage (lions), and cunning (foxes).
2. Gaetano Mosca (1858-1941)

Book: The Ruling Class (1896)

o Concept: Society is divided into rulers and the ruled. The ruling class controls
wealth, power, and prestige. He said in all societies, two classes of people
lives- the class that rules and the class that ruled.
o Ruling Class: Defined by organizational capacity and ability to invoke moral
and legal principles to gain consent from the ruled.
o Democratic Aspect: Believed leadership could emerge at all levels, suggest-
ing a degree of flexibility within the ruling class.
o Circulation of Elites: Similar to Pareto, Mosca acknowledged a dynamic
competition among elites.

3. Robert Michels (1876-1936)

o Book: Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies

of Modern Democracy (1911)
o Iron Law of Oligarchy: All organizations, regardless of their democratic in-
tentions, inevitably become oligarchies led by a few.
o Concept: As organizations grow, management falls to a small group of profes-
sional leaders who use their expertise to maintain power, sidelining the origi-
nal democratic aims. According to him for the success and survival of an or-
ganization, leadership becomes necessarily.
o Criticism: Some argue Michels' theory may not apply universally, as some or-
ganizations can be more democratic than others.

Contemporary thinkers

1. James Burnham, who, in The Managerial Revolution (1941), argued that a Manage-
rial class (managers and technocrats) dominated all industrial societies, both capi-
talist and communist. He gave Economic Approach of Elite theory.
2. Ortega Y. Gasset (1883-1955): He gave the concept of “Revolt of the masses”
(Book: Dogma of Masses)
24 24

3. Karl Mannheim, who had initially equated elite theories with fascism and with anti-
intellectualist doctrines, later championed the reconciliation between the elite theory
and the democratic theory.
4. Joseph A. Schumpeter, argued that in a democracy, political decisions are taken by
the 'leadership', not by the people themselves. "Democracy is often reduced to
nothing more than periodic elections."
5. In The Power Elite (1956), C.W. Mills described how the USA was controlled by a
small group of powerful people. According to him, this 'power elite' included three
main groups: big businesses (especially those linked to weapons and defence), the
military, and the political leaders close to the President.

Citizenship
➢ Relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual
owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection. (Shift 1 2022)

Theories of Citizenship :-
1 LIBERAL THEORY: described as 'evolutionary theory of citizenship'.
- T.H. Marshall is regarded the chief exponent of this theory.
- Marshall has observed that citizenship prescribes equal rights and duties, liberties
and constraints, powers and responsibilities for different individuals.
- T.H. Marshall has given an analysis of citizenship in an evolutionary perspective:-
- First stage: civil rights were evolved in the eighteenth century.
- Second stage: political rights were evolved in the nineteenth century.
- Third stage: social rights were developed in the twentieth century.
2 LIBERTARIAN THEORY:
- Robert Nozick is the chief exponent of this theory.
- This theory regards citizenship as the product of free choice and contract among
individuals. It considers 'market society' as a suitable model of civic life.
3 COMMUNITARIAN THEORY (Republican theory):
- A citizen should identify himself with the community of which he is a member, and
take active part in its political life.
- The exponents of this theory include Hannah Arendt, Michael Walzer and
Benjamin Barber.

4 MARXIST THEORY:
- Anthony Giddens is the chief exponent of this theory.
- According to him, it was no longer possible for the modern state to manage its
affairs by force alone. More opportunities were generated for subordinate groups
to influence their rulers. Giddens has termed this phenomenon as 'two-way'
expansion of power.
5 PLURALIST THEORY:
25 25

- Pluralist theory of citizenship treats the development of citizenship as a complex

and multi-dimensional process.
- B. S. Turner in his book ‘Citizenship and Social Theory’ elaborated pluralist theory
of Citizenship.(Dec 2019)
➢ CRITIQUES OF CITIZENSHIP:-
- Feminist critics: even after getting full citizenship in law, women continue to suffer
from subjection in their social life.
- The Subaltern Critique: Under capitalist system apparently equal rights were
granted to all citizens. But in actual practice capitalists performed the function of
ruling class and subordinate groups were denied access to 'hegemonic' power.
➢ Derek Heater termed ‘Multiple Citizenship’.
➢ Iris Marion Young championed the notion of ‘Differentiated Citizenship’.
➢ Will Kymlicka advanced the idea of Multicultural Citizenship and identified three
kinds of minority rights which are as follows-
1. Self-Government Rights
2. Polyethnic Rights
3. Representation Rights
➢ Yasemin Soysal argued that globalization has brought a ‘new and more universal’
concept of citizenship.
➢ “The concept of citizenship has gone out of fashion among political thinkers” - Herman
Van Gunsteren. (June 2023 Shift 2)

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- T.H. Marshall: Citizenship and Social Class (1950)
- Hannah Arendt: The Human Condition (1958) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)
- Michael Walzer: Spheres of justice (1983) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Anthony Giddens: A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (1981),
Profiles Critiques of Social Theory (1982)
- Benjamin Barber: Strong Democracy (1984)
- B. S. Turner: Citizenship and Social Theory (1993)

SOVEREIGNTY
- The term 'sovereignty' means supreme. Thus, sovereignty denotes supremacy or
supreme power of the state.
- Sovereignty is by nature an absolute, unlimited and perpetual power.
26 26

Classical Theory of Sovereignty

- According to Jean Bodin- Sovereignty as the 'supreme power over citizens and
subjects unrestrained by law'.
Thus, Bodin places the sovereign above law, because he himself is the source of
law.
- Hugo Grotius brought out the implications of sovereignty of the state in the
international sphere.
- Thomas Hobbes, places authority of the sovereign beyond challenge. He added an
element of legitimacy to authority of the sovereign, because be held:
(a) that the sovereign is the product of the will of the people
(b) that the sovereign enjoys his supreme authority for its functional value, that is
by virtue of providing order, peace and security in the place of anarchy and
oppression.
- John Locke did not concede absolute sovereignty of the state.
He thought that the supreme power in society was held by the people. Ruler or
government could not possess supreme power.
- Jean Jacques Rousseau introduced the doctrine of popular sovereignty. (March
2023 Shift 1)
Rousseau maintained that sovereignty is absolute and unlimited because the
supreme direction and control of the general will be accepted by the people
unconditionally in the interests of their freedom.
- John Austin: the theory of sovereignty as a legal concept was perfected by Austin.
He is regarded as the greatest exponent of the monistic theory of sovereignty.
Austin sought to define law as the command of the sovereign, obliging the subject
to do or refrain from doing, certain acts, failure to obey the law being visited by
penalty. (March 2023 Shift 1)
- CHARACTERISTICS OF SOVEREIGNTY
1. Absoluteness
2. Permanence
3. Universality
4. Inalienability
5. Indivisibility
▪ Pluralist Theory of Sovereignty-
- Leon Duguit: 'public service' rather than sovereignty is the essential characteristic
of the state.
- Rejects the theory of absolute sovereignty and makes the state responsible to
society.
- Hugo Krabbe proceeds to distinguish between law and the state, and argues that
law is independent of and superior to the state.
- Thus, sovereignty is an attribute of law, not of the state.
- Harold j. Laski is the most ardent exponent of the pluralist theory of sovereignty.
27 27

- Laski insists that sovereignty in the state should be shared by many groups
according to the respective value of the functions of each group.
- The state should perform its coordinating function, but has no right to
omnipotence.

Major Works of Major Thinkers

- Harold J. Laski-
o A Grammar of Politics (1938)
o The State in Theory and Practice (1935)
o The Foundations of Sovereignty (1921)
o Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (1943)
- Hugo Krabbe- The Idea of the Modern State (1922)
- Robert M. Maclver-
o Modern State (1926)
o The Web of Government (1947/1965)

STATE
➢ State embraces the whole of people in a specific territory and it has the special
function of maintaining social order. It performs this function through its agent, the
government 'which speaks with the voice of law'. (R.M. Maclver)
➢ Four elements of a state: population, territory, government and sovereignty
➢ modern state could be traced in the writings of Nicolo Machiavelli, who is credited
with first using the concept of the state—stato—to refer to a territorial sovereign
government
➢ Michel Foucault: the state is the result of the practices of the government. The state
flows from this modern practice of ordering life into structures.

Functions of State for Individualism

• The principle of individualism, also known as Laissez Faire, advocates for minimum
interference by the government in the functions of the individual.

• It supports the idea that the state should only interfere when it feels that one
individual is unnecessarily interfering in the liberty of the other. Beyond these
protective functions, the individual should be left completely free.

• In the context of Individualism, the state is seen as a necessary entity, but its functions
should be kept to a minimum.
The main functions of the state, according to individualistic theory, are:
28 28

1. Protection of the state and individuals against foreign aggression. (June 2023 Shift
1)
2. Protection of individual against individual, in matters of physical harm (injury,
aggression, and killing), slander, personal restraint, etc. (June 2023 Shift 1)
3. Protection of property (theft, dacoity, and other types of protection of property).
(June 2023 Shift 1)
4. Protection of individuals against false contracts or breach of contracts
5. Protection of individual against epidemics (June 2023 Shift 1)

Theories of State
(a) Organic theory of the state
- It regards the state as a natural institution and the individuals with its organs.
- It also views the state as an ethical institution.
- Exponents-
- Aristotle, “State is prior to man”.
- Edmund Burke, “Compared state with living organism”.
- G.W.F. Hegel, “State is march of God on Earth”.

(b) Theory of Social Contract

- It treats the state as the product of the mutual agreement of men, created
with a definite purpose, to serve certain social needs.
- Main Exponents
- Thomas Hobbes postulates a single contract by which men abandon the state
of nature and establish society and state together
- Locke believes that society and state were created in different steps: creation
of society is the primary step; setting up of the government is a secondary
step. So, if the government is dissolved, society does not disintegrate. Order
will be restored by setting up another government in its place
- Rousseau postulates a single contract, and thereby creates absolute,
indivisible and inalienable sovereignty.

(c) Welfare State perspective

- Emphasis is on positive role of the state in securing welfare of its citizens,
particularly of their vulnerable sections.
- Main Exponents:-
- J.S. Mill: supporter of constitutional and representative government, and laid
the foundations of the 'welfare state'.
- L.T. Hobhouse, idea of social origin of property and its corresponding
responsibility toward society.
29 29

- Thomas Hill Green, Concept of Moral Freedom.

- Harold J. Laski, proceeded to identify certain positive characteristics and
tendencies of the 'modern state' which held some promise for the
underprivileged sections.
- Robert M MacIver, State is an effective organ of attaining social unity and
solidarity, and this particular function distinguishes it from all other human
associations.

(d) Class perspective

- Class perspective on the state is associated with Marxism.
- It treats the state neither as a 'natural institution' nor as an 'ethical institution'
but it, treats the state as an artificial device.
- Exponents: Karl Marx, Fredrich Engels and Lenin have made it amply clear that
the state is but an instrument of class rule and exploitation.

(e) Pluralist Theory of State

- State is among many associations i.e. state is associations of associations.
- Unlike Marxism, this theory holds that state is a neutral referee managing
interests of many associations or groups.
- Exponents: Robert Dahl, Harold Laski, R.M. MacIver, Martin Lipset.

Famous Quotes on State

- State is the highest form of political association aiming at the highest of
goods- Aristotle
- State is an individual writ large- Plato
- State is march of God on Earth- Hegel
- State is a political association set up as a result of social contract to preserve
life and maintain peace and order-Hobbes
- State represents General Will of the body politic set up as a result of the
social contract- Rousseau
- State is the instrument to protect and further the interest of the whole
Bourgeoisie class- Karl Marx
- State is the human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate
use of physical force/violence within a given territory- Max Weber

Major works of major thinkers

- T. Skocpol – Bringing the State Back In(1985)
30 30

- R.M. Maclver – The Modern State (1926)

- Harold J. Laski – An Introduction to Politics (1931)
- Friedrich Engels – Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
- R.M. Maclver – The Web of Government (1965)
- Hobbes – Leviathan (1651) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Locke – Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690)
- Robert Nozick – Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)

Normative tradition of political theory

• The Normative tradition of political theory is an approach that seeks to identify
and evaluate the values and ideals that should guide political action and decision-
making.
• It is concerned with questions such as what is just, what is fair, and what is good.
• The Normative tradition of Political Theory focuses on prescribing how political
systems ought to be based on moral and ethical principles.
The following thinkers are associated with the Normative tradition of Political Theory: (June
2023 Shift 1)
A. Bertrand de Jouvenal: Bertrand de Jouvenal was a French political philosopher who
explored normative aspects of political theory. He focused on issues such as the nature of
power, the role of the state, and the relationship between individual liberty and authority.
Book - The Pure Theory of Politics, (1963).
B. Eric Voegelin: Eric Voegelin was a prominent political philosopher who discussed
normative concepts in his work. He examined the nature of political order, the role of
ideology, and the search for transcendent meaning in political life.
Book – The New Science of Politics (1952). (June 2023 Shift 1)
D. Yves Simon: Yves Simon was a French American political philosopher who contributed to
the normative tradition of Political Theory. He delved into topics such as natural law, ethics,
and the moral foundations of political authority.
Book – A General Theory of Authority (1948) (June 2023 Shift 1)

Post-Behaviouralism
• Post-Behaviouralism, also known as Neo-Behaviouralism, emerged as a reaction
against the dominance of behaviouralist methods in the study of politics.
• David Easton had earlier drawn up a list of 8 characteristic features of Behaviouralism
and called them the “Intellectual foundation stones” of the Behavioural movement.
31 31

• In 1969, Easton accepted the demerits of Behaviouralism and himself came out with
7 major characteristics of Post- Behaviouralism.
• He described them as the “Credo of Relevance” or “a distillation of the maximal
image.”
• Techniques and Quantification are two most important points for Behaviouralism.
These 7 points are as follows:
1. In Political Science Substance must come before Techniques. (June 2023 Shift 1)
2. Political Science should place its main emphasis upon Social Change and not on social
conservatism as behaviouralists seem to be doing. (June 2023 Shift 1)
3. Political scientists should always concern themselves with the realities of political life,
including the social stress, social strains, social conflict and crises. They should study and take
into account all Facts/Realities of Politics.
4. Protection of Human Value as the Major Role or Intellectuals.
5. Values cannot be totally eliminated from Political Science. Post-Behaviouralists advocate a
rejection of complete value neutralism, as advocated by the behaviouralists. (June 2023 Shift
1)
6. Political Science is to be developed as an Action Science and Contemplative Science.
7. The professional associations and the universities themselves cannot stand apart from the
struggles of the day. Politicalisation of the Professions is inescapable as well as desirable.
(June 2023 Shift 1)

Political Ideologies
LIBERALISM
• It came into being since 17th Century in the west. But popularised in 19th century.
• The core principle of liberalism is on 'liberty' of individual.
• Individual should have the right to develop his own personality. (Shift 2 2022)
• It is against restraints imposed by an authoritarian state.
• Michael Walzer – Liberalism is a self-subverting doctrine. (December 2018)
• Basic tenets of Liberalism-
✓ Man is a rational creature, believes in the primacy of procedure over the end-
product, promotes civil liberties and treats market society as the model of
social organization where role of the state is a necessary evil (that is;
protection of life and property).
32 32

✓ Liberalism upholds the following-

1. The Individual
2. Freedom
3. Reason
4. Justice
5. Toleration and Diversity
• Liberalism is categorised into three of following categories-
1. Classical Liberalism
2. Modern Liberalism
3. Neo-Liberalism

• Classical Liberalism-
✓ It advocates laissez-faire individualism or egoistic individualism
✓ It is also known as “Negative Liberalism” because it emphasized on negative
freedom.
✓ It flourished in the 19th Century.

Exponents-
John Locke (1632-1704) -
✓ Father of Liberalism
✓ Concept of Natural Rights (the rights to life, liberty and property)
✓ A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
✓ Two Treatises of Government (1689)
Adam Smith (1723-90) -
✓ Father of Economics
✓ Concept of Economic Liberalism
✓ Concept of the Invisible Hand
✓ The Wealth of Nations (1776)
✓ The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) -

✓ Founder of Utilitarianism (June 2024 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
✓ An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation published in 1789.
✓ Anarchical Fallacies published in 1791
✓ Discourse on Civil and Penal Legislation published in 1802

• Modern Liberalism-
✓ It sought to modify the principle of laissez-faire individualism and advocated for a
Welfare state.
✓ It is also known as ‘Positive Liberalism’
✓ It flourished in the first half of the 20th century.
✓ It does not believe in the concept of minimal state. (Shift 1 2021)
33 33

Exponents-
John Stuart Mill (1806-73) -
✓ His ideas are known as ‘heart of liberalism’
✓ On Liberty (1859)
✓ Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
✓ The Subjection of Women (1869).
T.H. Green (1836-82) -
✓ His ideas described as ‘Social Liberalism’
✓ Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation (1895)
✓ Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)

Harold J. Laski (1893-1950) -

✓ He attacked the notion of an all-powerful sovereign state, arguing instead for
political pluralism.
✓ Developed theory of pluralistic sovereignty.
✓ Grammar of Politics (1925)
• Neo-Liberalism-
✓ It seeks to restore laissez faire individualism.
✓ It denounces the welfare state, opposes state intervention and control of
economic activities.
✓ It flourished in the second half of the 20th century.

Exponents-
F.A. Hayek (1899-1992) (December 2019)
✓ Best known for his defence of classical liberalism.
✓ The Road to Serfdom (1944)
✓ Individual and Economic Order (1948)
✓ The Constitution of Liberty (1960) (June 2023 Shift 2)
Milton Friedman (1912-2006) (December 2019)
✓ American- Economist and Noble Laureate.
✓ Capitalism and Freedom (1962)
Robert Nozick (1938-2002) (December 2019)
✓ Best known for his rigorous defense of libertarianism
✓ Advocated minimal state
✓ Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974)

CONSERVATISM
• Conservatism is referred to a life-style that is conventional, a refusal to change, that
is, particularly denoted by the verb ‘to conserve’.
• It was first used in the early 19th century.
• A central theme of conservatism is its defence of tradition – values, practices and
institutions. (Shift 1 2021) (Dec. 2024)
34 34

• Conservatism is, a ‘philosophy of human imperfection’ and reject those who say that
human beings can be made ‘good’ if their social circumstances are improved.
• Conservatives regard the family as the most basic institution of society.
• Conservatives held that Property is an asset that has a range of psychological and
social advantages. For example, it provides security.
Major Exponents-
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) (2020)
✓ Edmund Burke was the father of the Anglo-American Conservative Political
Tradition.
✓ A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)
✓ Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–59)
✓ Democracy in America (1954)
Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990) (2020) (Shift 1 2022)
✓ Michael Oakeshott advocated for limited province of politics.
✓ Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962)
✓ On Human Conduct (1975) (December 2023)
✓ Experience and its modes (1933)
✓ Introduction to Leviathan (1991)
Irving Kristol (1920-2009)
✓ He is the leading exponents of American neo-conservatism.
✓ Known as God-Father of Neoconservatism
✓ Two Cheers for Capitalism (1978)
✓ Reflections of a Neo-Conservative (1983).
SOCIALISM
• It emerged at the beginning of the 19th Century.
• According to socialism, human beings are social beings
• It held that natural relationship between human beings is one of cooperation.
• Socialists believed in social equality or equality of outcome because it upholds
justice, fairness and cooperation. (Shift 2 2022)
• Ramsay Muir defined socialism as a chameleon, which changes its colour according
to its environments. (Shift 1 2022)
• Under Socialism, the means of social production, distribution and exchange are
placed under social ownership and control.
• Evolutionary socialism
✓ It is also known as 'liberal socialism’.
✓ It relies on the democratic method, parliamentary reform and economic
planning to suit the interests of the underprivileged sections.
✓ It is, therefore, coterminous with 'democratic socialism'.
• Revolutionary socialism
✓ It is also known as ‘Marxian Socialism’.
✓ It insists on organizing the working classes for fighting against capitalism.
35 35

✓ It establishes complete socialization of the instruments of production and

distribution by means of revolution.
• Socialism is a cluster of ideas, values and theories which are as following: (Dec.
2024)
1. Community
2. Cooperation
3. Equality
4. Social class
5. Common ownership

Socialism - Syndicalism
• The socialist movement developed in France and Latin countries in the form of
Syndicalism. (June Shift 2 2023)
• Syndicalism is a form of revolutionary trade unionism that is based on a crude notion
of class war and emphasizes the use of direct action and the general strike.
• It advocates for the organization of workers into industrial unions (syndicates) with
the ultimate goal of achieving workers' control of the means of production
• It insists on the complete independence of labour unions from political parties.
• Syndicalism, a labor movement, gained significant traction in France from 1899 to
1937.
• Initially, it advocated for the sole right of workers to control industry. However, post
World War I, it broadened its perspective, acknowledging the equal rights of
consumers in industrial control.
Features of Syndicalism:
(a) Syndicalism accepted the class-struggle theory of Marx; (June 2023)
(b) it preached abolition of the political state;
(c) it urged industrial action as the only effective means of bringing about a
revolutionary change in society and treated the 'general strike' as a means of
securing workers' control over industry;
it visualized a social order in which all power would be given to the producer; trade
and industrial unions would serve as the economic framework of society.

Major Exponents-
Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950)
✓ Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1976)
Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)
✓ Evolutionary Socialism (1962)
Richard Henry Tawney (1880–1962)
✓ The Acquisitive Society (1921),
✓ Equality (1969)
✓ The Radical Tradition (1964).
36 36

Anthony Crosland (1918–77)

✓ The Future of Socialism (1956)
✓ Socialism Now (1974).

Socialism can be further categorised into the following –

• Fabian Socialism (June 2019)
o Fabian Socialism is based on the Ricardian Law of Rent.
o Fabian Socialism exclusively rely on the middle class with the socialist
message leading to social change.
• German Social Democracy
o German social democracy was developed by Ferdinand Lassalle.
o It is an important version of evolutionary socialism.
o It held that the working class should organize itself into a political party to
make its power legally effective.
• Revisionism
o Revisionist School of evolutionary socialism in Germany was led by Edward
Bernstein (1850-1932).
o Instead of class struggle and class rule, Bernstein preferred democracy.
o According to him, Liberal democracy is the very substance of socialism.
• Syndicalism (June 2019)
o Syndicalism was a socialist movement that was developed in France in the
period between 1899 and 1937.
o It sought to consider labour unions and their federations as future of socialist
order.
o Syndicalism insisted on the complete independence of the labour unions
from political parties.
• Guild Socialism (June 2019)
o It was first appeared in England which tried to combine the positive points of
socialism with those of the ancient guild system.
o It sought to upheld the Marxian emphasis on class struggle
o It also advocated for the abolition of the wage system.
o It was propagated during 1916 to 1926.

MULTICULTURALISM
• The term was first used in 1965 in Canada to describe a distinctive approach to
tackling the issue of cultural diversity
• But as a theory it was emerged first through the activities of the black consciousness
movement of the 1960s, primarily in the USA.
• Multiculturalism upholds communal diversity, racial, ethnic and language difference.
• It recommends the policies which promotes accommodation of cultural diversity in a
social structure.
37 37

• Multiculturalism advocates for the cultural development of minorities.

• Multiculturalism is associated with a collective notion of identity based on ethnicity,
race, language.
• It seeks for system of voluntary, mutually beneficial and harmonious exchange.
• Multiculturalism implies a positive endorsement of communal diversity, based upon
the right of different cultural groups to recognition and respect.

• Multiculturalism - Internal restriction and external restriction

Will Kymlicka, in his “Multicultural Citizenship” introduces a distinction between internal
restrictions and external protections, where he integrates the view of minority rights into
liberal theory. (March 2023 Shift 1)
He has used the terms internal restriction and external restriction to describe the challenges
faced by minority cultures in a multicultural society. He uses these distinctions to
strengthen and clarify the conception of minority rights.
In the context of multiculturalism, the terms “internal restriction” and “external restriction”
are used to describe different aspects of how cultural groups interact with their members
and with society at large.
1. Internal Restrictions: These refer to rules and practices enforced within a minority group
to maintain its cultural identity and cohesion. They are the limitations imposed by the
minority culture on its own members. This concept concerns the rights of a group against
dissenting members of the same group.
2. External Protections: These are measures taken by the state or majority society to
safeguard the cultural rights of minority groups. They refer to the limitations imposed by the
dominant culture on the minority culture. This concept concerns the rights of a group
against the society at large.
In summary, Internal restrictions refer to the limitations imposed by the minority culture on
its own members, while external restrictions refer to the limitations imposed by the
dominant culture on the minority culture.

Major Exponents-
Will Kymlicka
✓ According to Will Kymlicka, it is Within the framework of differentiated
citizenship that multiculturalism has sanctioned three kinds of special rights
which are as follows:
1. Cultural Rights/ Polyethnic rights
2. Self-Government Rights
3. Special-Representation Rights (June 2023 Shift 2)
✓ Liberalism, Community and Culture (1989)
✓ Multicultural Citizenship (1995).
Edward Said
✓ founding figure of postcolonial theory.
✓ Orientalism (1978)
✓ Culture and Imperialism (1993)
Charles Taylor (June 2024 Shift 1)
38 38

✓ Taylor drew on communitarian thinking to construct a theory of

multiculturalism as ‘the politics of recognition’.
✓ Sources of the Self (1989)
✓ The Politics of Recognition (1994).
Bhikhu Parekh
✓ Parekh’s multiculturalism held that human beings are culturally constituted in
the sense that their attitudes, behaviour and ways of life are shaped by the
groups to which they belong.
✓ The complexity of human nature is thus reflected in the diversity of cultures
✓ Rethinking Multiculturalism (2000)

POSTMODERNISM
• It emerged during 1970s in the Continental Europe.
• It is an intellectual movement that rejects the idea of absolute and universal truth,
and usually emphasizes discourse, debate and democracy. (Shift 2 2022)
• Its basis lies in the following-
• 1. Perceived social shift – from modernity to postmodernity
• 2. Related cultural and intellectual shift – from modernism to postmodernism.
Major Arguments
(1) there is no objective reality;
(2) there is no scientific or historical truth (objective truth);
(3) science and technology (and even reason and logic) are not vehicles of human progress
but suspect instruments of established power;
(4) reason and logic are not universally valid.
(5) There is such a thing as human nature. Human nature is socially constructed.
Exponents-
• Friedrich Nietzsche
✓ Most important precursor of postmodernism.
✓ His work stresses the importance of will, especially the ‘will to power’, and
emphasizes that people create their own world and make their own values.
✓ Beyond Good and Evil (1886)
• Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)
✓ Being and Time (1927)
• Jean-Francois Lyotard (June 2019)
✓ Lyotard was primarily responsible for popularizing the term postmodern
✓ He gave the briefest definition of Post-Modernism: ‘incredulity (disbelief)
towards meta-narratives.’
✓ The Postmodern Condition (1979). (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Michel Foucault (June 2019)
✓ Madness and Civilization (1961)
✓ The Birth of the Clinic (1963)
✓ The Order of Things (1966) (Dec. 2024)
39 39

✓ Discipline and Punish (1975)

✓ The History of Sexuality (1976)
• Jacques Derrida (June 2019) (June 2024 Shift 2)
✓ Writing and Difference (1967)
✓ Margins of Philosophy (1972)
✓ Spectres of Marx (1993).
• Richard Rorty
✓ Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979)
✓ Consequences of Pragmatism (1982)
✓ Contingency, Irony and Solidarity (1989).

ECOLOGISM
• The term ecology was coined by the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
(Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1) (Dec. 2024)
• The word ‘ecology’ was derived from Greek word oikos, meaning household or
habitat. (Shift 2 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Modern ecologism emerged during the 1960s due to the damage done to
environment.
• Central feature is that it regards nature as an interconnected whole by which means
it embraces humans and non-humans as well as the inanimate world.
• Ecologism is a reaction against the process of industrialization.
• It held that Human beings shall practise humility, moderation and gentleness, and to
abandon the misguided dream that science and technology can solve all their
problems
• Ecofeminism which is combination of Ecology and Feminism is a particular form of
Social Ecology.
• The term ecofeminism was coined by Francoise d’Eaubonne in 1974.
(Shift 2 2022)
• According to Ecofeminists, Ecological Destruction has its origin in Patriarchy, nature
is under threat not from humankind but from men and institutions of male power.
• Vandana Shiva is a popular Ecofeminist of India. (December 2019)
1. Ecology
o Ecologism provides a radically different vision of nature and the place of
human beings that is ‘eco-centric’ or nature-centred rather than
anthropocentric.
2. Holism
o The term ‘holism’ was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts.
o Holism describe the idea that the natural world could only be understood as
a whole and not through its individual parts.
40 40

3. Sustainability
o It held that for living in a planet requires an understanding of the ecological
processes that sustain life.
o Policies and actions must therefore be judged by the principle of
‘sustainability’, to maintain its health and continue in existence.
4. Environmental ethics
o It involves applying moral standards in relation to human beings to other
species and organisms. For example- Animal rights.
o It upheld the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community.
5. Self-actualization
o It is an alternate philosophy to a rejection of human self-interestedness and
material greed.
o It is based upon Abraham Maslow's ‘hierarchy of needs’, which places the
need for esteem and self-actualization above material or economic needs.
• Deep Ecologism (March 2023 Shift 2)
✓ It rejects the belief that the human species are superior than nature and held
that the purpose of human life is to help sustain nature.
• Shallow Ecologism (2020) (Shift 2 2021)
✓ It accepts the lessons of ecology but at the same time also harnesses them to
human needs and ends.
Major Exponents-
• Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (June 2024 Shift 1)
✓ He championed the cause of human-scale production and helped to develop
an ecological philosophy.
✓ Small is Beautiful (1973) (Shift 1 2021)
• James Lovelock
✓ He is best known for the Gaia hypothesis which portrays the Earth’s
biosphere as a complex, self-regulating, living ‘being’, called Gaia.
(2020) (Shift 2 2021)
✓ Gaia (1979) (Shift 1 2021)
✓ The Ages of Gaia (1989).
• Murray Bookchin
✓ He is the leading proponent of ‘social ecology’.
✓ Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1971)
✓ The Ecology of Freedom (1982)
✓ Remaking Society (1989)
• Rachel Carson (Dec. 2024)
✓ Critique of the damage done to wildlife and the human world by the increased
use of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals
✓ The Silent Spring (1962) (Shift 1 2021) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Caroline Merchant
✓ She has highlighted links between gender oppression and the “death of
nature”.
41 41

✓ Merchant developed a feminist critique of a scientific revolution that

explained environmental degradation ultimately in terms of the application
by men of a mechanistic view of nature.
✓ The Death of Nature (1980)
✓ Radical Ecology (1991).
• Rudolph Bahro
✓ Best known for his attempts to reconcile socialism with ecological theories.
✓ Socialism and Survival (1982)
✓ From Red to Green (1984)
✓ Building the Green Movement (1986)
• Arne Naess
✓ The Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in 1973 was the first to make the
distinction between the deep ecologists and the shallow or humanist
ecologists. (Shift 2 2022) (June 2024 Shift 2)
• Ernst Haeckel:
• Ernst Haeckel was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher,
physician, professor, marine biologist, and artist.
• He coined the term “ecology” in 1866. (March 2023)
• His concept of ecology was part of a theoretical system embracing development,
evolution, and environment.
• Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin’s work in Germany.
• He developed the influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory
“ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”.
• Andrew Dobson:
• Andrew Dobson is known for his work in green political thought.
• Andrew Dobson makes a distinction between environmentalism and ecologism.
(March 2023)
• He describes and assesses the political ideology of ‘ecologism’, and compares this
radical view of remedies for the environmental crisis with the ‘environmentalism’ of
mainstream politics.
• He examines the relationship between ecologism and other political ideologies, the
philosophical basis of ecological thinking, the potential shape of a sustainable
society, and the means at hand for achieving it.
• His work is considered a starting point for all students, academics, and activists who
want an introduction to green political theory.
Major Exponents and their Works:
1. Ernst Haeckel: Coined the term "ecology" in 1866.
2. Ernst Friedrich Schumacher: "Small is Beautiful" (1973), promotes human-scale
production and ecological economics.
3. James Lovelock: "Gaia" (1979), proposed the Gaia hypothesis, viewing the Earth as
a self-regulating organism.
42 42

4. Murray Bookchin: "Post-Scarcity Anarchism" (1971), "The Ecology of Freedom"

(1982), proponent of social ecology.
5. Rachel Carson: "Silent Spring" (1962), exposed the harmful effects of pesticides on
the environment.
6. Garrett Hardin: The Tragedy of the Commons (1968), describes a situation where
individuals, acting in their own self-interest, overuse and deplete a shared resource,
leading to its eventual destruction.
7. Caroline Merchant: "The Death of Nature" (1980), explored the connection between
gender oppression and environmental destruction.
8. Rudolph Bahro: "Socialism and Survival" (1982), sought to reconcile socialism and
ecological theories.
9. Arne Naess: Distinguished between deep and shallow ecologism.
Major international UN environmental conferences
✓ 1972: UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm) - Raise awareness and
generate political momentum for international environmental action.
✓ 1992: UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro) - Formu-
late strategies to address sustainable development, including climate change and biodiver-
sity.
✓ 2002: World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg) - Renew commit-
ments to sustainable development and address poverty and environmental degradation
✓ 2012: UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio de Janeiro) - Focus on green
economy, institutional framework for sustainable development, and sustainable develop-
ment goals.
✓ 2015: UN Climate Change Conference (Paris) - Negotiate the Paris Agreement, aiming
to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius.

Major Environmental Days:

• World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd.
• International Day of Forests: Celebrated on March 21st.
• Earth Hour: Observed on the last Saturday of March.
• Earth Day: Celebrated on April 22nd.
• World Environment Day: Celebrated on June 5th.
• World Oceans Day: Celebrated on June 8th.
• International Tiger Day: Celebrated on July 29th.
• World Soil Day: Celebrated on December 5th.

Major international environmental Treaties

✓ 1946: International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

43 43

✓ 1950: World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

✓ 1959: Antarctic Treaty
✓ 1971: Ramsar Convention - Conserve and wisely use wetlands.
✓ 1972: UN Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE)
✓ 1973: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora) - Ensure international trade doesn't threaten the survival of wild ani-
mals and plants.
✓ 1979: Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals) - Conserve terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species throughout
their range.
✓ 1982: UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
✓ 1985: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer - Protect human
health and the environment from the adverse effects of ozone depletion.
✓ 1987: Brundtland Commission Report
✓ 1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer - Phase out the
production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances.
✓ 1988: International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
✓ 1989: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal.
✓ 1992: UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Earth Sum-
mit
✓ 1992: Convention on Biological Diversity - Conserve biological diversity, sustainably
use its components, and fairly share the benefits from genetic resources.
✓ 1992: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - Sta-
bilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous human inter-
ference with the climate system.
✓ 1994: UN Convention to Combat Desertification - Combat desertification and mitigate
the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought or
✓ desertification.
✓ 1997: Kyoto Protocol - Commit industrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions. (Linked to the UNFCCC)
✓ 2000: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
✓ 2009: UN Climate Change Conference (Copenhagen Summit)
✓ 2010: Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization
✓ 2013: Minamata Convention on Mercury - Protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury.
✓ 2015: Paris Agreement

Recent COPs:
44 44

1. COP 25: 2019 - Madrid, Spain

2. COP 26: 2021 - Glasgow, United Kingdom
3. COP 27: 2022 - Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt
4. COP 28: 2023 - Dubai, United Arab Emirates
5. COP 29: 2024 - Baku, Azerbaijan

MARXISM
• Marxism derives its name from that of Karl Marx and drew inspiration from, the
writings of Karl Marx.
• It emerged in the 19th century.
• Marxism came into being by the collaborated efforts of Engels, Karl Kautsky and
Georgi Plekhanov.
• Marxism appeared in the response to the oppressive conditions created by the
capitalist system.
• Marxism seeks to lay scientific foundations of socialism.
• The cornerstone of Marxist philosophy is what Engels called the ‘materialist
conception of history’.
• Main tenets of Classical Marxism include:
1. Dialectical Materialism
2. Historical Materialism
3. Doctrine of Class Conflict
4. Theory of Surplus Value.
• Classical Marxism (Dec. 2024)
o It held that private property divides society into dominant and dependent
classes with irreconcilable class interests.
o It is held together only by the ideological power of the dominant class.
o Human history moves towards its goal of human freedom through the
revolutionary destruction leading to the emergence of a classless society.
o Exponents-
Karl Marx
✓ The German Ideology (1846)
✓ The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)
✓ Manifesto of the Communist Party or the Communist Manifesto
(1848).
✓ A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859)
Friedrich Engels
✓ Anti- Duhring (1877)
✓ The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
✓ Dialectics of Nature (1925).
VI. Lenin (1870-1924)
✓ What Is to Be Done? (1902)
✓ Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916)
✓ The State and Revolution (1917) (June 2024 Shift 2)
Leon Trotsky (1879–1940)
✓ Results and Prospects (1906)
45 45

✓ History of the Russian Revolution (1931)

✓ The Revolution Betrayed (1936).
Mao Zedong
✓ On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship (1949)
✓ On the Ten Major Relationships (1956)
✓ On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among People (1957).

• Neo-Marxism
o criticized determinism and scientistic tendencies in orthodox Marxism
o It does not believe in Marx’s prediction of inevitable collapse of capitalism
o It more focus on ideology rather than upon economics
o It no longer treats working class as the revolutionary agent
o It attempts to criticize social practices and wants to change the society
o It seeks to analyse dominance and dependence, distortions in the
contemporary civilization and the possible ways to human emancipation.
o This school is also known as the Frankfurt school or the critical school.
o Exponents-
Theodor Adorno
✓ The Authoritarian Personality (1950)
✓ The Pattern of the Fascist Propaganda (1951)
✓ The Meaning of the Working through the Past (1959)
Max Horkheimer
✓ Eclipse of Reason (1947)
✓ Between Philosophy and Social Science (1938)
✓ Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947)
Herbert Marcuse
✓ Reason and Revolution (1941) (June 2023 Shift 2)
✓ One-Dimensional Man (1964) (Dec. 2024)

FEMINISM
• It stands for the concern with the status and role of women in society in relation to
men.
• It implies a voice of protest against the inferior status accorded to women in society,
which is the product of the institution of 'patriarchy, and not based on reason.
• Feminist political thought has primarily been concerned with two issues.
1. It analyses the institutions, processes and practices through which women have
been subordinated to mem.
2. It explores the most appropriate and effective ways in which this subordination
can be challenged.
Basic Themes
• redefining ‘the political’
• patriarchy
• sex and gender
• equality and difference.
46 46

• Waves of Feminism –
First Wave
✓ The ‘first wave’ of feminism was associated with the women’s suffrage
movement. (Shift 1 2021)
✓ It emerged in the 1840s and 1850s.
✓ ‘First-wave’ feminism ended with the achievement of female suffrage,
introduced first in New Zealand in 1893.
✓ Proponents- Mary Wollstonecraft, J.S. Mill, Susan B. Anthony.

Second Wave (Dec. 2024)

✓ The ‘second wave’ of feminism arose during the 1960s.
✓ It expressed, in addition to the established concern with equal rights, the
more radical and sometimes revolutionary demands of the growing Women’s
Liberation Movement. (Shift 1 2021)
✓ The most famous slogan of second-wave feminism being “The personal is the
political”.
✓ Proponents- Betty Friedan, Kate Millet, Germaine Greer, Shulamith
Firestone, Simone de Beauvoir, Susan Brownmiller.
Third Wave
✓ It emerged during 1990s.
✓ Third-wave feminism also became more conscious of race.
Kimberle Crenshaw, a gender and critical-race scholar, coined the phrase
“intersectionality” in 1989.
✓ The phrase “third-wave feminism” was coined in 1992 by Rebecca Walker.
✓ The third wave was made possible by the greater economic and professional
power and status achieved by women of the second wave.
✓ Proponents- Eve Ensler, Kimberle Crenshaw, Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy
Richards.
Fourth Wave
✓ It began in 2012.
✓ It focuses on sexual harassment, body shaming and rape culture among other
issue.
✓ The most important feature of this wave is the use of social media to
highlight the issues.
✓ Proponents- Rebecca Solnit, Jessica Valenti, Laura Bates.
Post-Colonial Feminism
• Postcolonial feminism emerged in the 1980s as a critique of mainstream feminism.
• It addresses the experiences of women in both Western cultures and former
colonies, challenging universalizing assumptions.
• Postcolonial feminism seeks to account for the way that racism and the long-lasting
political, economic, and cultural effects of colonialism affect non-white, non-
Western women in the postcolonial world.
47 47

• There are differences not only between men and women but also between women
from different parts of the world. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Factors such as culture, ethnicity, and geographic location are important for
understanding the marginalization of women. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Postcolonial feminism situates historical knowledge of colonialism with regard to
cultural, economic, and political oppression. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Postcolonial feminism centers on the experiences of individuals facing gender
discrimination in the Global South.
Key themes:
• Challenges Universalizing Assumptions
• Culture, Ethnicity, and Location
• Differences between women
Core Goal:
• Empowerment in the Global South
Prominent thinkers: Toni Morrison, Audre Lorde, Gayatri Spivak, Chandra Mohanty, Trinh T.
Minh-ha, Leela Gandhi, Uma Narayan.
Black Feminism
• Black feminism is a political and social movement that emphasizes the
multidimensional aspects of the oppression of Black women.
• It seeks to understand the injustices affecting the daily lives of Black women and
highlights the intersectionality of racism and sexism.
• Black feminists have rejected the claim of Universal Sisterhood. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Black feminism challenges conventional feminism by highlighting racial disparities
and recognizing that women’s experiences of oppression vary based on their racial
and ethnic identities.
• Black feminism emphasizes the intersectionality of sexism and racism, portraying
them as interconnected systems of oppression.
• This perspective underscores the unique and multifaceted challenges faced by
women of colour, who often grapple with a complex interplay of gender, racial, and
economic disadvantages.
Key themes:
• Racism
• Multiple oppressions
• Differences between women
Core goal: Counter interconnected racial, gender and class structures.
Prominent thinkers: Sojourner Truth, bell hooks, Audre Lorde, Alice Walker, Angela Davis,
Patricia Hill Collins. (June 2024 Shift 1)
Major Exponents-
48 48

Mary Wollstonecraft
✓ A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) (March 2023 Shift 1)
✓ It is usually regarded as the first text of modern feminism.

Simone de Beauvoir (1906–86)

✓ The Second Sex (1949). (Shift 1 2022)

Kate Millett (1934)

✓ Sexual Politics (1970) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)

Juliet Mitchell
✓ Women’s Estate (1971)
✓ Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974)
✓ Feminine Sexuality (1985).

Shulamith Firestone
✓ The Dialectic of Sex (1970) (Shift 1 2022)

Catherine A. MacKinnon
✓ Sexual Harassment and Working Women (1979)
✓ Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (1989)
✓ Only Words (1993)

Germaine Greer
✓ The Female Eunuch (1970)
Susan Brownmiller
✓ Against Our Will (1975)
Eve Ensler
✓ The Vagina Monologues (1966)
✓ The Guerrilla Girls (1998)
Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards
✓ Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future (2000)
Rebecca Solnit
✓ Men Explain Things to Me (2014)
Jessica Valenti
✓ Sex Object: A Memoir (2016)
Laura Bates
✓ Everyday Sexism (2016)
Betty Friedan
✓ The Feminine Mystique (1963) (Shift 1 2022)
Hélène Cixous
✓ The Laugh of the Medusa (1975) (June 2023 Shift 2)
49 49

Julia Kristeva
✓ "The Powers of Horror" (1980) (June 2023 Shift 2)
Carol Gilligan
✓ In a Different Voice (1982) (March 2023 Shift 2)

Zionism
• Zionism is a nationalist movement that originated in eastern and central Europe in the
latter part of the 19th century.
• Its goal is the creation and support of a Jewish national state in Palestine, the ancient
homeland of the Jews.
• The term “Zion” refers to Jerusalem, and throughout history, certain areas in Israel
have been considered sacred by Jews, as well as Christians and Muslims.
• The movement was formally established as a political organization by Theodor Herzl
in 1897.
• In 1917, the British government expressed its support for the establishment of a
Jewish home in Palestine in the Balfour Declaration.
• Zionist movement successfully established a Jewish homeland with the creation of the
modern state of Israel in 1948.
Zionist movement and Zionist congress
• The Zionist movement and the Zionist Congress were both established by Theodor
Herzl. (June 2023 Shift 1) Herzl is often considered the father of modern political
Zionism.
• In 1897, Herzl convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. This congress
shaped the policies of the World Zionist Organization and the Jewish Agency, meeting
periodically in Jerusalem.
• Herzl’s vision was the creation and support of a Jewish national state in Palestine, the
ancient homeland of the Jews.
• His ideas attracted international attention and rapidly established Herzl as a major
figure in the Jewish world.
• Herzl’s vision, though he passed away in 1904, came true when Israel was established
in 1948.
• Zionism persists, supporting Israel, combating antisemitism, aiding persecuted Jews,
and encouraging diaspora Jews to relocate there.
50 50

Philosophical Anarchism
• Anarchism is an ideology which talks about absence of formal authority in both individual
and social matters.
• Anarchists believe in state-less society (June2023) in which individuals are free to manage
their affairs by voluntary agreement, without compulsion or coercion.
• Anarchists consider state as unnecessary evil, because they don't want state to control the
lives of individuals through coercive law and regulations. Believes in moral authority of
collective decision.

• Anarchists believe that people can live together peacefully without the need for strong
governments telling them what to do. They trust that individuals can get along well without
being forced or controlled by powerful nations.
• Anarchists generally accept rational authority, like experts such as scientists and doctors,
as well as moral authority from democratic decisions.
• They oppose hierarchical authority, like in churches, armies, capitalist enterprises, and
bureaucracies.
• William Godwin (1756- 1836) is regarded as father of anarchism. Book: Enquiry Concerning
Political Justice (1793) is regarded to be the first systematic defence of anarchism, where
he urged for a stateless society in his work.
• P. J. Proudhon (1809-19565), a French philosopher was the first to call himself as an
Anarchist.
• In What is Property? (1840), Proudhon came up with the famous statement that ‘Property
is theft’ and condemned a system of economic exploitation based on the accumulation of
capital.
Core Theme:
• Anti-Statism
• Utopianism
• Anti-Clericalism
• Economic Freedom
Aim of anarchism
• Anarchist thinkers have one common aim: abolition of the state.
• But they widely differ as to how the state should be abolished, and what type of
organization should be evolved to replace it.
Thinkers:
1. William Godwin (1756–1836): Philosophical Anarchism;
51 51

Book: An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1773)

2. Josiah Warren (1798–1874): Warren advocated a system of ‘equitable commerce’.

Books: Equitable Commerce (1852) and True Civilization (1863)

3. Max Stirner (1806–56): Stirner developed an extreme form of individualism, based on
egoism, which condemned all checks on personal autonomy.
Book: The Ego and his Own (1845)
4. Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809–65): Called himself first Anarchist gave concept of
Mutualism. Books: What is Property? (1840) and The Federal Principle (1863)
5. Mikhail Bakunin (1814–76): Revolutionary Anarchist, Bakunin proposed that freedom
could only be achieved through ‘collectivism’.
6. Henry David Thoreau (1817–62): In ‘Civil Disobedience’ (1849), he defended the
validity of conscientious objection to unjust laws, emphasizing that government
should never conflict with individual conscience, but he stopped short of explicitly
advocating anarchy.
7. Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921): Based on a theory of evolution that he proposed as an
alternative to Darwin’s. Gave principal of ‘mutual aid’. Books: Mutual Aid (1902), The
Conquest of Bread (1892) and Fields, Factories and Workshops (1898)
8. Leo Tolstoy: Pacificist Anarchist

9. Mahatma Gandhi: Enlightened Anarchism

Types of Anarchism
1. Philosophical Anarchism: It is also known as anarcho-individualism. No individual
obligation or duty to obey state, Individuals as free soul not obliged to offer political obligation
to state/govt. It argues that no state in fact has authority over individual. (Dec 2023).
Prominent thinker associated: Godwin, Gandhi also Called himself philosophical Anarchist.
2. Revolutionary Anarchism: Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 76), a Russian revolutionary is regarded
as chief exponent of revolutionary Anarchism. Bakunin projected the vision of a socialist
society which would be organized from below upwards, not from above downwards.
Revolutionary anarchists opposed the authoritarian element in Marx's communism.

3. Socialist Anarchism: P. J. Proudhon (1809 - 65), a French philosopher is the chief exponent
of socialist anarchism. Socio-economic equality and justice, Rejects private property and
capitalism. He postulated concept of Mutualism. Peter Kropotkin wrote “Mutual Aid: A Factor
of Evolution”. His vision of Anarchism is also known as “communist Anarchism”.
52 52

4. Anarchic Socialism: It is also known as syndicalism, proposed for Trade and labour union-
based society. Its chief exponent was George Sorel (1847 -1922) and wrote Reflection on
violence (1908). He gave concept of “general strike”.
5. Pacific Anarchism: Anarchism on moral grounds. State as organised violence, social order
based on peace, love, non-violence. Its chief exponent was Leo Tolstoy (1828 -1910) - law of
love, a Russian Novelist.
6. Libertarian Anarchism: It is contemporary version of individualism anarchism. It’s a form
of extreme individualism. Its beginning may be traced to Herbert Spenser (1820 - 1903). F. A.
Hayek (1899 - 1992, an Austrian) & Robert Nozick (1938 – 2002) are also related to it.
Some Other strands:, social- Anarchists , Eco-Anarchists, Anarcho-feminism, religious,
national, analytical, Anarcho-Primitivism, etc.
Books Related to Anarchism
• Enquiry concerning political justice (1793) - Godwin.
• The Ego and his own (1844) - Max Stirner
• Civil Disobedience (1849) - Henry David Thoreau
• In Defence of Anarchism (1970) - R. P. Wolff
• The Conquest of Bread (1892)- Peter Kropotkin
• Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902)- Peter Kropotkin
• Statism and Anarchy (1873)- Mikhail Bakunin
• God and the State (1882)- Mikhail Bakunin
• Reflections on Violence (1908)- George Sorel
Extra Points:
• Who made the comment 'dictatorship of the proletariat' will become dictatorship on
the proletariat? : Bakunin
• Karl Marx wrote "Poverty of Philosophy”, in response to "philosophy of poverty" of
Proudhon and Feuerbach.
• Prominent Anarchist Thinkers: William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail
Bakunin, Leo Tolstoy (pacific anarchism), F.A. Hayek (libertarian anarchism), Gandhiji
(Enlightened Anarchism.
53 53

Communitarianism
Communitarianism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of
community in the functioning of political life, in the analysis and evaluation of political
institutions, and in understanding human identity and well-being.
In the sense Communitarian believe, individuals are shaped by the communities to which they
belong and thus owe them a debt of respect and consideration – there are no ‘unencumbered
selves’.
The term communitarian was coined in 1841 by John Goodwyn Barmby, who used it to refer
to utopian socialists and others who experimented with unusual communal lifestyles.
It arose in the 1980s as a critique of two prominent philosophical schools:
• Contemporary liberalism, which seeks to protect and enhance personal autonomy and
individual rights in part through the activity of government.
• Libertarianism, a form of liberalism that aims to protect individual rights—especially
the rights to liberty and property—through strict limits on governmental power.
Communitarianism values the needs or “common good” of society over the needs and rights
of individuals.
In placing the interests of the society over those of the individual citizens, communitarianism
is considered the opposite of liberalism.
Its overriding philosophy is based on the belief that a person’s social identity and personality
are largely moulded by community relationships. Shared understanding and common
meaning, based on shared history, culture or worldview (Dec 2023)
In essence, communitarianism is a socio-political ideology that aims to counter the
individualism underlying Western societies by emphasizing a balance between individual and
collective goals and values.
Prominent Communitarian Thinkers
1. Michael Sandel:
• Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (1996)
• Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1998)
• The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering (2007)
• Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? (2009)
• What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets (2012)
• The Tyranny of Merit: What’s Become of the Common Good? (2020) (March 2023 Shift
1)
54 54

2. Alsdair MacIntyrte:
• Three Rival Versions of Moral Inquiry: Encyclopedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (1990)
• Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (1988)
• After Virtue (1981) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• A Short History of Ethics: A History of Moral Philosophy from the Homeric Age to the
Twentieth Century (1986)
• Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues (1999)

3. Charles Taylor
• Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (1989)
• The Ethics of Authenticity (1992)
• Modern Social Imaginaries (2003)
• A Secular Age (2007)

4. Michael Walzer
• Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (1977)
• Spheres of Justice: A Défense of Pluralism and Equality (1983)
• Exodus and Revolution (1985)
• Arguing About War (2004)
• The Paradox of Liberation: Secular Revolutions and Religious Counterrevolutions
(2015)

Different Strands of communitarians:

• Left-wing communitarianism holds that community demands unrestricted freedom
and social equality (for example, anarchism).
• Centrist communitarianism holds that community is grounded in an
acknowledgement of reciprocal rights and responsibilities (for example, social
democracy/Tory paternalism).
• Right-wing communitarianism holds that community requires respect for authority
and established values (for example, neoconservatism)
55 55

Major Methodologies

(i) Deductive Method

• Also known as the philosophical or conclusive method.

• It moves from the general to the specific.
• In this method, a theory is accepted as self-evident.
• It is more value-laden.
• Used by Plato, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, etc.

Example: "All birds have feathers. A robin is a bird. Therefore, a robin has feathers."

(ii) Inductive Method

• This is a scientific method.

• It moves from the specific to the General.
• It explains a theory after detailed observation of an event or problem.
• It is more factual.
• Used by Aristotle, Machiavelli, Marx, John Locke, etc.

Example: "Every time I drop a ball, it falls to the ground. Therefore, gravity makes all ob-
jects fall."

(iii) Analogical Method

• In this method, the understanding and logic are strengthened by comparing one event
or problem with another.
• Used by Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, etc.

Example: "A government is like a human body. Just as the brain controls the body, a ruler
should control the state."
56 56

Major Traditions and their Proponents

Classical Liberalist / Negative Liberalist

• Supporters: John Locke, Herbert Spencer, J.S. Mill, Thomas Paine, Lord Acton, D.
Tocqueville
• Economists: Adam Smith, David Ricardo.

Neo-Liberalist
• Supporters: F. A. Hayek (The intellectual father), Nozick Berlin, Milton Fried-
man, Moore Rothbard
• Critics of Neo-Liberalism: Immanuel Wallerstein, John Rawls, Amartya Sen Joseph
Stiglitz, Noam Chomsky

Liberal Egalitarianism
Supporters: John Rawls, C.B. Macpherson, Amartya Sen, Dworkin, Eric Rakowski,
Roemer, B. Ackerman.

Communitarianism
• Supporters: Michael Sandel, MacIntyre, Michael Walzer, Charles Taylor, Robert
Putnam, Wim Kymlicka, Benjamin Barber, Brian Barry.
Neo-Marxism

Supporters and Thinkers:

• Antonio Gramsci: Known for his concept of cultural hegemony.

• Louis Althusser: Developed theories of ideological state apparatuses.
• Immanuel Wallerstein: Developed world-systems theory.
• Eric Olin Wright: Known for his work on class analysis.
• Stuart Hall: A key figure in cultural studies.

• The Frankfurt School:

o Max Horkheimer (Dialectic of Enlightenment, 1947)
o Theodor W. Adorno (Negative Dialectics, 1966)
o Herbert Marcuse (One dimensional man, 1964)
o Jürgen Habermas (The Theory of Communicative Action, 1981)

Behaviouralist Thinkers:

• Emphasize science and facts (Scientist / Positivist / Empiricist)

• Charles Merriam - Intellectual father of Behaviouralism
• David Easton - Father of Behaviouralism

Supporters: Charles Merriam, David Easton, Leonard White, Gosnell, Lasswell, Al-
mond, David Truman, Catlin, Quincy Wright, Schuman, V.O. Key, Robert Dahl.
57 57

Neo-Classical (Contemporary Traditionalist or Neo-Traditionalist)

• Emphasis on values and political philosophy

Supporters: Leo Strauss, Michael Oakeshott, Eric Voegelin, Juvenal, Buckle, Maitland,
Hannah arendt.

Multiculturalism

Supporters:

(A) Bhikkhu Parekh - Rethinking Multiculturalism (2000) - Dialogue-based Multicultural-

ism

(B) Will Kymlicka - Multicultural Citizenship (1995) - Liberal Egalitarian Multiculturalism

(C) Iris Marion Young - Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990) - Politics of Differ-
ence

(D) Charles Taylor - A Secular Age (2007) - Politics of Recognition

Subaltern Thinkers

• Primarily historians of South Asia

• Supporters of marginalized sections

Supporters: Ranajit Guha, Partha Chatterjee, Sudipto Kaviraj, Sumit Sarkar, Gayatri
Chakravorty.

Conservatism

Key Thinkers:

• Edmund Burke: Father of Conservatism. (Reflections on the Revolution in France,

1790)
• David Hume: Empiricist philosopher.
• Richard Hooker: Anti-Protestant theologian.
• Michael Oakeshott: Critic of rationalism. (Rationalism in Politics, 1962) (Neo- Con-
servatism)
• Leo Strauss: Neo-conservative thinker.
• Hannah Arendt: Theorist on revolutions. (On Revolutions, 1963)
58 58

Feminism

• Feminism is a movement that supports gender equality and the distinct identity of
women.
• It opposes patriarchy.

Liberal Feminist: Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792),

JS Mill (The Subjection of Women, 1869)

Radical Feminist: Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex, 1949), Betty Friedan (The
Feminine Mystique, 1963), Kate Millett (Sexual Politics, 1970), Shulamith Firestone
(The Dialectic of Sex, 1970), Virginia Woolf (A Room of One's Own, 1929), Carole Pate-
man (The Sexual Contract, 1988).

Elite Theory

Traditional Elite Theorists

• Vilfredo Pareto: "The Mind and Society" (1916)

• Gaetano Mosca: "The Ruling Class" (1896)
• Robert Michels: "Political Parties" (1911)
Pluralist Elite Theorists

• Karl Mannheim: "Ideology and Utopia" (1929)

• Joseph Schumpeter: "Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy" (1942)
• Anthony Downs: "An Economic Theory of Democracy" (1957)
• Robert Dahl: "Who Governs?" (1961), "Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition"
(1971)

Different Schools of Thought

1. Chicago School (USA)

• Associated with Behavioralism

• Focuses on empirical research, behavioralism, and the study of power dynamics in ur-
ban politics.
• Key Thinkers: Charles Merriam, Lasswell, David Easton, Almond

2. Vienna Circle (Austria, 1920s)

• Associated with Neo-Positivism / Logical Positivism

• Neo-Positivism was pioneered by Max Weber and the Vienna Circle.
• Key Thinkers: Moritz Schlick (Father), Rudolf Carnap, Feigl, Otto Neurath.

3. Virginia School (USA, Emerged in the 1960s)

• Related to Rational Choice Theory

• Key Thinkers: Duncan Black (Father), Kenneth Arrow, Tullock, Vincent Ostrom,
Niskanen, and Buchanan (Book - "The Calculus of Consent")
59 59

4. Cambridge School

• Focuses on historical and contextual analysis of political ideas and concepts.

• Related with Contextualism.
• Key Thinkers: Quentin Skinner, J.G.A. Pocock, Peter Laslett

5. Austrian School

• Advocates for free markets, individualism, and critiques state intervention in econom-
ics and politics.
• Key Thinkers: Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek, Carl Menger

6. Structuralist School

• Examines underlying structures that shape political behavior and institutions.

• Key Thinkers: Louis Althusser, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Nicos Poulantzas
60 60

Debate on the Decline of Political Theory

The "decline of political theory" debate in the mid-20th century cantered on the concern that
normative political theory was losing ground to empirical and behavioural approaches in po-
litical science.
While declaring of Decline political theory, these thinkers considered political theory as po-
litical philosophy.

Criticism of Traditional Political Theory

1. David Easton: Easton criticized traditional political theory for being speculative and de-
tached from political reality. He advocated for a behavioural approach to political sci-
ence, focusing on empirical study and causal theory.

Easton pointed out that there was no outstanding political philosopher after Marx and J.
S. Mill.

Easton gave 4 factors for decline of political theory in his Book: ‘The Decline of Mod-
ern Political Theory, 1953. they were: Historicism, Moral Relativism, Confusion be-
tween Science and Theory, Hyper Factualism.

2. Alfred Cobban: Cobban argued that political theory had lost relevance in both capitalist
and communist systems, where bureaucracy and military power dominated.

3. Dante Germino: in his work ‘beyond ideology the revival of Political Theory (1967)’
argued that there were two major causes for the decline of Political Theory first, the
craze of science (positivism) second, culmination of ideological evolution into Marx-
ism. He describes writing of Tracy, Comte and Marx as “ideological reductionism”

4. Robert Dhal: He mentions that Political Theory in English speaking world Political The-
ory is dead, in Communist world it is imprisoned.

5. Peter Laslett said ‘Political Theory is dead’ and Reimer said ‘Political theory in dog-
house’.

Scholars in favour of decline of Political Theory: R. Dhal, David Easton, Alfard Cobben,
Reimer, Peter Laslett, Barley and Dante Germino.

Défense of Political Philosophy

1. Leo Strauss: Strauss criticized the behavioural approach, emphasizing the im-
portance of normative issues and value judgments in political theory. He Believed in
the classical tradition of political philosophy (Plato to Hobbes) and brought values
back to political science.
61 61

2. Dante Germino: Germino argued that political philosophy is critical for understand-
ing right and wrong in society, and that it should not be reduced to behavioural sci-
ence or ideology.
(Book: Beyond Ideology: The Revival of Political theory, 1967)

3. Eric Voegelin: in his book ‘the New Science of Politics’ and ‘Political Theory as a
Vocation’ (1969) argued that political science and political theory is inseparable. Po-
litical theory is interpretative and concerned with meaning, values, and human
agency. Hence a theory cannot be reduced to empirical science.

4. John Rawls: Political Theory meets its revival in the monumental classic of John
Rawls with his ‘Theory of Justice’ (1971. He enriched his theory of justice by adopt-
ing John Locke’s theory of social contract, Kant’s theory of individualism.

Rawls challenged the notion that normative theory cannot be explained by methods
of natural science. He held that normative theory is not only consistent but also
similar in form with natural science.

5. Hannah Arendt: stressed on the uniqueness and responsibility of human being in her
book “human condition” She has criticized Behaviouralism and highlighted unique
human role of acting in concert.

Scholars in favour of resurgence of Political Theory: George H. Sabine, Eric Voegelin,

Leo Strauss, Hannah Arendt, Isiah Berlin, P.H. Pattridge, Michael Oakeshott, John Rawls, C
B Macpherson Alasdair Macintyre, Michael Walzer and Herbert Marcuse etc.
62 62

UNIT 2 – Western Political Thought

Confucius (551BCE- 479BCE): A Chinese Philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• Confucius (Kong Fuzi/Master Kong) is known as the first teacher in China ▪ Zen / Ren.
and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. ▪ Filial Piety.
• He also established ethical, moral, and social standards that formed the
▪ Morals.
basis of a way of life known as Confucianism.
• He talks about zen/ren which reflects the behaviour of human being. ▪ Analects.
• Confucius advocated Filial Piety which means a set of moral norms,
values, and practices of respect and caring for one’s parents.
• Within Confucianism there are five constant - virtues, benevolence,
righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.
• He suggested three ways to wisdom: 1. Reflection (noblest way)
2. Imitation (easiest way) 3. Experience (bitterest way)
Confucius’s Main works:
● Analects (collection of his teachings preserved by his pupils) (March 2023 Shift 1)
●Book of Changes
● Book of Songs (Shift 2 2021)

Plato (472 BCE- 347 BCE): An Athenian Philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• Considered as the founder of Western political philosophy. ▪ Myth of Metals.

• He is known as father of Idealism. ▪ Allegory of
• He talks about metaphysics; the world which is beyond this physical Cave.
world. ▪ Knowledge is
• Plato was the first to use dialectic method Virtue.
in Political philosophy. (June 2019)
▪ Metaphysics.
• Plato was a Statist thinker, he in his theory gave
greater importance to the state than to the rights ▪ Ideas as Forms.
of the people living in that state. ▪ Immovable
• For Plato State is the End and Individuals are the Means. Class Structure.
• In Plato’s Tripartite Theory of the Soul where he talk about three types ▪ Nocturnal
of soul : (a) The Appetites : Pleasures and Comfort Council
(b) The Spirited : Justice Seeker
▪ Appetite.
(c) The Mind : Conscious Awareness
▪ Normative.
• He in his famous work ‘Republic’ gave a Utopian concept of Ideal state.
• He favors Monarchy and gave the idea of Philosopher King. ▪ Ideal.
• Plato maintains a virtue-based conception of ethics. ▪ Class based
• According to him Knowledge is the only virtue. justice.
63 63

• Happiness or well-being is the highest aim of moral thought and

conduct, and the virtues are the requisite skills and dispositions
needed to attain it.
• Plato’s idea of justice based on ordered society which will work
on “one man, one work, one class, one duty” (December 2019)
• He was famous for his ideas on Communism of wives and property
which can abolish private family and property for the soldier class
because it encourages nepotism, favoritism and factionalism.
• He believes in Class based justice that every class has their own work to do and their
categories are quite rigid that they can not move from their class; that is why it is
Immovable class structure.
• In his famous book The Laws there was a discussion of “nocturnal council” which is
an elite group of elder citizens who have proven their worth by winning honors and
have traveled abroad to learn from other states.
• In 387 BCE Plato founded a school named Academy.
• In The Republic Plato talks about Myth of Metals which means that Mother Nature
invented all human beings by different metals inside them according to there social
standings; like Gold, Silver and Bronze.
• He also gave theory of “allegory of the caves” in which, an allegory presented in his
work Republic to compare "the effect of education and the lack of it on our nature".
(December 2019)
• Ascetic Communism (June 2023 Shift 2)

• An "ascetic" lifestyle means living simply and showing self-discipline by avoiding

luxury and excess. Asceticism is about staying away from things like fancy
possessions and comforts in life.
• In his book ‘The Republic,’ Plato talked a lot about justice and how important it is for
everyone to have balance and not want too much.
• Plato thought that if people had too much stuff and money, they might get greedy
and cause problems in society.
• He believed that if people didn't care so much about having lots of things, they could
focus on being good and helping others.
• Plato's idea of sharing everything equally was mainly for the leaders, not for
everyone. Regular people like artisans could still own things and have families.
• Plato's ascetic communism was mainly about getting rid of desire for things, not
about making sure everyone had the same amount.

• Socratic dialogues: Apology, Crito, Enthypro, Laches, Lysis, Charmides, Protagoras

• Other works: Symposium, Phelibus, Timaeus, Meno, Gorgias, Enthydemus, Cratylus,
Lesser Hippias, Greater Hippias, Ion and Menexenus, Phaedo, Phaedrus.
64 64

Plato’s Main works:-

• The Republic (375 BC)

• Statesman (between 367-361 BC)
• The laws (347 BC) (Shift 2 2021)
• Apology (399 BC) (Shift 2 2022)

Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC): A Greek philosopher

• He is known as father of Political science.

• Contributed to the foundation of logic
and scientific thinking in Western philosophy.
• His work is inductive and empirical in nature unlike Plato whose work is
deductive in nature.
• He also made advances in the branch of philosophy KEYWORDS :-
known as metaphysics.
▪ Telos.
• Aristotle in 335 BC founded an Athenian school, Lyceum.
• He attempted to convert the utopian ideas of Plato into rational theory. ▪ Distributive
• His ideas on state: State was natural and prior to the family and Justice.
the individual. State should be large enough to guarantee ▪ Eudaimonia.
self-sufficiency and small enough to ensure good government.
▪ Revolution.
State is highest and comprehensive of human associations. (2020)
• Best form of government is constitutional government, ▪ Theory of
Causes.
which will be ruled by middle- class.
• According to Aristotle if any change occurs in the existing system or ▪ Inductive &
constitution of the state; it is known as Revolution. Empirical Thinker.
• Aristotle believe in the Organic Theory of State which means state ▪ Golden Mean.
is like an individual and it has a body which is made of certain organs
▪ Slavery is
like head, arms, legs and face etc. natural
• He also talks about the Golden Mean which advocates that institution.
Moral behavior is the mean between two extremes –
▪ Organic Theory
at the one end is excess and at the other deficiency. of State.
• Aristotle believed that “Distributive Justice is mainly
concerned with the distribution of honors or wealth.” (December 2019)
• He defended slavery system by saying that Slavery is natural institution.
• There were two kinds of slaves:
Conventional (Prisoner of war) and Natural (lacked reason)(Shift 1 2022)
• He did not want to give citizenship to: slaves, old, young, women and
working class members. (December 2018)
65 65

• Aristotle is also famous for his “four causes (the material cause, the formal cause,
the efficient cause, and final cause {telos} )” which explain the nature of change in an
object.
• He talks about Eudaimonia which means the highest human good.
• He criticized Plato for his ideas and said ‘Plato was a friend but truth was a greater
friend’
• G.H. Sabine said that “Aristotle’s ideal state is always Plato’s second best” (2020)
• Aristotle said that "A state exists for the sake of good life and not for the sake of life
only, if life only were the object, slaves, and brute animals might form a state." (June
2023 Shift 2)

Aristotle’s Main works:

• Politics (350 BC) (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1)

• The Nicomachean Ethics (around 340 BC) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• The Eudemian Ethics (March 2023 Shift 1)
• The Constitution of Athens (between 328 BC-322 BC)

KEYWORDS :-
Machiavelli (1469 –1527): An Italian diplomat
▪ Father of Modern
Western Political
• Called the father of modern political philosophy.
Philosophy.
• He was the first theorist to decisively divorce politics from ethics.
▪ He is
• Human Nature: Individual is wicked, selfish and egoistic Anti-CHURCH,
‘Individual would readily forgive the murder of his father, not anti-religion.

but never the seizure of property’ ▪ Fortuna –

• Human mind tended to glorify the past, decry the present Moody Woman.

and hope for better future. ▪ Lion & Fox.

• Machiavelli creates a separation between State and Church, but he is ▪ Dual Morality of
not against religion. King.

• According to him, the prince has the absolute authority ▪ Flexible nature of
King (to Change
over its subject. Prince is not obligated to any kind of moral principle. according to
• In Machiavellian thought end justifies the means. changing
circumstances).
Because the key objective of the Prince was to bring unity
and integrity of the State. Hence, achieving this end justifies ▪ Degeneration of
Italy.
all the wrong measures taken by the prince. (June 2019)
▪ Florence.
• Prince should have both virtues of Lion (Courageous) and Fox (cunning)
• He have set double standard of morality. (March 2023 Shift 1) ▪ Human Nature
(egoism).
• According to him Prince should stay away from Fortuna which has
Compared with a Moody Woman that can ruin a Prince. ▪ Republican form of
Govt – best form.
• In private sphere, individual or ruler should have virtues like truthful,
simplicity, purity, loyalty and trust.
66 66

• In public sphere, rulers need not to follow any moral values

to conduct state affairs.
• That is why nature of Prince is flexible and he work according to the
situation.
• According to him, “Republican government” is the best form
of government. (June 2024 Shift 1)
Machiavelli’s Main works:- (Shift 2 2022)

• Art of War (1521) (Shift 1 2021)

• History of Florence (1525)
• Discourses on Livy (1531)
• The Prince (1532)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): An English philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He witnessed the period of Civil war in 1641 so that ▪ Absolute

he said ‘Fear and I was born twins’ Sovereignty.
• According to him, the state of nature was one in which ▪ 19 Articles of
there were no enforceable criteria of right and wrong. Peace.
• Human life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.” (June 2019)
• Social Contract: All individual surrendered his or her all power ▪ “Fear & I are
Twins”.
through a contract to third party (Leviathan),
who was not party to the contract. (Shift 2 2021) ▪ Philosophical
• He believes in Absolute Sovereignty. Radical.

• The thirds party i.e., State will have undivided, unlimited, ▪ Felicity.
inalienable and permanent power. ▪ Mechanical
• The contract was perpetual and irrevocable. Materialism.
• He believes in the Mechanical Materialism.
• He has also gave the 19 Articles of Peace.
• He also talks about Felicity which means the continuous fulfillment of one’s desires.
• He claimed that the “science of politics was no longer than himself.” (June 2023 Shift
1)
• In his book De Cive (1642) he made a statement "Law is the command of that person
whose percept contains in the reason of obedience". (June 2023 Shift 1)

Hobbes’ Main works:-

• De Corpore (1640)
• De Cive (1642)
• Elements of Law (1650)
• Leviathan (1651) (June 2023 Shift 1) (June 2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
67 67

• Behemoth (1670)

John Locke (1632 –1704): An English philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He is known as father of liberalism. ▪ On Consent.

• He wrote mainly during the times ▪ On Toleration.
of Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England.
• According to him, the State of Nature ▪ Constitutional
Monarchy.
is a state of perfect and complete liberty,
free from the interference of others. ▪ Natural Rights.
• The State of Nature is pre-political, but it is not pre-moral. ▪ Property.
• Problem with state of Nature:
▪ Civil Society.
(i) there was no established law
(ii) an impartial judge, and ▪ Limited
(iii) problem of implementation of law Government.
• In his Social contract, people transfer some of their rights (March 2023
to the government in order to ensure comfortable enjoyment Shift 1)
of their lives, liberty, and property {estate} (natural rights).
• People would agree to a limit on their property: it can be passed on only to those
▪ Estate.
who consent to obey the state. Then, each generation will tacitly consent to obey
the state as its members acquire property that is in the state’s “dominion.”
• If governments fail to do their work properly, people have right to revolution.
John Locke’s Main works:-

• Letter on toleration, 1689 (Shift 2 2022)

• Two treaties on government 1690 (Shift 2 2021) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Essay concerning human understanding 1690 (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Second letter on toleration 1690
• Third letter on toleration 1692
• Fourth letter on toleration 1692
• The fundamentals of constitution of Caroline 1692

Rousseau: (1712- 1778): A Swiss philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He was seen as spiritual father of French Revolution of 1789. ▪ Popular

• He called ‘a thinking man is depraved animal’ which means Sovereignty.
he was against intelligence, science and reason and known as ▪ Direct
Democracy.

▪ Romanticism.

▪ Against
Scientific
68 68

Romanticist by nature.
• State of Nature was a peaceful and quixotic time.
People lived solitary, uncomplicated lives.
• As time passed, humanity faced certain changes.
The invention of private property, constituted the pure state
into one characterized by greed, competition, vanity,
and inequality, dependent and vice.
• Rousseau in his work ‘Discourse on Inequality’ comprehensively
discussed the differences among :-
Moral Inequality (difference in wealth, nobility, power and merit
and Natural Inequality (differences in age, health, or other
physical characteristics). (December 2019) (Shift 1 2022)
(June 2023 Shift 1)
• In order to become free and equal, every individual must give up all
his rights to the entire community, creating the same conditions for all
and thus equality
• Men are thus all subject to what Rousseau names “the general will”.
(December 2018)
Rousseau’s Main works:-

• Discourses on the science & Arts (1750) (Shift 1 2022)

• Discourses on the origin of inequality (1755)
• An introduction to political economy (1758)
• Social contract (1762) (June 2023 Shift 1) (June 2024 Shift 1)
• The Emile (1762) (Shift 2 2021)

Hegel (1770–1831): A German philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He was the founder of modern idealism. ▪ Bureaucratic

Class is Universal
Class.

▪ Civil Society is a
System of Needs.

▪ State is
Universal
69 69

• Developed a dialectical scheme that emphasized

the progress of history and of ideas
from thesis to antithesis and thence to a synthesis.
• “Dialectical” method relies on a contradictory process
between opposing sides.
• He said idea can never be understood
without understanding its contradiction.
• The development of human history, was about progress,
and it resulted in which humankind would eventually reach
“the great idea.”
• According to him State is Universal Altruism.
• Civil Society is a System of Needs.
• Bureaucratic Class is Universal Class.
• According to him State as an organism having,
“ the highest right over the individual, whose highest duty in is
to be a member of the state” (December 2018)
• State is march of God on earth. (December 2018) (Shift 1 2021)
• According to Hegel War is not regarded as an evil but a virtue; it effectively displays
the “irony of the divine area” and destroys the selfish egoism of the individual. (Shift
2 2022)
• Absolute Consciousness (March 2023 Shift 2)
• According to Hegel, the absolute consciousness which is considered as the God;
reveals itself in the following order:
1) Simple Consciousness – It is the starting point, which represents the initial state of
human consciousness.
2) Self-Consciousness – Under this individual become aware of their own existence as
separate beings.
3) Reason – It is where individuals use rational thinking to understand the world
around them.
4) Spirit – It represents the highest stage of human consciousness, where individuals
understand their place in the world and their connection to the Absolute.

• For Hegel “The rational is the real and the real is the rational”. (June 2023 Shift 1)

Hegel’s Main works:-

• The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)

• Science of Logic (1812–18)
• Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817)
• Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2024 Shift 2)
• Philosophy of History (1831) (June 2024 Shift 2)
70 70

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 –1797): An English writer

• Regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers KEYWORDS :-
• Women like men are endowed with reason enabling them ▪ 1st Liberal Feminist
to make rational choices and were entitled to natural rights Thinker.
(Shift 2 2021) (June 2024 Shift 2)
▪ Critique of Edmund Burke.
• She called for the betterment of women's status through (-negative influence)
such political change as the radical reform of
▪ Critique of Rousseau.
national educational systems.
(-negative influence)
• ‘All the causes of female weakness as well as
depravity because of one grand cause- want of chastity in men’ ▪ Inspired from Locke .
(+positive influence)
• She criticized Edmund Burke and Rousseau.
• And got inspiration from John Locke. ▪ Focus on Women
Education.

Wollstonecraft’s Main works:- (Shift 2 2022)

• A vindication of the rights of men (1790)

• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) (December 2019) (June 2024 Shift 1)
• A historical and moral view of the origin & progress of the French Revolution (1794)
• The Wrongs of Woman (1798)

John Stuart Mill (1806 –1873): An English philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• A liberal classical economist. ▪ Reluctant

• Mill was an advocate of individual rights, progressive social policies, Democrat.
and utilitarianism (which promotes actions that do ▪ Positive Liberty.
"the greatest good for the greatest number"). (Shift 1 2021)
▪ Transitional
• He introduced a concept of Harm principle which says Thinker.
that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully
▪ Focus on Quality
exercised over any member of civilized community
in Utilitarianism.
against his will , is to prevent harm to others”.
• His ideas work as a bridge between laissez faire state and welfare state, ▪ Plural Voting
- on the basis of
negative liberty and positive liberty that is why he is
Educational
known as transitional thinker. Qualification).
• According to him, “the ideal type of a perfect government”
▪ Representative
would be both democratic and representative.
Democracy.
• He prescribed for ‘plural votes’ to educated
and single vote to uneducated for balancing.
• That is why he is also known as Reluctant Democrat.
71 71

• Inspired from Tocqueville’s idea of ‘tyranny of majority’,

he recommended limited power of elected majority.
• According to Mill, ‘placing restrictions on freedom of expressions of human beings is
like robbing off the present and the future races.’ (June 2019)
• “All mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the
contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person,
than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind.”
• For Mill “Men as well as women, do not need political rights in order that they may
govern, but in order that they may not be misgoverned”. (June 2023 Shift 1) (June
2024 Shift 2)

J.S. Mill’s Main works:-

• Principles of Political Economy (1848)

• On Liberty (1859) (June 2024 Shift 1)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1861) (2020) (Shift 2 2022)
• Utilitarianism (1863)
• The Subjection of Women (1869)
KEYWORDS :-
▪ Asiatic Mode of
Karl Marx (1818 –1883): A German philosopher
Production.
• An Important figure in the development of socialism and communism. ▪ Dialectical
• He converted Hegel’s Dialectical theory of idea into materialism. Materialism -
• Material is responsible for any kind of social change instead of idea. Matter is Active.
(December 2018) ▪ Communism –
• Human societies develop through class conflict between the bourgeoisie State-less &
(owners of means of production) and the proletariat (laboures) Class-less.
• Capitalism is a system which runs on profit they pays worker only ▪ Petty
that much amount which is sufficient for him to live and come back Bourgeoise.
to work capitalist do not share their profits or surplus with workers.
▪ Proletariat Class
(Shift 1 2021) Struggle.
• The moment worker will realize that they are being exploited
▪ Alienation.
i.e. when they develop class-consciousness they will start revolution.
• Also gave concept of Alienation: the problematic separation of a subject ▪ Class Struggle.
and object that properly belong together. ▪ Class
Like Alienation from the process of production, Consciousness.
Alienation from the product of his labour, Alienation from society.
▪ Surplus Value.
(2020) (Shift 1 2021)
• According to Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism; societies pass ▪ VIOLENT in
nature of
through six stages – primitive communism, slave society, feudalism,
Revolution.
72 72

capitalism, socialism and finally stateless communism.

(Shift 2 2022)
• He talks about Asiatic Mode of Production; which is a type of pre-capitalist society.
• According to Marx; Religion is the opium of the people.(December 2018).
Karl Marx’s Main works:-

• Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843)

• Paris Manuscripts (1844) (2020) (June 2024 Shift 1)
• Theses on Feuerbach (1845)
• The Poverty of Philosophy (1847) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• The Class Struggle in France (1850)
• The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852)
• Critique of Political Economy – 1859 (March 2023 Shift 2)
• "Value, Price and Profit" (1865) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Das Kapital, also known as Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (1867) (2020)
• The Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875) (2020)
• Capital (Das Capital) vol 2 (1885)
• Capital (Das Capital) vol 3 (1894)
Joint work of Marx and Engels:- KEYWORDS :-
• The Holy Family (1845) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• The German Ideology (1845-46) (Shift 2 2022) ▪ Focus on
• The Communist Manifesto (1848) (2020) Superstructure.

▪ Intellectuals –
Antonio Gramsci (1891 –1937): An Italian Philosopher 1. Organic &
2. Traditional.
• Founder of the Italian Communist Party.
▪ Prison
• Mussolini had put him behind the bars for Notebooks.
his revolutionary activities and he remained in prison
throughout his life. ▪ Rule by Consent
is – Hegemony.
• Antonio Gramsci’s “hegemony” acquired a Marxist character in its use
• Gramsci defines hegemony as a form of control ▪ Cultural
Hegemony.
exercised by the Dominant Class. (June 2024 Shift 1)
• He rejected scientific determinism and advocated political ▪ Praxis -
and intellectual struggle known as counter hegemony. (2020) (Dec. 2024) Knowledge in
• To establish counter-hegemony Gramsci suggested a two-level strategy: Practice.

1. War of Position (need of having ‘organic intellectuals’ means ▪ Concept of

intellectual belonging to subaltern section to control civil society) Historical Bloc.
2. War of Manoeuvre/ movement (Once war of position is won, ▪ War of Position.
revolutionary classes can go for direct action to capture the state)
▪ War of
(June 2023 Shift 1)
Manoeuvre.
• Gramsci developed the term passive revolution to describe Fascism.
• Difference between Progress and Becoming (June 2023 Shift 2)
73 73

• These sentences are from Antonio Gramsci's Prison Notebooks, where he wrote
while he was in prison under the Italian Fascist regime.
• In this part, Gramsci talks about the difference between "Progress" and "Becoming"
and how they relate to ideas and philosophy.
• Gramsci says that "Progress" is like a set of beliefs influenced by history and culture,
while "Becoming" is a deeper idea about change and growth.
• He explains that "Progress" is about moving forward and getting better, based on
certain historical and cultural factors.
• But "Becoming" is a bigger idea about change that isn't limited to specific times or
places. He says that "Progress" and "Becoming" became important ideas around the
same time.
• He compares it to how politics started in France and philosophy grew in Germany
and Italy. So, just like those ideas, "Progress" and "Becoming" became popular
around the same time.
• Gramsci wants to show that "Progress" is tied to specific times and places, while
"Becoming" is a broader idea about change and growth.
Gramsci’s Main works:-

• A Great and Terrible world: The pre-prison letters (1926) (June 2019)
• Prison’s notebook (1948) (December 2019) (December 2023)
• The Modern Prince (1949)

Hannah Arendt (1906–1975): German-born American political theorist

KEYWORDS :-
• Known for her critical writing on Jewish affairs
and her study of totalitarianism. ▪ On Violence.
• According to her, Modernity is the age where individuals, ▪ On Revolution.
having lost their traditional standards and values,
must search for new grounds of human community as such. ▪ On Constructive
• She has written a Thesis on St. Augustine. Power.
• Modernity and Capitalism give rise to Totalitarianism. ▪ Vita Activa.
(June 2024 Shift 2)
• There are twin horrors of the twentieth century – Nazism and Stalinism. ▪ Totalitarianism.
• While negating Totalitarianism she mentioned the importance of Public ▪ Public Speech.
Speech.
▪ Two Friends –
• She went on to develop a new set of philosophical categories Martin Heidegger
that could illuminate the Human Condition and provide & Jaspers.
a fresh perspective on the nature of political life.
▪ Thesis on St.
• In her idea of revolutionary leadership expressed Augustine
that the success of a revolution occurs when it is limited
to the political and not extending to social.
74 74

• She appreciates Marx for establishing Primacy of Action over Thinking.

• She talks about two kinds of human actions: 1. Vita Activa (Action) and
Vita Contemplativa (Contemplation/ thinking). Hierarchy of Actions: -
Labour - Work – Action (June 2024 Shift 1)
• She has compared the concept of power with other related concepts like force,
strength and violence and concluded that power is neither a force, nor strength, or
violence.
• Power belongs to public sphere. When people come together, they experience
power.
• Hannah Arendt said that "It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong." (June 2023
Shift 1)
Arendt’s Main works:- (Shift 1 2021)

• The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)

• The Human Condition (1958) (2020) (March 2023 Shift 1) (Dec. 2024)
• On Revolution (1963)
• Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the Banality of Evil (1963)
• On Violence (1970)
• The Life of the Mind (1977)

Frantz Fanon (1925 – 1961): West Indian psychoanalyst and philosopher

• One of a few thinkers supporting the decolonization struggles

• Fanon supported Algeria's War of independence from France
and was a member of the Algerian National Liberation Front.
• His writings were based on the existential challenges faced
by black human beings in a social world that is constituted /
by white human beings.
• He explores how these people are encouraged by a racist society
to want to become white, but then experience serious
psychological problems because they are not able to do so. KEYWORDS :-
• He focus on psychological problems which no one ever done in
▪ Algiers Revolution.
the study of colonization as he was Psychiatrist by profession and
called colonialism as Mental Disease. ▪ Role in - A N L F.
• Fanon introduces the colonial world as one that is divided ▪ Decolonization.
into the colonist and the colonized.
▪ Racism.

▪ Mental Disease.

▪ Psycho-analysis.

▪ Ghana Ambassador.

▪ Martinique.

▪ Manichaeism.
75 75

• The colonist creates these identities in order to assert his own

superiority. Because colonialism is established and maintained
by violence, only through violence colonialism can be ended.
Fanon’s Main works:-

• Black Skin, White Masks (1952) (June 2019) (Shift 1 2022)

• (June 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift 2)
• A Dying Colonialism (1959)
• The Wretched of the Earth (1961) (December 2019) (2020)
(Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Towards the African Revolution (1964)

Mao Zedong (1893 –1976): Principal Chinese Marxist theorist

KEYWORDS :-
• Communist Party of China was founded in 1921 and Mao was
also a founding member of it. ▪ Antagonistic &
• st
Founder of the People's Republic of China (1 Oct 1949). Non Antagonistic.
• His philosophy was based on modified version of Marx’s communism ▪ Revolution on
where peasants are in the role of leaders for communist revolution. the Shoulder of
• He talks about two types of contradiction; PEASANTS.
(a) Antagonistic : The class contradictions of exploiter and exploited inside▪ Focus On –
Peasantry.
class society.
▪ Cultural
(b) Non Antagonistic : The contradiction between the working class and
Revolution.
the peasantry. ▪ Red Army.
• Important policies of Mao- ▪ New
- Long March, (1934–35), the 6,000-mile (10,000-km) historic Democracy.
trek of the Chinese communists, After the communist breach
▪ Guerrilla
with the KMT (Kuomintang Party of China). Warfare.
- Hundred Flowers Campaign, (1956) Mao invited criticism
▪ New China.
of the Chinese Communist Party’s policies, even by noncommunist
intellectuals, with a famous slogan from Chinese classical history, “Let a hundred
flowers bloom, and a hundred schools of thought
contend.”
- The great leap forward (1958-1962): The promulgation was the
result of the failure of the Soviet model of industrialization in China.
The campaign has undertaken to meet China’s industrial and
agricultural problems.
76 76

- Cultural Revolution (1966–76) a decade-long period of political and social chaos

caused by Mao Zedong’s bid to use the Chinese masses to reassert his control
over the Communist party.
• Mao Zedong said that ‘Political work is the life-blood of all economic work.’ (June
2019)
• Mao said “Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun”. (Shift 2 2021)
• “Politics is war without bloodshed, while war is politics with bloodshed.” (March
2023 Shift 2)
Mao Zedong’s Main works:-

• On Practice (1937)
• On Contradiction (1937)
• On Guerilla Warfare (1937)
• On Protracted War (1938)
• On New Democracy (1940)
• On Coalition Government (1945)
• On People’s Democratic rule (1949) (June 2024 Shift 2)
• On Correct Handling of Contradiction Among People (1957)
• Where Do Correct Ideas (1963)

John Rawls (1921- 2002): An American political philosopher

Influenced by the egalitarian liberal tradition. KEYWORDS :-
▪ Egalitarianism
• He has pointed out that a good society is characterized
by a number of virtues. ▪ Least Advantaged
• He is a thinker of Social Justice. ▪ Difference Principle
• He believes in Liberal Theory of State.
▪ Distributive Justice
• Justice is the first virtue of a good society and social institutions.
(March 2023 Shift 2) ▪ Revival of Pol Theory
• The Idea of Justice flows from individual. Rawls never ▪ Liberal Theory of
wished to compromise with the individual liberty. State
(June 2019) (Shift 1 2022) ▪ Social Justice’s
• According to Rawls, the problem of justice consists Thinker
in ensuring a just distribution of 'primary goods’.
▪ Veil of Ignorance
(June 2023 Shift 1) (December 2023)
• His theory of justice describes a society of free citizens ▪ Original Position
holding equal basic rights and cooperating within
an egalitarian economic system. (December 2019)
• The Veil of ignorance is a component of social contract theory,
allows us to test ideas for fairness. (December 2018) (June 2023 Shift 1) (December
2023)
77 77

• Behind the veil, no one knows about his or her special psychological propensities and
it is known as Original Position.
• His theory of justice is mainly based upon two principles- equality principle and
difference principle (Shift 2 2021)
• Rawls states “society is a cooperative venture for mutual advantage”.
• Rawls in his famous work ‘The Theory of Justice’ wrote about the weaknesses of
Utilitarianism and said “Utilitarianism wrongly defines the “right”. (December 2019)
Main works:-

• A Theory of Justice (1971) (December 2019) (June 2024 Shift 2)

• Political Liberalism (1993) (December 2019)
• The Law of Peoples (1999) (Dec. 2024)
• Justice as Fairness (2001)

V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) : Father of Russian Revolution (Dec. 2024) KEYWORDS :-

▪ Revolution

• Founder of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), leader ▪ Party as

of the Bolshevik Revolution (1917). Vanguard of
Proletariat
• The architect, builder and first head of the Soviet State (1917-24).
• He was also the founder of organization known as ▪ Focus on
Comintern (Communist International). PARTY

• In his first major work “Development of Capitalism in Russia” (1899) ▪ Imperialism

he described how capitalism was growing in Russia during its initial phase. Highest Stage of
Capitalism
• In 1900 Lenin migrated to Geneva and started editing a paper
named “Iskara” in which he launched an anti-Tsarist campaign. ▪ Bolsheviks
• In 1902 he wrote his second most popular work “What is to be done”
which deals with party organization.
• In this work he argued that conditions which were prevailing in Russia there was a
need of a Communist Party which could act as a Vanguard of the Proletariat.
• In 1916 during WWI, he wrote “Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism”
wherein he analysed the phenomenon of imperialism.
• In this work he mentioned that Capitalism had reached its highest stage
(imperialism) hence, exhausted the historical missions of creating conditions for a
proletarian revolution.
• Finally in 1917 he assumed power in Russia and become first successful Marxist
revolutionary in a country where feudalism was deeply entrenched.

Main works:- (December 2018)

• Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899)

78 78

• What is to be done (1902) (March 2023 Shift 2)

• Materialism and Empirio-Criticism (1909)
• Socialism and War (1915)
• The State and Revolution (1917) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) (Shift 2 2021)

- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF WPT-

CONFUCIUS – ROUSSEAU –
▪ Book of Changes ▪ Discourses on the science & Arts (1750)
▪ Book of Songs ▪ Discourses on the origin of inequality (1755)
▪ An introduction to political economy (1758)
▪ Social contract (1762)
PLATO –
▪ The Emile (1762)
▪ The Republic (375 BC)
▪ Statesman (between 367-361 BC)
HEGEL –
▪ The laws (347 BC) (Shift 2 2021)
▪ Apology (399 BC) ▪ The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)
▪ Science of Logic (1812–18)
▪ Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences
ARISTOTLE –
(1817)
▪ Politics (350 BC) ▪ Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821)
▪ The Nicomachean Ethics (around 340 BC) ▪ Philosophy of History (1831)
▪ The Eudemian Ethics
▪ The Constitution of Athens MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT –
(between 328 BC-322 BC) ▪ A vindication of the rights of men (1790)
▪ A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
MACHIAVELLI – ▪ A historical and moral view of the origin &
progress of the French Revolution (1794)
▪ Art of War (1521)
▪ The Wrongs of Woman (1798)
▪ History of Florence (1525)
▪ Discourses on Livy (1531)
JS MILL
KARL MARX– –
▪ The Prince (1532)
PrinciplesofofHegel’s
▪ Critique Political Economyof
Philosophy (1848)
Right(1843)
▪ On Liberty (1859)
Paris Manuscripts (1844)
HOBBES –
LOCKE – On Representative
▪ Theses on Feuerbach Government
(1845) (1861)
▪ De Corpore (1640) Utilitarianism
▪ The Poverty of(1863)
Philosophy (1847)
▪ Letter On Toleration (1689) TheClass
Subjection of Women
▪ De Cive (1642) ▪ The Struggle in France(1869)
(1850)
▪ Two Treaties on government (1690)
▪ Elements of Law (1650) ▪ The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte(1852)
▪▪ Essay concerning
Leviathan (1651) Human Understanding ▪ "Value, Price and Profit" (1865)
(1690)
▪ Behemoth (1670) ▪ Das Kapital, also known as Capital:
▪ Second letter on toleration (1690)
A Critique of Political Economy (1867)
▪ Third letter on toleration (1692)
▪ The Critique of the Gotha Programme(1875)
▪ Fourth letter on toleration (1692)
▪ Capital (Das Capital) vol 2 (1885)
▪ The fundamentals of constitution of
▪ Capital (Das Capital) vol 3 (1894)
Caroline (1692)
79 79

- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF WPT-

JOINT WORKS OF MARX & ENGELS – MAO ZEDONG –
▪ The Holy Family (1845) ▪ On Practice (1937)
▪ The German Ideology (1845-46) ▪ On Contradiction (1937)
▪ The Communist Manifesto (1848) ▪ On Guerilla Warfare (1937)
▪ On Protracted War (1938)
▪ On New Democracy (1940)
GRAMSCI – ▪ On Coalition Government (1945)
▪ On People’s Democratic rule (1949)
▪ A Great and Terrible world: The pre-prison
▪ On Correct Handling of Contradiction
letters (1926)
Among People (1957)
▪ Prison’s notebook (1948)
▪ Where Do Correct Ideas (1963)
▪ The Modern Prince (1949)

HANNAH ARENDT – JOHN RAWLS –

▪ The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) ▪ A Theory of Justice (1971)

▪ The Human Condition (1958) ▪ Political Liberalism (1993)
▪ On Revolution (1963) ▪ The Law of Peoples (1999)
▪ Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the ▪ Justice as Fairness (2001)
Banality of Evil (1963)
▪ On Violence (1970)
▪ The Life of the Mind (1977)
LENIN –

FRANTZ FANON – ▪ Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899)

▪ What is to be done (1902)
▪ Black Skin, White Masks (1952)
▪ Materialism and Empirio-Criticism (1909)
▪ A Dying Colonialism (1959)
▪ Socialism and War (1915)
▪ The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
▪ Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
▪ Towards the African Revolution ( 1964)
(1916)
80 80

UNIT 3 – Indian Political Thought

Dharamshastra KEYWORDS :-
• Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit theological texts,
▪ Manusmriti
and refers to the treatises of early Hinduism on dharma.
• Manusmriti is the part of Dharmshastra, ▪ Shantiparva
which consist of 2,685 verses. ▪ Total = 12
• There are total 12 Chapters in Manusmtiti. Chapters in
• Manu, the author of Manusmriti, is the first teacher, Manusmriti

first king and the first law giver.

• Manu is regarded as the mythological ancestor of the human race,
the Indian version of Adam.
• Sir William Jones was the first to translate the text into English.
• Russian. J. Duncan M. Derett calls the book
‘India’s greatest achievement in the field of jurisprudence’.
• There are four goals of life (Purushartha):
- dharma (moral duties)
- artha (wealth)
- kama (desire or satisfaction)
- moksha (total liberation or ‘salvation’).
• There are four social classes or varnas:
- priests (Brahmins)
- rulers and warriors (Kshatriyas),
- commoners (Vaishyas)
- servants (Shudras).
• There are four stages of life:
- Brahmacharya (birth- 25)
- Grahstha (25-50)
- Vanprastha (50-75)
- Sanyasa (75-100)
• There are 16 rituals to be followed by Hindus, called Sanskar. (starting with
Garbhadhan sanskar ending with Antyeshthi)
• There are five sources of Dharma:
- Veda
- Samriti
- Sajjano ke Acharan (behavior of gentlemen)
- Anta: Karan
- Rajagya (order of king)
• The seventh chapter of Manusmriti dwells at length on various aspects of Rajdharma
or statecraft.
81 81

• Manu was an ardent supporter of the ‘divine right theory’ of the origin of state.

Kautilya (375 BCE-283BCE) KEYWORDS :-

• Kautilya is also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta.
▪ Realist.
• He wrote famous book Arthashastra.
• He is also known as Indian Machiavelli. ▪ Mandala.
• Kautilya studied and taught at the Takshila University. ▪Saptanga.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
• Max Webber said “Kautilya’s Arthashastra exemplified ▪ Spy, Espionage.
radical Machiavellianism, compared to it, ▪ Flexible rule.
Machiavelli’s Prince is harmless ”. (November 2017)*
▪Benevolent & Kind King
• The Arthashastra is also a Nitishastra text. (December 2019)
• Shamasastry had discovered the text from a pandit in Tanjore ▪ Just King.
in 1904, translated it into English first and published it in 1915. ▪ Dharma.
• There were two kinds of Brahmins or the priestly class:
▪ Danda.
Srotriya and Brahmins in general.
• He was aware of the possibility of anarchy; hence he ▪ 40 types of Corruption.
recommended a strong state ruled by virtuous monarch.
▪ Formula :-
(January 2017) King – Subjects =
• There is a mention of over 120 occupations and 40 types of Father – Children
occupation in Arthashastra. (similar relationship)
• Multiple sources of revenue are indicated in the text:
from the durgam (fortified towns),
from the rashtram (the countryside),
from khani (mines), setu (irrigation work),
from ayamukham (accounting),
from warehouses,
saving from expenditure,
from ayudhiyam (supply of soldiers in lieu of tax barter, confiscation) and so on.
• As the saptang (seven-organ) theory of state suggests, the state was a corporate
entity comprising (1) swami (2) amatya (3) janpada (4) durga (5) kosa (6) danda and
(7) mitra. (March 2023 Shift 1) (June 2024 Shift 1)
• It mentions 34 different departments of government. (Shift 1 2022)
• The Theory of Rajamandala (The Circle of States) Kautilya formulated a detailed
theory of foreign policy and inter-state relations based on the maxim that a friend’s
friend is likely to be a friend and an enemy’s friend an enemy. (Shift 1 2022)
• The mandala, as comprising 12 types of kings/states.
• 72 Prakrities of Mandal Theory of State are enumerated by Kautilya.(June 2019)
• Kautilya laid down six basic principles of foreign policy, as follows: 1. Pursuit of
resources by the vijigsu for campaigns of victory 2. Elimination of enemies 3.
82 82

Cultivation of allies and providing help to them 4. Prudence rather than foolhardy
valour 5. Preference of peace to war 6. Justice in victory as well as in defeat. (June
2023 Shift 2)

Aggannasutta KEYWORDS :-
• Aggannasutta is 27th sutta of Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses).
▪ Digha Nikaya.
(June 2019)
• Digha Nikaya is a collection of dialogues of mostly of Buddha himself. ▪ 27th Sutta.
There are 180 dialogues. ▪ 2 Brahmins
• Digha Nikaya is part of Sutta Pitaka. Bharadvaja
• Agganna Sutta challenges Vedic ideas of maintaining social order & Vasettha.
based on Varna Ashrama Dharma.
▪ Origin of State
• Agganna Sutta clearly explains the origin of life on earth,
social order and its structure, and caste system. ▪ No caste
• The sutta describes a discourse imparted from the Buddha system.
to two brahmins, Bharadvaja and Vasettha, who left their family ▪ Ascetics.
and caste to become monks.
• Social contract theory: people appointed someone to rectify what is right and what
is wrong. People bestowed him the title : “Maha Sammata” (people’s choice), 2 nd
title : “Khattiya” (lord of the rice field) and “Raja”(who gladdens people with
dhamma or truth)
• There were two types of Brahmins: 1. Jhayanti or Jhayaka (who meditates in forests)
2. Ajhayaka (who compiled books, viewed higher in status than the Jhayakas)
• Ascetics: This is the origin of fifth caste formed from all the four caste’s people who
left their lay life and became an ascetic.

KEYWORDS :-
Barani (1283–1359)
▪ Muslim King
• The most important political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate,
particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khilji, ▪ Non-Secular
Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq. ▪ Hindu Tax – Jizya
• His Fatwa-i-Jahandari, written advices for the Muslim kings
in order to earn religious merit and the gratitude of the subject ▪ Delhi Sultanate
(June 2020), is a classic work on statecraft which can be compared ▪ Tarikh-e-
with Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince. Ferozshahi
• Barani categorized laws into two kinds: the Shariat and the Zawabit.
▪ Fatwa-e-
• Shariat: teachings and practices of the Prophets.
Jahandari
• Zawabit: the state laws formulated in the changed circumstances,
where the Shariat was unable to fulfil. (March 2023 Shift 1) ▪ Ideal (Plato se
inspired)
83 83

• Barani made a distinction between the personal life of the Sultan

and his political role.
• He advised the kings to follow the Shariat in personal and political
domain.
• But conceded flexibility in not following the Shariat in their private spheres.
• Army was divided into four parts: infantry (foot soldiers or payaks), cavalry
(horsemen), war-elephants, auxiliary, viz., boats, spies, etc.
• The bureaucracy was another necessary component of the Sultanate working at
three levels: center, province and villages, whose basic function was to measure the
land, fix and collect the taxes.

Main works:-

• Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi (1357 AD) (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Fatwa-i-Jahandari (1358-59 AD) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Salvat-i-Kabir (The Great Prayer)
• Sana-i-Muhammadi (Praises of Prophet Mohammad)
• Hasratnama (Book of Regrets)
• Tarikh-i-Barmaki
• Inayat Nama-i-Ilahi (Book of Gods Gifts)
• Maasìr Saadat (Good Deeds of the Sayyids)
• Lubbatul Tarikh.
• Fatawa-i-Dindari

Kabir KEYWORDS :-
• Kabir (15th century), a contemporary of Sikander Lodi (1489–1517)
▪ Nirgun.
and a resident of Banaras.
• He is one of the main figures of Bhakti Movement. ▪ Bhakti
• His works are compiled and referred to in Movement.
Adi Granth, Panchvani, Sarvangi, Bijak and Granthavali. ▪ Dohas.
• His works are mainly in the form of Dohas.
▪ Equality.
• Kabir, himself a weaver.
• According to him God is One. ▪ God is one.
• Kabir was more critical of the zamindari system.
• Kabir constantly challenged the ideological dominance
of the Brahminism, and was very much secular.
• He rejected the four stages of life (ashramas)
and six systems of philosophy.
84 84

Pandita Ramabai (1858 –1922) KEYWORDS :-

• Pandita Ramabai Saraswati was born as Ramabai Dongre.
▪ Saraswati.
• Women’s rights & education activist, a pioneer in the education
and emancipation of women in India, and a social reformer. ▪ Sharda Sadan.
(June 2020) ▪ Mukti Mission.
• She was the first woman to be awarded the titles of Pandita
as a Sanskrit scholar (June 2019) and Saraswati after being examined ▪ 1st Female
by the faculty of the University of Calcutta in 1878. feminist of India.
• He is also known as First Female Feminist of India. ▪ Conversion to
• In 1882, She founded the Arya Mahila Samaj, in Pune a society Christianity.
of high-caste Hindu women working for the education of girls
and against child marriage. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• She also testified before the Hunter Commission on
Education in India; an enquiry set up by the British government.
• Ramabai travelled to Britain in 1883, to seek British support for her widows’ home.
• In England, On 25 September 1883, Ramabai converted to Christianity and began
signing her name as Mary Rama, Her daughter Manorama also was converted to
Christianity.
• in 1886 she travelled to the USA to attend the graduation from the Women’s
Medical College in Philadelphia of Anandibai Joshee, the first Indian woman to
become a medical doctor,
• In the late 1890s, she founded Mukti Mission at Kedgaon village. The mission was
later named Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission.
• In 1889 she opened her Sharada Sadan (or Home for Learning) in Chowpatty,
Mumbai. (Shift 2 2022) (December 2023)
• In 1919, Ramabai was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind Medal by the British government.
(June 2023 Shift 1)

Main works:-

• Stri Dharm Niti (1882)

• The cry of Indian Women (1883) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The High Caste Hindu Women (1887) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The People Of United States (1889)
• Mukti Prayer Bell – Newspaper (1901) (June 2023 Shift 1)

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. ▪ Extremist Leader.

• He was also conferred with the title of "Lokmanya". ▪ Boycott.
▪ Swaraj.

▪ Youth Festivals.
▪ ‘Father of Indian
85 85

• The British colonial authorities called him

"The father of the Indian unrest."
(Shift 1 2021)
• Mahatma Gandhi called him "The Maker of Modern India".
• In 1881, he founded two newspaper named Kesari (Marathi)
and The Mahratta (English).
• In 1884, Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded Deccan education society.
• He organized two important festivals, Ganpati festival in 1893
and Shivaji festival in 1895 to widen the popularity of
the nationalist movement among youth.
• In 1914, he founded and served as president of the Indian Home Rule League.
• In 1916, he concluded the Lucknow Pact with Mohammed Ali Jinnah, which
provided for Hindu-Muslim unity in the nationalist struggle.
• According to Tilak, swadeshi, boycott, national education and passive resistance
were the means of protest. (June 2020)
• Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates of Swaraj ("self-rule") and a strong
radical in Indian consciousness.
• Tilak had a deep understanding of the concept of "Swaraj." According to him, Swaraj
had multiple dimensions and carried different meanings.
• Tilak viewed Swaraj not only as a political objective but also as a moral necessity.
• He believed that it was the inherent right of every individual and society to govern
themselves, free from external domination. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• He is known for his quote in Marathi: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!"
Main works:-
• The Orion (1893)
• The Arctic Home in Vedas (1903)
• Geeta Rahashya (1915)
• Vedic Chronology And Vedanga Jyotisha (1925)
• The Hindu Philosophy of Life, Ethics and Religion (1965)

Swami Vivekanand (1863–1902) KEYWORDS :-

• Born into an upper-middle-class family in Bengal Original
▪ Chicago Speech in
name Narendranath Datta.
1893.
• In 1880, he joined Keshab Chandra Sen's Nava Vidhan
and also became a member of Brahmo Samaj. ▪ Return of the
• There are three important principles of Shudras.
Neo- Vedanta Philosophy of Vivekananda:-
- Oneness between God and man and the solidarity of the universe.
- Stood for the selfless action in the service of humanity. ▪ Varnashrama
(revised version).
▪ Soul.
▪ Spirituality.
▪ Daridra Narayan.
86 86

- Propagates the principle of universal tolerance

and believes that different religions are different
paths to reach the goal of liberation.
• In 1893, he appeared in Chicago as a spokesman
for Hinduism at the World’s Parliament of Religions
and a newspaper account described him as
“an orator by divine right and undoubtedly
the greatest figure at the Parliament.” (Shift 2 2022)
• On his return to India in 1897, Vivekananda founded
the Ramakrishna Mission at the monastery of Belur Math, near Calcutta.
(March 2023 Shift 2) (December 2023)
• In 12 January 1994, Government of India decided to observe the birthday of
Vivekananda as National Youth day. (December 2019)
Main works:-

• Raja yoga (1896)

• Karma yoga (1896)
• Lectures from Colombo to Almora (1897)
• Jnana yoga (1899)
• My Master (1901)

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Calcutta. ▪ Freedom
• He was highly influential in introducing Indian culture of Individual.
to the West and vice versa. ▪ Critique of 1905
• In 1901, Tagore founded an experimental school in rural Bengal Partition.
West Bengal at Shantiniketan,
which became Visva-Bharati University in 1921. ▪ Swadeshi Swaraj.
• He criticized Bengal Partition of 1905. ▪ Critique of
• In 1913, he became the first non-European Nationalism.
to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature.
▪ Support of
• Tagore was awarded a knighthood in 1915, Universalism.
but he returned it in 1919 as a protest against
the Amritsar (Jallianwala Bagh) Massacre. (December 2019) ▪ Support of
Cosmopolitanism.
• True Freedom: there are four stages of true freedom:-
- Realization of freedom at the individual level ▪ Shantiniketan.
- Realization of freedom at the community level
- From community to universe
- From universe to infinity (March 2023 Shift 1) (June 2023 Shift 2)
87 87

• Nationalism:-
• Tagore was against the European idea of nationalism which gives birth to war,
weapons and violence. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• But he supports the nationalist freedom movement of his time which was mainly
focused on freeing the soul of India from British colonialism.
• He criticized Gandhi for his parochial nationalism, traditional egoism and
instrumental anarchism.
• Tagore talked about ‘Synthetic Universalism’ which knew no geographical
boundaries and believed in universalism. (Shift 1 2022)
• Rabindranath Tagore said, “The truth is that the spirit of conflict and conquest is at
the origin and in the center of the Western Nationalism.” (June 2023 Shift 2)
Main works:-

• Chokher Bali, 1903

• Gitanjali (devotion of God), 1910 (June 2020)
• Gora (multifarious social life)1910 (June 2020)
• The Post Office (1912)
• Sadhna (realization of life), 1913 (June 2020)
• Ghare Baire (deeper meaning of life),1916 (June 2020)
• Stay Birds (1916)
• Nationalism (1917) KEYWORDS :-
▪ Non-Violence.
▪ Two Concepts of Violence.
M.K Gandhi (1869-1948)
• Full name: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, ▪ Hind Swaraj.
was born in Porbandar, Gujrat.
▪ Gram Swaraj.
• He came to be considered the father of India.
• In 1888, he went to London for studying Law ▪ Ends & Means are
integral and connected.
and in 1891, he returned to India after finishing study of law.
• In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa ▪ Religion and Politics
to practice law under a one-year contract. should not be separated.
Settling in Natal (fight the case of a Muslim Merchant’s cousin). ▪ Sarvodaya.
• In 1894, he formed the Natal Indian Congress in order
to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal. ▪ Oceanic Circle model of
• In 1906, the Transvaal (province of South Africa) government
Decentralisation.
sought to restrict the rights of Indians,
and Gandhi organized his first campaign of Satyagraha,
or mass Civil Disobedience. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• In 1915, Gandhi returned to India.
• Movements led by Mahatma Gandhi:- (Shift 2 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2024 Shift
2)
88 88

- Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
- Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
- Non- cooperation Movement (1920) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Civil disobedience movement (1930)
- Quit India movement (1942) also known as August movement. (March 2023 Shift
1)
• In 1919, he started English journal Young India.
• The Second Round Table Conference (Sep 1931-Dec 1931): Mahatma Gandhi and
Indian National Congress participated in it.
- This was one of the results of the Gandhi Irwin pact (March 1931).
- The British decided to grant communal award by providing separate electorates
for minorities.
- Gandhi was against this, but Ambedkar supported this.
- This issue was resolved through Poona Pact 1932.
• In 1933 Gandhiji started publishing a weekly newspaper, Harijan, in English.
• According to him Ends and Means are integral and connected to each other. (June
2023 Shift 1)
• He believes in the concept of Sarvodaya which means upliftment of all.
• Idea of Swaraj:
- Swaraj was defined in the following ways: national independence, political,
economics, spiritual freedom of individual.
- He severely criticized modern industrial civilization; it can destroy deeper human
values. (November 2017)
• Concept of RamRajya (ideal state): Gandhi said that for him a true Ram Rajya would
ensure “equal rights to both prince and pauper”.
• Panchayat model:
- Mahatma Gandhi advocated panchayat raj as the foundation of India's political
system.
- The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj.
- Every panchayat would have five men and women from the village committed to
development of the village.
- From the group of one hundred such panchayats, fifty leaders were to be
elected.
• E.M.S. Namboodiripad’s book “Mahatma and ism” is an analysis of Mahatma Gandhi
from the Marxism point of view. (January 2017)
• Mahatma Gandhi believed that Religion should be integral to politics and quoted
that “For me morals, ethics, and religion are convertible terms. A moral life without
reference to religion is like a house built upon sand.” (January 2017)

• Satyagraha as a dialogue (June 2023 Shift 2)

89 89

• Gandhi believed in using dialogue and Satyagraha to solve problems by

understanding each other, not by making enemies.
• Instead of seeing people in a conflict as enemies, he saw them as fellow humans
trying to solve a problem together.
• He thought that if people talked openly and respectfully, even if they disagreed, they
could find solutions together.
• Gandhi also believed that when people talk to each other, they might change their
own ideas and see the value in what the other person says.
• Truth is something that is shared by all people, and it can only be found through
dialogue and discussion.
• When people engage in dialogue, they are opening themselves up to the possibility
of learning from each other and of seeing the world from different perspectives.
• When people engage in dialogue, they are acknowledging each other's equality and
their shared humanity. This can help to break down misunderstandings and to build trust.

Constructive Programme by Gandhi

The Constructive Programme was a key initiative by Mahatma Gandhi aimed at social and
economic reform in India. It was first introduced in 1922 by the Indian National Congress
(INC) as part of the Non-Cooperation Movement, but Gandhi gave it a more structured form
in 1941 during the Quit India Movement.
Key Features of the Constructive Programme (1922)
• The programme focused on nation-building at the grassroots level and preparing Indi-
ans for self-rule (Swaraj).
• Gandhi believed that political freedom alone was insufficient without social and eco-
nomic reforms.
• He encouraged self-reliance and self-discipline to weaken British control over India.
Main Aspects of the 1922 Constructive Programme
1. Promotion of Khadi
2. Hindu-Muslim Unity
3. Removal of Untouchability
4. Prohibition of Alcohol
5. Village Reconstruction
6. Basic Education (Nai Talim)
7. Women’s Empowerment
8. Sanitation and Health Awareness
Evolution into the 1941 Programme
90 90

In 1941, Gandhi expanded the Constructive Programme by including economic equality, sup-
port for tribals, labour rights, and language promotion. He linked these efforts to the broader
struggle for Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence).

• Institutions founded by Gandhi; (December 2019)

- Phoenix Settlement (South Africa) – 1904
- Tolstoy Farm (South Africa) – 1910 (December 2023)
- Kochrab Ashram (Ahmedabad) – 1915 (Shift 2 2022)
- Sabarmati Ashram(Ahmedabad) - 1915
- Sevagram Ashram (Wardha) – 1936

Main works:-
• Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule (1909) (March 2023 Shift 1) (December 2023)
• The story of my experiments with truth (1929)
• Key to health (1948)

Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950) KEYWORDS :-

• Original name Aurobindo Ghose, Born in Calcutta.
▪ Militant Nationalism
• He helped establish the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in 1902.
(Early Stage of his
• In 1905, He developed his critique against moderates
Life)
in the congress in a weekly paper “Bande Matram”.
• He was charged with sedition for his articles in Bande Matram. ▪ Karmayoga.
• In 1907, Surat spilt of congress. Aurobindo led the extremist group ▪ Passive Resistance.
▪ Integral Yoga.
• along with Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• In 1908, in connection with Alipore Bomb Case, he was imprisoned. ▪ Mazzini se inspired.
• In 1909, Sri Aurobindo launched Karmayogin, ▪ Puducherry Ashram.
a weekly English journal
▪ Spiritual Nationalism
and Dharma, a weekly Bengali journal.(July 2018)
( this is in Later Stage
• Lord Minto said about Aurobindo –
of his Life).
“Most dangerous person we have to reckon with.”
• In 1914, he started publishing a magazine, Arya.
• In 1926, he founded a community Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry.
• His spiritual collaborator was Mirra Alfassa, who was called “the Mother” in the
ashram.
• Idea of passive resistance: His concept concerning passive resistance has a social
boycott, economic boycott, educational boycott, administration boycott, judicial
boycott of Britishers and adoption of Swadesism.
91 91

• Cultural Nationalism: for Aurobindo, Nationalism was not a mere political

movement for political ends but a religious act in itself, because it amounted to
working for the will of God. (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• He condemned the caste system but did not approve the idea of separate
representation for the lower castes in the political institutions as a solution.

Main works:-

• The Ideal Human Unity (1918)

• The Life Divine (1919) (January 2017: books in chronological order)
• The Renaissance in India (1920)
• Essays on The Gita (1922)
• "The Mother" (1928)
• Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (1940)
• The Synthesis of Yoga (1948)
• Love and Death (1948)
• The Human Cycle (1949)
• Hymns of Mystic Fire (1952)
• the Future Poetry (1953)
• The Upanishads (1981)
• Letters on yoga (letters written in 1930s, collected in three volumes)
• The Integral Yoga

Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (1879-1973) KEYWORDS :-

• PERIYAR E.V. RAMASAMY was born at Erode town
▪ Rationalism
in Tamil Nadu State.
• In 1904, E.V. Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kasi, ▪ Women
he witnessed disgrace inflicted by the Brahmins made Emancipation
a deep wound in his heart what he called Brahminic exploitation. ▪ Vaikom Satyagraha
This incident made him atheist. (December 2019)
▪ Self Respect
• He believed the conversion of Dalits to Islam and Christianity
Movement
was the only way to escape the institutionalized and
religious casteism of Brahminical oppression. ▪ Dravidian Movement
• He criticized Gandhi for not actively cracking down on the ▪ Boycotted Priests
Brahminical structure and privileges.
• In 1919, he joined Congress.(June 2020) ▪ Gurukullam
• In 1924, he led the Vaikom Satyagraha – Controversy
for the Rights of Dalits to enter temples in Kerala. ▪ Kashi Pilgrimage
92 92

• The first Self-respect movement was held at Chengalpattu

in Feb 1929.
• In 1925, he launched the Self-Respect Movement
which was a dynamic social movement aimed
at destroying the Hindu social order. (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)
(December 2023) (Dec. 2024)
• In 1938, he headed Justice party and in 1944, this party was converted into non-
political social party Dravidian Kazhgam formed by Periyar.
• In 1949, Periyar’s close associate C. N. Annadurai, established a separate association
called Dravidian Munnetra Kazhgam (DMK).
Main works:-
• Kudi Arasu (Tamil weekly), 1925
• Revolt (English journal), 1928

KEYWORDS :-
Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938)
▪ Islamic Nationalism
• Muhammad Iqbal also known as Allama Iqbal,
was a Muslim philosopher, poet and politician ▪ Resolving Muslim
of early 20th-century, born in Sailkot, Pakistan. Identity.
• Iqbal’s doctoral thesis was entitled
▪ Shariat Laws
“The Development of Metaphysics in Persia”.
• After returning to India in 1908, he associated ▪ Khudi
with All India Muslim League.
• He was a critique of mainstream Indian National Congress,
which he regarded as dominated by Hindus.
• Idea of Khudi:
- Iqbal rejected the idea of possessive individualism.
- On the one hand we have to retain the autonomy of individual and on the other
hand we also have commitment to our community.
• Self God Dimension:
- Human has to access three layers to accessing the self: 1. Physical existence (self)
2. Relational existence (others) 3. Universal existence (God)
- Iqbal used here concept of “Superman” given by Nietzsche. He used here as
“Insan i Kalim”.
• Idea of democracy:
- His idea of democracy is based on ethical democracy which foundation is in Khudi.
- Khudi is all about that all humans are equal.
• Known for his influential efforts to direct toward the establishment of a separate
Muslim state (Pakistan).
• He was knighted in 1923 by British government.
Main works:-
93 93

• Ilm ul Iqtisad (Urdu), 1903

Prose books in English:-
• The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908)
• The Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam (1930) (December 2019)
Poetic books in Persian:-
• Asrar-i-Khudi (1915)
• Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917)
• Payam-i-Mashriq (1923)
• Zabur-i-Ajam (1927)
• Javid Nama (1932)
• Pas ched bayed kard ai aqwam-e-sharq (1936)
• Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938)
Books in urdu:-
• Bang-i-Dara (1924) (June 2019)
• Bal-i-JIbril (1935)
• Zarb-i-Kalim (1936)

M.N. Roy (1887–1954) KEYWORDS :-

• Original name Narendranath Bhattacharya,
▪ Radical Humanism
born in Arbelia, West Bengal.
• Leader of India’s communists until the independence of India. ▪ New Humanism
• In 1916 he reached San Francisco, ▪ Militant Nationalism
where he changed his name to Manabendra Nath Roy.
▪ International
• In 1919, Roy helped found the Mexican Communist Party.
Comintern
• by the end of 1926, he was put on the executive committee
of the Communist International (Comintern) Vladimir Lenin . ▪ Critique of
• In September 1929, he was expelled Dialectical
from the Communist International. Materialism
• In 1936, joined Indian National Congress. ▪ Inspired by Savarkar,
• Roy left congress on December 1940. Borodin, and
• In 1939, Roy formed the Radical Democratic Party. Bentham.
(March 2023 Shift 1) ▪ Roy - Lenin Debate
• M.N Roy’s Constitution of Free India: On Colonial Question
A Draft was published in 1944.
▪ Debate vs Lenin.
It was endorsed and released for public discussion
▪ Conflict vs Stalin.
by the Radical Democratic Party.
• In 1947, Roy published New Humanism – A Manifesto. ▪ Founded CPI party
▪ Father of Indian
Communism
▪ Radical Democratic
Party.
94 94

• Humanist Interpretation of History: Roy gives an important

place to human will as a determining factor in history,
and emphasizes role of ideas in the process of social evolution.
• According to Roy, the materialism of Marx was dogmatic
and unscientific and neglected the creative role of
the human subject. (July 2018)
• Radical Democracy: The ideal of radical democracy
will be attained, through the collective efforts
of mentally free men united and determined
for creating a world of freedom. (Shift 1 2022)
• He applies Marxist analysis on Indian history in his work
“India in Transition”. (It was the first systematic Marxist analysis on Indian history)
• Roy founded four classes in India:
the bourgeoisie, the petty bourgeoisie, the peasantry, the proletariat.
• Radical Humanism (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Radical Humanism, a philosophical movement that emphasizes human rights and
individual freedom, was developed in the mid-20th century.
• M.N. Roy said, “Radicalism thinks in terms neither of nation nor class, its concern is
man; it concerns freedom as freedom of the individual.” (June 2023 Shift 2)
• In his last years he formulated this as an alternative philosophy and wrote about this
in his work Reason, Romanticism and Revolution (1952).
• This concept is also known as ‘New Humanism’ which generated a scientific
temperament and it is different from liberalism and the Vedantic philosophy.
• New Humanism rejected Marxism, Gandhism, Fascism, Vedantic Philosophy and
Parliamentary Democracy.
• M.N. Roy said "The function of science is to describe and that of philosophy is to
explain. Therefore, philosophy is called the science of science". (June 2023 Shift 1)

Main works:-
• India in transition (1922)
• The future of Indian Politics (1929)
• Historical Role of Islam (1939)
• From Savagery to Civilization (1940)
• Poverty and Plenty (1944)
• Revolution and Counter Revolution in China (1946)
• New Orientation (1946)
• Beyond Communism (1947)
• New Humanism-A Manifesto (1947)
• Reason Romanticism and Revolution (1952)
95 95

V D Savarkar (1883-1966)
• Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, by name Vir or Veer KEYWORDS :-
born in Bhagur, Maharashtra. ▪ Hindutva. (June 2023
• He endorsed the idea of India as a Hindu Rashtra. (June 2020) Shift 1)
(June 2023 Shift 2)
• He called 1857 Revolt, as the first war of Independence. ▪ Cultural Nationalism
(June 2020) ▪ Abhinav Bharat.
• In 1900, founded Mitra Mela a secret revolutionary society.
▪ Revolt of 1857 -
• In 1904, proposed new name for this society and
India's First War of
that is Abhinav Bharat, which was inspired by Independence.
Mazzini’s Young Italy. (Shift 2 2021) (December 2023)
• (June 2024 Shift 1) (June 2024 Shift 2) ▪ Nasik Conspiracy
Case.
• He translated Mazzini’s biography into Marathi.
• He was given double life imprisonment and thus, ▪ Hindu Nation
he became the first person amounting to fifty years ▪ Indian State
of incarceration in the Andaman jails.
• Savarkar criticized Mahatma Gandhi for supporting Khilafat Movement in 1920.
• On Dec 1937, he was elected as President of Hindu Mahasabha and he remained on
this position for next 7 years. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Two nation theory: in 19th session of Mahasabha he declared “there are two
antagonistic nations living side by side in India……….. there are two nations in the
main: the Hindus and the Muslims”
• In 1937, the theory first proposed in ‘Essentials of Hindutva’, was passed as a
resolution of the Mahasabha.
• He wrote a letter on 1941 and popularized a slogan “Hindu-ise All Politics and
Militarize Hinduism”
• In 1942, Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League ran coalition Government in Sind and
Bengal.
Main works:-

• The Indian War of Independence: 1857 (1909)

• Essentials Of Hindutva (1923)
• Hindu-pad-Padshahi or, A review of the Hindu empire of Maharashtra (1925)
• Hindu Rashtra Darshan (1949)
• Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History (1963) (Shift 2 2022)

Dr. B.R.Ambedkar (1891-1956) KEYWORDS :-

• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, born in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh.
▪ Democratic
• Leader of the Dalits, the principal architect of Indian Constitution
Socialism
and independent India’s first law minister.
▪ Temple Entry
Satyagraha
▪ Mahad Satyagraha
▪ Poona Pact –
96 96

• In 1924, he founded “Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha”.

• (December 2023) (June 2024 Shift 2)
• In 1927, He founded “Samaj Sainik Dal” and “Samaj Samta Sangh”
• In 1927, he started Satyagraha in Mahad to draw water
from the Chowder Tank of the town for Dalits.
• In 1930, arranged symbolic demonstrations to enter
the Kalaram Temple in Nashik.
• Launched movement against Dalit discrimination
through his writings in several periodicals such as
Mook Nayak (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1927),
and Equality Janta (1930). (June 2024 Shift 2)
• He was a delegate at the Round Table Conference in London,
where he asked for separate electorate for Dalits.
• In 1932, the Poona Pact was signed between Dr. Ambedkar
and Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya to ensure reservation of seats
for the untouchable class in the Provincial legislatures,
within the general electorate.
• Lothian Committee (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was a member of Lothian Committee (1932) also known as The
Indian Franchise Committee.
• It was one of the expert committees set up at the conclusion of the Second Round
Table Conference in London.
• The purpose of the committee was to suggest an electoral roadmap for India which
would help in deciding India’s constitutional future.
• The committee said it was aided by all political factions in India except the Gandhi
nationalists.
• In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labor Party
which later transformed into the All India Scheduled Castes Federation.
• In 1942, he was appointed labour member in the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• He strongly opposed to the idea of Panchayati Raj System in India. (June 2020)
• In 1955, he founded the “Bhartiya Buddha Mahasabha”.
• He converted to Buddhism on 14th Oct 1956 at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur.

Main Works:-
• Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (1916) (Shift 2 2022)
• The Problem of the Rupee: its origin and its solution (1923)
(Shift 1 2021) (Shift 2 2022)
• The Annihilation of Caste (1936) (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Federation Versus Freedom (1939) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Thoughts on Pakistan (1940) (Shift 2 2022)
• Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah (1943)
97 97

• Mr. Gandhi and Emancipation of Untouchables (1943)

• What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Untouchables (1945)
• Pakistan Or Partition Of India (1945)
• State and Minorities (1947)
• Who were the Shudras (1948) (June 2023 Shift 2) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Maharashtra as a Linguistic Province (1948)
• The Untouchables (1948) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Future of Parliamentary Democracy (1951) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Buddha Or Karl Marx (1956)
• The Buddha and his Dhamma (1957) (Shift 1 2021)
• Gandhi and Gandhism (1970) (June 2019) (Shift 1 2021)
• Riddles in Hinduism (2008)
• Manu and the Shudras

J L Nehru (1889- 1964) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh.
▪ Secularism.
• First prime minister of independent India (1947–64),
became noted for his nonaligned policies in foreign affairs. ▪ Scientific
• Nehru’s close association with the Congress Party dates from 1919. Determinism.
• National Unity: “we must give the topmost priority to the ▪ Scientific Temper.
development of a sense of unity in India”.
▪ International
• Nehru’s Nationalism : It was based on cultural pluralism,
Outlook.
self-determination and influenced by
Synthetic Universalism of Tagore. (Shift 2 2021) ▪ Internationalism.
- He was strongly against the demand for linguistic reorganization. ▪ Supported
• Parliamentary Democracy: it was the second national goal of Nehru. Fabian Socialism.
- India needed a democratic form of govt. it would help a diverse,
▪ Mixed Economy
vast and divided country to held together.
• Industrialization: it was the third component of national ideology. ▪ Industrialisation
- Cottage and small-scale industries were helpful in tackling the
problems of poverty and unemployment.
- If technology demands the big machine, then it must be accepted.
- He was inspired by the Fabianism
• Socialism: according to Nehru socialism has two forms:-
- Scientific method of social analysis: economic interests shape the political views
of groups and classes.
- Normative doctrine: socialism is not only limited to end capitalism; It is directed
towards the satisfaction of human needs rather than accumulation of profit.
98 98

Main works:-

• Letters from a Father to His Daughter (a collection of letters written by Jawaharlal

Nehru to his daughter Indira), 1929
• Glimpses of the World History (1934)
• An Autobiography (1936)
• India and the World (1936)
• China, Spain and the War; essays and writings (1940)
• The unity of India (1941)
• The Discovery of India (1946) (March 2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
• India Rediscovered (1946)
• Letters for a Nation (1947)
• Independence and After: A Collection of Speeches, 1946-1949 (1949)
• Nehru on world history (1960)

Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Akbarpur, Uttar Pradesh.
▪ Seven Revolutions
• Prominent figure in socialist politics and in the
movement toward Indian independence. ▪ New-Socialism
• In 1932, he earned his PhD degree from Berlin University ▪ A Bridge btwn
on the subject “Salt and Taxation.” (December 2019) Marxism and
• In 1934, Lohia became involved in the Congress Socialist Party Gandhism.
(left-wing group within the INC);
▪ Chaukhamba
and became an editor of weekly Congress Socialist.
• In 1936, he was selected by Jawaharlal Nehru ▪ Saptkranti
as the first secretary of the Foreign Department of the Congress. ▪ Permanent
• In 1946, led a remarkable struggle for the freedom and civil liberty Revolution concept -
of the people of Goa. (Trotsky se inspired)
• Lohia and other CSP members left the Congress in 1948.
▪ Thesis name –
• In 1952, He became a member of the Praja Socialist Party
- Salt and
and served as general secretary for a brief period, Satyagraha.
but internal conflicts led to his resignation in 1955.
• In 1956, he established a Socialist Party (Lohia), for which he became chairman as
well as the editor of its journal, Mankind.
• In 1965, he merged the Socialist Party (Lohia) into the ranks of the Samyukta
Socialist Party.
• In 1967, Lohia played an instrumental role in formation of the first non-Congress
government in Uttar Pradesh. This alliance was formed by Lohia and Bharatiya Jan
Sangh leader Nanaji Deshmukh
• He was opposed to capitalism, socialism and communism: (December 2019)
99 99

- These are based on centralized power which is not capable of bringing about a
radical alteration in society.

• Lohia’s Socialism: (Shift 2 2022)

- His conception of New socialism (1956) was founded on the six fundamental
elements.
- Lohia’s notion of socialism: 1. Small machines 2. Cooperative labour 3. Village
Govt 4. Decentralized planning.
• Idea of Saptkranti: the ideal of socialism. (December 2023)
- Lohia identified five kinds of inequalities: based on gender, skin colour, caste,
colonial rule, economic
- Struggle against these inequalities and ensure civil liberties and Armament
control he constituted seven revolutions.
• Idea of Chaukhamba: Lohia’s concept of the four-pillar state is the manifestation of
decentralization of political and administrative power in the village, district,
province and the center level. (June 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift 2)
Main works:-

• Fragments of World Mind, 1949

• Wheel of History, 1955 (Dec. 2024)
• Guilty Men of India’s Partition, 1960
• Marx, Gandhi and Socialism, 1963 (June 2019) (Shift 2 2022) (December 2023)
• India, China and Northern Frontiers, 1963
• The Caste System, 1964

Jaya Prakash Narayan (1902 –1979)

• Born in Sitabdiara, Bihar.
• Popularly referred to as JP or Lok Nayak,
• JP was a Sarvodayi leader. (Shift 1 2022) KEYWORDS :-
• His biography, Jayaprakash, was written by his nationalist friend ▪ Total Revolution
and the writer of Hindi literature, Rambriksh Benipuri. (June 2019)
• In 1999, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, ▪ Partyless
Democracy
in recognition of his social service. (December 2019)
• In 1965, awarded with the Magsaysay award for Public Service. ▪ Communitarian
• In 1929, he joined the Indian National Congress. Democracy
• In 1934, he took a leading part in the formation of the Congress ▪ Patna Speech 1974
Socialist Party between 1947 and 1953, he was the president of
All India Railwaymen's Federation (AIRF). ▪ Sarvodaya.
• In 1948, he together with most of the Congress Socialists, ▪ Antyodaya.
left the Congress Party.
100 100

• In 1952, formed the Praja Socialist Party.

• He announced in 1954 that he would thenceforth devote his life exclusively to
the Bhoodan Yajna Movement, founded by Vinoba Bhave in 1951.
• He believed in Cooperative farms run by Village Panchayats. (Shift 1 2022)
• In 1959, he argued for a “reconstruction of Indian polity” by means of a four-
tier hierarchy of village, district, state, and union councils.
• In 1974, the Nav Nirman Andolan of Gujrat asked Jayaprakash Narayan to lead a
peaceful agitation.
• In 1974, Narayan led the Bihar Movement which was initiated by students. JP in his
famous speech demanded “Total Revolution” and later the Bihar Movement came
to be known as “Total Revolution”. (Shift 2 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1
and 2) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• On 25th June, 1975 Jayaprakash Narayan organized a rally as a mark of protest
against autocratic rule of Indira Gandhi at Ramlila ground and recited Ramdhari
Singh Dinkar's poetry: Singhasan Khaali Karo Ke Janata Aaati Hai.
• On 25th June, 1975 at midnight Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had a state of
emergency declared across the country.
• In 1977, the Janata Party (formed under JP's guidance), defeated congress in 1977
general election.
• Idea of Socialism: in 1946, in the article “My picture of Socialism” he emphasized
State’s role to be limited and to be democratized.
• Total revolution: he was against parliamentary system, electoral system, party
politics which led the concentration of power in one person’s hand.
- advocated mixed economy system and gave idea of “Sampattidan”.

• Plan of reconstruction of Indian Polity (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Politically, Sarvodaya sought to establish a truly decentralized democracy that went
beyond the democratic elitism of the West and ensured what JP called Panchayati
Raj or ‘Swaraj from below’.
• In Jayaprakash Narayan’s vision for Panchayati democracy under the idea of
Sarvodaya, the way local governance would work organically - is like this:
1. The basic unit is the Gram Sabha or Nagar Sabha, which is a gathering of all
adults in a village, town, or neighbourhood.
2. From this Gram/Nagar Sabha, two different systems of government are
formed at higher levels.
3. The first system is a three-tier local self-government. The Gram Sabha
indirectly chooses the Panchayat Samitis, which are assemblies representing
a group of villages. And these Panchayat Samitis indirectly choose the Zila
Parishads, which are district-level assemblies.
101 101

4. The second system of legislative institutions that comes from the

Gram/Nagar Sabha includes the Vidhan Sabha (state assembly) and Lok
Sabha (national parliament). These are elected through a three-step process.

Main works:-

• A Plea for reconstruction of Indian Polity (1959) (Shift 2 2022) (December 2023)
• Why Socialism (1963) (December 2019)
• Communitarian Society and Panchayati Raj (1970)
• Prison Diary (1975-77)
• Towards Total Revolution (1978)

KEYWORDS :-
Deendayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968)
▪ Integral Humanism
• Born in Nagla Chandrabhan village in Mathura.
• He joined Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1937. ▪ Cooperative
• In 1967, became the president of Jan Sangh. Federalism.
• His thesis on Integral Humanism, ▪ Rashtra Dharma.
given in a series of speeches in Bombay
▪ Chitti as (the Soul
from 22rd to 25th April, 1965.
of the Nation).
This was adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh
and later on in the BJP. ▪ Jan Sangh.
• Integral humanism: (Shift 1 2022) (Shift 2 2022) (June 2024 Shift 2)
(Dec. 2024)
- Humankind had four attributes of body, mind, intellect and soul
which corresponded to four universal objectives, artha, kama, dharma, moksha.
- Capitalist and socialist ideologies only consider the needs of body and mind, but
dharma is the ‘basic’, and moksha the ‘ultimate’ objective of humankind and
society.
- Society was born as a natural living organism with a definitive ‘national soul’
(Chitti) and its needs of the social organism paralleled those of the individual.
• Idea of Economic Democracy: he says, “If a vote for everyone is the touch-stone of
political democracy, work for everyone is a measure of economic democracy.”
(Shift 2 2022)
• Idea of Hindu nation: according to him in India there exist only one culture and that
is Hindu.
Main works:-

• Rashtriya Jeevan ki Samasyaen or the Problem of National Life (1960)

• Ekatma Manavavad or Integral Humanism (1965)
• Rashtra Jeevan ki Disha or The direction of National Life (1971)
• Political Diary (1968)
102 102

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in an orthodox Brahman family at Radhanagar in Bengal. ▪ Monotheism

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy generally hailed as ▪ Universal Religion
“the father of Modern India” as he was
▪ Sambad Kaumudi
one of the makers of modern India. (June 2024 Shift 1)
• Roy in his modernist approach always tried to link ▪ Brahmo Sabha
modernity with tradition as he was influenced by Upanishads
and also some features of Christianity. (Shift 1 2021)
• He believes in the concept of Universal Religion in which he talks about combining
the best features of the religions of the world as he believes in monotheism.
(Shift 1 2021)
• He tried to create the unique combination of secularism and spirituality of Western
and Eastern philosophy.
• From his comparative study of religions, he concluded three basic tenets of religions:
(i) belief in Supreme Being; (ii) belief in the existence of the soul; (iii) belief in life
after death.
• At the age of 16, he wrote a book challenging the validity of practice of ideo-worship;
which according to him was the root cause of many social evils.
• He fought against the superstitions of Hindu religion which had resulted in evolving
many inhuman and cruel customs and traditions in society.
• He also broke the superstition of travelling across the ocean which was considered
to be sin by Orthodox Hindus as he was first Hindu to travel across the ocean.
• Roy mainly started his public life in 1815 with the establishment of Atmiya Sabha in
Kolkata.
• This Sabha was a precursor to socio-religious reforms in Bengal; the members used
to debate and discuss on philosophical topics.
• In 1871, he founded Mahapathshala (Hindu College) at Kolkata along with
Radhakanta Deb and others.
• In 1821, he launched a Bengali weekly newspaper Sambad Kaumudi; which was the
first newspaper edited, published and managed by Indians.
• In 1822, he published a Persian news magazine titles Mirat-ul-Akbar.
• In 1828, he launched Brahmo Sabha with Devendranath Tagore, which was later
renamed as Brahmo Samaj.

Main works:-

• Brief Remarks Regarding Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Right of Females

(1822)
103 103

• The Percepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)

• The Universal Religion (1829)
• An Exposition of Revenue and Judicial System in India (1832)

Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890) KEYWORDS :-

▪ Satyashodhak
• Jyotiba Phule an Indian Social Reformer and writer.
Samaj
• He was a champion of equal rights for all people.
• He fought for poor peasants and women. ▪ Gulamgiri
• In 1848 Phule was reportedly humiliated at the wedding of his friend. ▪ Widow
• His friend was Brahman so he was ordered to leave the wedding. Remarriage
• As he belonged to a Shudra caste.
• This incident is said to have helped open his eyes to the injustices of the caste
system.
• He was a strong critic of the Hindu caste system and deplored the discrimination
suffered by members of the so - called lower castes.
• He led a movement that called for the creation of a new social order in India, in
which no one would be subordinate to the upper-caste Brahmans.
• Phule also fought for women’s rights and believed that education was essential to
bringing about social change.
• He established schools for girls and for children of lower castes.
• Phule opened a pioneering school for lower-caste girls in Pune in 1848, a time when
it was extremely rare for girls of any caste in India to receive an education.
• He had educated his wife, Savitribai Phule, at home, and she became the teacher of
the girls’ school.
• Over the next few years, the Phules opened a series of schools in the Pune area for
girls and for lower-caste boys and girls.
• Their work met with great hostility from orthodox Brahmans.
• The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Jyotiba Phule in the Pune district of
Maharashtra, in 1873. (December 2023)
• Its objective was to improve the conditions of the depressed classes in Maharashtra
and to prevent their economic and social exploitation.

• This society also encouraged people to conduct weddings without Brahman priests.
• Phule did not believe that the Brahmans were naturally superior or that the division
of society into castes was a God-given system.
• He argued that the caste system was alien to India, having been introduced by the
Aryans to strengthen their dominance.
104 104

• Phule opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage, which was
prohibited particularly among high-caste Hindus.
• He opened a home for widows, especially Brahmans, who had become pregnant and
an orphanage for their children.
• His best-known work is the book Gulamagiri (Slavery), published in 1873.
• This work was an attack on India’s caste system, it compares the position of the
lower castes with those of black slaves in the United States.
• In 1888 Phule was honored with the title Mahatma, which means “Great Soul” in
Sanskrit. He died on November 28, 1890.
• Phule’s work and writings inspired later movements for caste reform in India,
including that of Dalit leader Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar.

• Main works:
• Gulamgiri (1873)
• Shetkaryacha Asud (1881)
105 105

Dadbhai Naoroji (1825-1917)

• Born on September 4, 1825, in Bombay (now Mumbai), Maharashtra.

• Known as the “Grand Old Man of India.”
• Belonged to a Parsi family and was a brilliant student.
• Studied at Elphinstone College and later became a professor of mathematics and nat-
ural philosophy.
• Elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the UK in 1892 (Liberal Party).
• He propounded the Drain of Wealth theory, highlighting how Britain drained India's
resources.
• He co-founded the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 and became its President
thrice (1886: Calcutta Session, 1893: Lahore Session, 1906: Calcutta Session)
• At the 1906 Calcutta session, Naoroji was the first to raise the demand for 'Swaraj'
(self-rule) from the Congress platform.
• Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) was his famous book where he explained
how British policies led to poverty in India.
• In this book, Naoroji, using statistical methods, revealed the drain of wealth from In-
dia and the British exploitation through figures. In this way, he presented the eco-
nomic basis of Indian nationalism. He estimated India's per capita income to be ₹20.
• Advocate for Indian Self-Government: Championed the cause of self-rule (Swaraj)
for India.
• Supported women's education and worked for the upliftment of marginalized sec-
tions.
• Worked tirelessly for India's freedom and social reforms.
• From 1850 to 1856, he was a professor of mathematics and natural sciences at
Elphinstone College, Bombay.
• In 1851, in Parsi religious reform, Rehnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, a religious reform
organization, was established.
• In 1853, he established the Bombay Association, and in 1866, the East India Associa-
tion.
• In 1874, he was appointed the Diwan of Baroda Princely State.
• In 1885, he became an additional member of the 'Bombay Provincial Legislative
Council'.
106 106

• In 1892, he was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons

from the Finsbury Central constituency as a candidate of the Liberal Party. This was a
significant moment as he was the first non-white person to achieve this.
• He contested elections for the 'House of Commons' in the British Parliament in 1886,
1896, and 1907 but was defeated. He won once in 1892. He contested a total of four
elections.
• Passed away on June 30, 1917, leaving behind a legacy of nationalism and economic
critique.
Magazines:
1. Rast Goftar: Anglo-Gujarati newspaper founded in 1854 by Dadabhai Naoroji and
Kharshedji Cama.
2. The Voice of India: founded the Voice of India newspaper in 1883

Works of Dadabhai Naoroji:

1. The European and Asiatic Races (1866)

2. On the commerce of India (1871)
3. Poverty of India - 1876
4. The Wants and Means of India (1876)
5. Poverty and Un-British rule In India (1901)
6. Condition of India (1882)

Political Thoughts of Dadabhai:

Dadabhai Naoroji's political thought was characterized by a blend of moderate constitution-

alism evolving towards a demand for self-rule, underpinned by a powerful economic critique
of British colonialism.

1. Constitutionalism and Gradual Reform:

• Naoroji was a moderate nationalist who believed in achieving India's political pro-
gress through constitutional means and gradual reforms within the British system.
• He had faith in British justice and believed that by appealing to their sense of fair-
ness and highlighting the injustices of their rule, India could achieve self-govern-
ance.
• He advocated for Indian representation in legislative councils and eventually in the
British Parliament.

2. Self-Government (Swaraj):

• While initially advocating for reforms within the British Empire, Naoroji became a
strong proponent of Swaraj or self-rule in his later years.
• At the 1906 Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress, he was the first to ex-
plicitly articulate Swaraj as the goal of the Indian nationalist movement.
107 107

• He believed that without self-government, India could never overcome the economic
drain and achieve prosperity.

3. Economic Nationalism and the "Drain Theory":

• A central tenet of Naoroji's political thought was his "Drain Theory," which argued
that British colonial policies were systematically draining India's wealth.
• He meticulously used statistics to demonstrate how India's resources were being
transferred to Britain through various mechanisms like high taxation, salaries of Brit-
ish officials, and unfavorable trade policies.
• This economic exploitation, according to Naoroji, was the primary cause of India's
poverty and economic stagnation.
• His economic analysis provided a strong foundation for Indian nationalism by high-
lighting the detrimental impact of foreign rule.

4. Critique of "Un-British" Rule:

• Naoroji distinguished between the ideals of British rule and its actual implementa-
tion in India, which he termed "un-British."
• He argued that the way Britain governed India was contrary to its own principles of
justice and liberty.
• By appealing to these ideals, he sought to persuade the British to adopt fairer poli-
cies towards India.

- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF IPT-

PANDITA RAMABAI – TAGORE –
▪ Stri Dharm Niti (1882) ▪ Chokher Bali, 1903 AUROBINDO –
▪ The cry of Indian Women (1883) ▪ Gitanjali (devotion of God), 1910
▪ The High Caste Hindu Women (1887) ▪▪ The GoraIdeal Human Unity
(multifarious social(1918)
life)1910
NEHRU – ▪▪ The Life Divine (1919)
▪ The People Of United States (1889) The Post Office (1912)
▪ Letters from a Father to His Daughter(1929) ▪▪ The Renaissance
Sadhna (realizationin India (1920)
of life), 1913
▪ Glimpses of the World History (1934) ▪▪ Essays on The Gita
Ghare Baire (deeper (1922)
ROY – of life),1916
MN meaning
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK – ▪▪ "The Mother" (1928)
▪ An Autobiography (1936) Stay Birds (1916)
▪ India The Orion
and the(1893)
World (1936) ▪▪▪ Savitri:
India inAtransition
NationalismLegend
(1917)
(1922)
and a Symbol (1940)
▪ China,The Arctic
Spain Home
and intheVedas
War; (1903)
essays and ▪▪ The
The Synthesis
future of Indian
of YogaPolitics
(1948)(1929)
▪writings
Geeta Rahashya
(1940) (1915) ▪▪ Love
Historical
and Death (1948) (1939)
Role of Islam
▪ The Vedic Chronology
unity And Vedanga Jyotisha
ofVIVEKANADA
India (1941) ▪▪ The
FromHuman
Savagery to (1949)
Cycle Civilization (1940)
– ▪▪ Hymns
Povertyofand Plenty (1944)
▪(1925)The Discovery of India (1946) Mystic Fire (1952)
Raja
▪ India yoga
The Hindu MK GANDHI
(1896)
Philosophy
Rediscovered of Life,–Ethics and
(1946)
▪▪ The
Revolution
Future Poetry (1953)Revolution in China
and Counter
▪Religion ▪▪ The
NewUpanishads
OrientationPERIYAR
(1946)
(1981) –
▪ Karma
Letters yoga
for a (1896)
(1965)
Hind Swaraj Nation
or Indian (1947)
Home Rule (1909)
Lectures
▪▪ Independence from Colombo
and After:toAAlmora (1897)
Collection of ▪▪ Letters
Beyondon Communism (1947)
yoga (letters written in 1930s,
The story of my experiments with truth ▪▪ Kudi
▪(1929)
Jnana yoga
Speeches, (1899) (1949)
1946-1949 New Arasu
collected
(Tamil weekly),
Humanism-A Manifesto
in three volumes)
1925
(1947)
▪▪ Revolt
Reason (English journal),
Romanticism and 1928
Revolution (1952)
▪▪ My Master
Nehru (1901) ▪ The Integral Yoga
Key to on world
health history (1960)
(1948)
108 108

- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF IPT-

IQBAL – Dr. BR AMBEDKAR –

Prose books in English:- ▪ Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and
▪ The Development of Metaphysics in Persia Development (1916)
(1908) ▪ The Problem of the Rupee: its origin and its
▪ The Reconstruction of Religious thought in solution (1923)
Islam (1930) ▪ The Annihilation of Caste (1936)
Poetic books in Persian:- ▪ Federation Versus Freedom (1939)
▪ Asrar-i-Khudi (1915) ▪ Thoughts on Pakistan (1940)
▪ Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917) ▪ Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah (1943)
▪ Payam-i-Mashriq (1923) ▪ Mr. Gandhi and Emancipation of
▪ Zabur-i-Ajam (1927) Untouchables (1943)
▪ Javid Nama (1932) ▪ What Congress and Gandhi have done to the
▪ Pas ched bayed kard ai aqwam-e-sharq Untouchables (1945)
(1936) ▪ Pakistan Or Partition Of India (1945)
Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938) ▪ State and Minorities (1947)
Books in urdu:- ▪ Who were the Shudras (1948)
▪ Ilm ul Iqtisad (Urdu), (1903) ▪ Maharashtra as a Linguistic Province (1948)
▪ Bang-i-Dara (1924) ▪ The Untouchables (1948)
▪ Bal-i-JIbril (1935) ▪ Buddha Or Karl Marx (1956)
▪ Zarb-i-Kalim (1936) ▪ The Buddha and his Dhamma (1957)
▪ Gandhi and Gandhism (1970)
VD SAVARKAR – ▪ Riddles in Hinduism (2008)
▪ Manu and the Shudras
▪ The Indian War of Independence: 1857
(1909) RAM MANOHAR LOHIA –
▪ Essentials Of Hindutva (1923) ▪ Fragments of World Mind, 1949
▪ Hindu-pad-Padshahi : A review of the Hindu
▪ Wheel of History, 1955
empire of Maharashtra (1925)
▪ Guilty Men of India’s Partition, 1960
▪ Hindu Rashtra Darshan (1949) ▪ Marx, Gandhi and Socialism, 1963
▪ Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History (1963) ▪ India, China and Northern Frontiers, 1963
▪ The Caste System, 1964
DD UPADHYAYA –
JP NARAYAN –
▪ Rashtriya Jeevan ki Samasyaen or the
Problem of National Life (1960) ▪ A Plea for reconstruction of Indian Polity
▪ Ekatma Manavavad or Integral Humanism ▪ Why Socialism (1963)
(1965) ▪ Communitarian Society and Panchayati Raj
▪ Rashtra Jeevan ki Disha (1971) (1970)
▪ Political Diary (1968) ▪ Prison Diary (1975-77)
▪ Towards Total Revolution (1978)

RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY –

▪ Brief Remarks Regarding Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Right of Females (1822)
▪ The Percepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
▪ The Universal Religion (1829) ▪ An Exposition of Revenue and Judicial System in India (1832)
109 109

UNIT 4 – COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Approaches To Comparative Politics

o (i) Institutional Approach –

o Definition – It is an approach to the study of Comparative politics and
government that focuses on the structure and dynamics of the working
Institutions.
• Early Period :- Origins of Institutional Approach
o Aristotle was first who conducted the oldest comparative study of
governments.
o Aristotle compared Constitutions and Practices in Greek city-states vs the
politics in the so-called ‘Barbarian’ states.
o Aristotle compared total = 158 constitutions.
• 19th and 20th Century :- Comparative Government Approach
o In the late 19th century and early 20th century – thinkers like Bryce, Lowell and
Ostrogorski’s works changed the scope and approach of Institutional
approach.
o Jean Blondel said, Bryce and Lowell were the True founders of Comparative
Government Approach.
o Main Points – Comparative Govt. approach focused on – Study of Formal
Institutional structures with emphasis on their legal powers and functions.
o Main Thinkers of Comparative Government Approach –
Thinker Books

Bryce The American Commonwealth (1888)

Modern Democracies (1921) (PYQ
2019)

Lowell Governments and Parties in

Continental Europe (1896)
Public Opinion and Popular
Government (1913) (PYQ 2019)

Ostrogorski Democracy and The Organisation of

Political Parties (1902)

Herman Finer Theory and Practice of Modern

Government (1932)
110 110

Carl Friedrich Constitutional Government and

Democracy (1932) (PYQ 2019)

o Criticism of Institutional Approach –

o (i) It is Ethnocentric (concentrated on European democracies)
o (ii) It is Prescriptive and Normative in nature
o (iii) It is Historical without being analytical

o (ii) Neo-institutionalism –
o Definition – It is a revival of institutionalism that goes beyond the limits of
previous theory.
o Focus on – Neo-institutionalism goes beyond the formal study of institutions
and government – it focuses on how both Institutions and Individual actors
shape political decisions
o When and Where did Neo-institutionalism originate from?
▪ In the 1980s from USA.
o Who are the thinkers of Neo-institutional approach?
▪ James G March and Johann P Olsen
o What are the Books written by March and Olsen?
▪ 1. The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life
(1984)
▪ 2. Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics
(1989)
▪ 3. Democratic Governance (1995)

o How many branches of Neo-institutionalism is there?

▪ Three Branches :-
▪ 1. Historical Institutionalism
▪ 2. Sociological Institutionalism
▪ 3. Rational Choice Approach (PYQ 2022)

New Institutionalism
• New Institutionalism is an approach in comparative politics that emphasizes the
constraining and enabling effects of formal and informal rules on the behaviour of
individuals and groups.
• It emerged in the 1980s, reinforcing the focus on institutions and their practices across
states. The approach examines how institutions vary between states and the effect
that different institutional practices have on the outcomes of political processes in
different societies.
111 111

•New Institutionalism traditionally encompasses various major strands: sociological

institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, Discursive Institutionalism and
historical institutionalism.
FOUR TYPES OF NEW – INSTITUTIONALISM
1. Rational Choice Institutionalism: Assumes that individuals are rational actors who
make decisions based on cost-benefit analyses within the constraints of institutional
rules. Can Explain How Rational Actors pursue their preferences in institutions through
‘Logic of Calculation’.
Thinkers- Olsen, North, Levi, Rothstein
2. Historical Institutionalism: Emphasizes the role of historical processes and events in
shaping institutions and their effects on political behaviour. Can Explain how Regular
Patterns and Routines are formed from intentional decisions and specific historical
circumstances through ‘Logic of Path-dependency’.
Thinkers- Blyth, Vargwese, Kathleen Thelen, Wolfgang Streeck
3. Sociological Institutionalism: Focuses on the role of norms, values, and culture in
shaping institutional practices. Can Explain how Political institutions are shaped by
Cultural Norms and Frames Through ‘Logic of Appropriateness’
Thinkers- James March, Johan Olsen, Katzenstein, Meyer, Rowan, DiMaggio, Powell.
4. Discursive Institutionalism: Explain how Ideas and Discourse shape Political Action in
institutional context through ‘Logic of Communication’.
Thinkers- John L. Campbell, Ove K. Pedersen, Vivien A. Schmidt, Peter Kjaer

Thoughts of various thinkers. (June 2023 Shift 2)

A. “Critique of Rational Choice Institutionalism’s Advocacy of Universal Generalization”
(2004) – by Fritz W. Scharpf.
What is F.W. Scharpf’s criticism against Rational Choice Institutionalism?
While Rational Choice theory is effective at capturing typical reasons for behaviour, it
struggles in two aspects-
• Firstly, it fails to explain exceptions or irregularities in situations that deviate
significantly from interest-driven actions.
• Secondly, over-generalization is also an issue with Rational Choice Institutionalism
because it aims for giving universal explanations.
What is the Solution that F.W. Scharpf gives?
On the other hand, Scharpf gives us the ‘Actor-Cantered institutionalism’ approach. This
theory avoids these “universal generalizing” problems by employing 'bounded
generalizations' to explain policy outcomes through factors like problems, policy legacies,
actors' attributes, and institutional interactions in specific cases, not universalizing all cases.
B. “Study of institutional change in skill regimes in Britain, Germany, Japan and the US”
(2004) – by Kathleen Thelen.
Critics of Historical Institutionalism school such argue that -
112 112

(1) Historical Institutionalism may seem too focused on Historical determinism or Mechanistic
thinking because it emphasizes continuities and assumes that change happens only in sudden
bursts, with periods of little to no change in between.
(2) Historical Institutionalism give a lot of emphasis to structures, and they fail to take into
account the factor of human agency in institutions.
What is the Solution to these 2 problems?
1. To Correct the first problem, scholars like Kathleen Thelen and Wolfgang Streeck have
focused on the process of Incremental changes in institutions. They suggest that
gradual changes can be more transformative than abrupt ones in institutions.
2. To Correct the second problem, Kathleen Thelen conducts a mixed research study –
where she combines elements of Historical institutionalism with Rational choice
institutionalism (How Historical Structures + shape Actors’ Interests)
• Kathleen Thelen explores how skills systems changed in countries like Britain,
Germany, Japan, and the United States. Instead of only looking at historical patterns,
she uses rationalist explanations that center around ongoing negotiations between
different political groups and conflicts.
• These interactions lead to changes in the systems through a process of layering
(adding new elements) and conversion (changing existing elements). In other words,
Thelen studies how political groups working together, or clashing can bring about
changes in the way skills systems function in these countries.
C. “Origins of sociological institutionalism” (1977) – by Meyer and Rowan.
The very first origins of Sociological institutionalism can be traced back to the writings of two
organizational theorists- John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan’s work “Institutionalized
Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony” in 1977.
D. “Discursive institutionalism” – Campbell & Pederson.
Discursive institutionalism considers the ideas and discourse that actors use to devise,
deliberate, and/or legitimize political action in institutional context-whether seen as incentive
structures, regularized practices, or social constructions- according to a ‘Logic of
Communication’ (the organized patterns and rules that guide how ideas are shared among
individuals within institutions).
Thinkers of Discursive institutionalism – John L. Campbell, Ove K. Pedersen, Vivien A. Schmidt,
Peter Kjaer.

o (iii) Political Economy Approach –

o Definition – Pol Economy Approach refers to understanding our social and
political phenomenon where – economics and politics are not seen as separate
domains.
o Focus on – The way to Political ‘Development’ is the key common problem.
This approach looks at how economic forces combine with polity – and how
this creates a hierarchy of nations at the world level.
113 113

o Main Thinkers – who contributed to Political Economy’s Evolution :-

o Adam Smith – considered as the father of Modern Political Economy.
o Book “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”
(1776).
o He gave Labour Theory of Value,
o He gave Theory of Invisible Hand – Supply and Demand.
o David Ricardo –
o Ricardo gave the theory Comparative Advantage.
o Karl Marx – Karl Marx never defined Political Economy but Engels did.
o Karl Marx himself never developed a theory on Political Economy, but
he wrote “Critique of Political Economy” where he criticized Adam
Smith.
o Lenin –
o Lenin regarded Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
o Imperialism for Lenin was synonymous with Monopoly Capitalism.

o Main Subjects- where Impact of Pol Economy is studied in Comparative

Politics –
o (1) . Impact of Modernization Theory –
o Focus of Modernization Theory was to bring the newly independent
‘Third-world’ states to ‘First-world’ standards.
o The tool of Modernization for them was – through ‘Political
Development.’
o Main Thinker – Modernization Theory – W.W. Rostow →
o Book – The Stages of Economic Growth : A Non-Communist Manifesto
(1960)
o 5 Stages of Economic Growth by W.W. Rostow =
o 1. Traditional stage → 2. Precondition for take-off → 3. Take-off →
4. Drive to Maturity → 5. High Mass Consumption (June 2023 Shift 1)

o (2) . Impact of Dependency Theory –

o Focus of Dependency Theory as a critique of Modernization Theory.
o Main Thinkers of Dependency Theory is – AG Frank, Prebisch, Singer,
Samir Amin, Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy, Cardoso, Furtado, Sunkel, Dos
Santos.
o AG Frank – concept – Development As Underdevelopment.
(PYQ 2021)
o Samir Amin – concept – Theory of Unequal Exchange.
o Dos Santos – concept – New Dependency.
o Cardoso – Dependency and Development.
114 114

o Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy – Dependency and Imperialism.

o Singer and Prebisch – Terms-of-Trade (ToT) Thesis.
o Immanuel Wallerstein – World Systems Theory.

o (iv) Political Culture –

o Definition – Political Culture is a set of beliefs, values, norms and assumptions
concerning the ways on how government, politics and economic life is being
carried out or should to be carried out. (March 2023 Shift 1)
o Focus on – Political beliefs and values, Political Symbols, Political Action,
Orientations etc. (PYQ 2021)
Converse and Robinson principle (June 2023 Shift 2)

In Comparative Politics, there are certain principles which are important for understanding
how political culture works. They help us to understand how people's attitudes are related to
each other, and how those attitudes may differ at the aggregate and individual levels.
By comparing the values of people in different countries, we can learn about the different
political cultures that exist around the world. This information can be used to understand why
countries have different political systems and why they make different political decisions.
Two such principles are: Converse principle and Robinson's principle.
A. Converse principle: It states that there is a high correlation between different value
orientations. This means that people who have similar views on one political issue are likely
to have similar views on other political issues. For example, people who believe in democracy
are also likely to believe in individual rights and limited government.
B. Robinson's principle: It states that macro values may deviate from micro values. This
means that the values that people express at the aggregate level (e.g., the national level) may
not be the same as the values that people express at the individual level. For example, a
survey may find that a majority of people in a country support democracy, but when you look
at individual respondents, you may find that many people have contradictory views about
democracy.

o Main Thinkers –
o 1. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba in 1963 defined Pol. Culture as –
“Political Orientations and Attitudes towards the Political System.”
o Almond and Verba in 1963 identified 5 important dimension of Pol. Culture
:-
▪ 1. A sense of National identity.
▪ 2. Attitude towards one’s-self – as a participant in political life.
▪ 3. Attitude towards one’s – fellow citizens.
▪ 4. Attitudes and Expectations from government output and
performance.
115 115

▪ 5. Attitudes towards Knowledge about Political process of decision

making.
o Book – The Civic Culture (1963) – by Almond and Verba.
o Almond and Verba conducted a survey of 5 countries during 1959-60 :-
o Survey of :- USA, United Kingdom, West Germany, Italy, and Mexico.
o There are Three Broad Types of Political Culture acc. To Almond & Verba :-
▪ Parochial Culture = 0 % participation
▪ Subject Culture = 50 % participation
▪ Participant Culture = 100 % participation
Participatory Culture USA, Switzerland; Scandinavian countries like Finland,
Norway, Sweden, Denmark etc.

Subject Culture China.

Parochial Culture Uganda, Cuba, Libya, North Korea.

Homogenous Culture United Kingdom. (PYQ 2019)

Subject Participatory Erstwhile Communist Countries of USSR.

Culture

Elite Mass Culture India

• Acc. to Almond & Powell –

There are 3 types of Political Orientation –
o Cognitive Orientation
o Affective Orientation
o Evaluative Orientation (PYQ 2022)
David Easton - Systems Approach (June 2024 Shift 2)

• System Analysis approach started in the 1950s.

• David Easton in his book – The Political System (1953) defined Political System.
• Who inspired David Easton?
o Ludwig von Bertalanffy - General Systems Theory inspired David Easton’s
System Theory.
• What is Political System?
o A Political system is that system of interaction in any society through which
binding or authoritative allocations are made.
• David Easton’s – Systems Approach –
• Main Points :-
o It has two main components – Inputs and Outputs (Dec. 2024)
▪ Input consists of – Demand and Support – the Needs
116 116

▪ (demands are the needs that are brought by citizens infront of their
government and support is the belief system citizens have towards the
political system).
↓
It has a Political System – which acts as a “Gatekeeper” – it filters out
what are valid demands and what are invalid demands made by
citizens.
↓
▪ Output consists of – Decisions and Actions – the Policies
▪ (the laws, the rules and regulations that the government brings out as
a result of these inputs result into policies as outputs).
o This whole process goes on in a loop, as demand comes in the form of Input -
> goes into the Political System, gets filtered -> Output is generated as policies
-> this generates a positive/negative Feedback which goes into the
“Environment” -> this feedback system connects the Output to Input and then
a new set of demands generate in as a result of this process. Hence, it is also
called “Cyclic-model”.

Figure : David Easton’s Political System

• Features of David Easton’s System Approach :-

o Values are authoritatively allocated – meaning decisions of those who are in
power, are binding in nature. (PYQ 2018)
o Political System is Dynamic .
o Political System is Open and Adaptive .
o Political System is also known as “Cyclical Model / Loop Model .”
o Political System is the Unit Level of Analysis for David Easton .
o It focuses on intra-system behaviour (within a system) behaviour .
Almond & Powell - Structural Functionalism
117 117

• Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell introduced Structural Functional approach.

• They argued in order to understand a political system it is necessary to understand
not only the institutions, the structures but also their respective functions.
• Who inspired Almond?
o Max Weber and Talcott Parson inspired Gabriel Almond.
• Gabriel Almond in his book “The Politics of Developing Areas” (1960) defined
Structural-functional approach :-
o All political systems have a structure, and these structures perform their
respective functions, with different degrees in different political systems.
o Almond includes 4 Input functions and 3 output functions – (PYQ 2019)
▪ Input Functions :- (March 2023 Shift 1)
▪ 1. Political Socialisation and Recruitment (through Family, Peer Groups)
▪ 2. Interest Articulation (through Interest Groups)
▪ 3. Interest Aggregation (through Political Parties)
▪ 4. Political Communication (through Media)
↓
Political System
↓
▪ Output Functions :- (March 2023 Shift 1)
▪ 1. Rule Making (Legislature)
▪ 2. Rule Application (Executive)
▪ 3. Rule Adjudication (Judiciary)
• Almond’s Structural-functional Model is also Cyclic, Open and Continuous.
• MAJOR DIFFERENCE between Easton and Almond’s Model is :-
o There is NO FEEDBACK in Almond’s Structural-Functional Model.
Pressure Groups, Interest Groups –

• What is a Pressure Group?

o Pressure Group is – are forms of organisations, which exert pressure on the
political or administrative system of a country to extract benefits out of it and
to advance their own interests.
o Examples of Pressure Group - RSS, Jamaat-e-Islami, VHP, Indian Medical
Association (IMA), Bar Council of India (BCI), CII, FICCI, Bharatiya Kisan Union,
All India Kisan Sabha etc.
o Finer has characterized Pressure Groups as an “Anonymous Empire”.
o Richard D Lambert views Pressure Groups as the “Unofficial Govt”.

• What is an Interest Group?

o Interest Groups are – bodies which aims to influence policy from outside the
formal structures of government. They do this with a combination of direct
pressure on government and direct pressure via. Media and public opinion.
118 118

o Examples of Interest Group - Amnesty International, Organization for Women

(NOW), National Rifle Association (NRA) etc.

• Neumann has pointed out DIFFERENCE between – Pressure Groups vs Political

Parties –
Pressure Groups – Political Parties –

Pressure Groups – HOMOGENOUS Political Parties Groups – HETEROGENOUS

INTERESTS. INTERESTS.

Pressure Groups seek for – Influence. Political Parties seek for – Power.

Pressure Groups have – Short-term Political Parties have – Long-term interests.

interests

• Who said about Pseudo – Pressure Groups?

o Maurice Duverger said on – Pseudo Pressure Groups.
o According to Duverger, MEDIA is example of Pseudo-Pressure Group.
• Duverger’s classification of 3 Types of Pressure Groups –
▪ 1. Exclusive Groups (those who put pressure on political system)
▪ 2. Partial Groups (those who promote their interests but do not put
pressure tactics as their method)
▪ 3. Pseudo pressure groups (like Media who put pressure politics not
for themselves but for others with a Monetary motive in consideration)
• Jean Blondel’s classification of 2 Types of Interest Groups –
▪ 1. Community Interest Groups
▪ 2. Associational Interest Groups
• Almond and Powell’s Four Types of Interest Groups –
▪ 1. Institutional Interest Groups (like UPSC)
▪ 2. Associational Interest Groups (like AITUC, Indian Chamber of
Commerce)
▪ 3. Anomic Interest Groups (Riots, Demonstrations)
▪ 4. Non-Associational Interest Groups (Family, Religious Heads, Caste
Groups)
Correct Order :- Institutional → Associational → Anomic → Non-Associational
(IAAN). (PYQ 2021) (June 2024 Shift 2)

• What is Lobbying?
o Lobbying is – practice of members of certain pressure groups who loiter
outside in the lobbies of Legislatures in order to influence Lawmakers to
further their interests
119 119

o While Pressure Groups are organized groups, Lobbying is just a influencing

process.
o Pressure Groups and Lobbying is not the same thing.
o The process of Revolving Door Lobbying is seen in USA politics.
• What is Protective Group?
o It is an Interest Group that seeks selective benefits for its own members. Its
membership is restricted and enjoys insider status with relevant govt.
departments
• What is Promotional Group?
o It is an Interest Group that promotes wider issues and promotes a certain
cause. Its membership is open to public and its benefits go for both members
and non-members.

• What is Peak Association?

o It is an umbrella organization representing the interests of a business group or
labour group infront of the government. For example – the Federal
Organization of German Employers, Confederation of British Industry in UK –
are peak associations
• What is Think-tank?
o It is a type of Interest group that conducts Research into a given area of policy
with the goal of engaging that issue into a public debate and bring political
change.
For example – ORF, IDSA, CPPR, NITI AAYOG etc.
3 Waves of Democratization by Huntington

• What is Democratization?
o Samuel P. Huntington gave this idea in his book ‘Third Wave: Democratization
in the Late Twentieth Century’ (1991). (PYQ 2019)
o “A wave of democratization is a group of transitions from nondemocratic to
democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of time and that
significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite directions during that
period of time”

• 3 Waves of Democratization –
120 120

• First Wave (1828-1926): (December 2023)

o Gradual emergence of liberal democracies in 1st world
o Industrial Revolution, modernization and rise of nation state
o North America, UK and Western Europe
o 29 Democracies
o Ended with rise of fascism in 1920s
o Reverse wave: fascism, great depression, WWII
o Only 12 democracies left by 1942
• Second Wave (1943-1962):
o Post-WWII era, restoration of democracies in defeated dictatorship;
West Germany, Japan and Italy
o In many European countries democracies were introduced by Allied powers
led by USA (Marshall Plan)
o Decolonialization produced many democracies: India, Sri-Lanka, Ghana and
Indonesia
o Ended during 1960s; Many nations revered to authoritarian rule
o Greece, Latin America: Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Mexico
o Also in several new democracies, single party rule dominated national
politics.
o For example :- Congress in India, Christian democrats in Italy, LDP in Japan
and Labour in Israel (PYQ 2019)
• Third Wave (1974-2000):
o Main elements:
o The end of rightwing dictatorships in South Europe (Greece, Portugal and
Spain) in the 1970s
o The retreat of generals in much of Latin America in the 1980s
o Collapse of USSR at the end of 1980s
o Started in 1974 in Portugal, followed in Greece and Spain, spread to Eastern
Europe, then to Latin America, Africa and Asia
o 28% (1974) to 61% (1998) nations adopted democracy
121 121

State theory: debate over the nature of state in capitalist and socialist socie-
ties; post-colonial state; welfare state; globalization and nations-states.

State:
• A permanent political organization.
• Regulates society and population within a defined territory.
• Sovereign: Self-governing with supreme power.
• Enforces rules through laws and regulations.

The classic definition of the state in international law is found in the Montevideo Conven-
tion on the Rights and Duties of the State (1933). According to Article 1 of the Montevideo
Convention, the state has four features:

(1) a defined territory

(2) a permanent population
(3) an effective government
(4) the capacity to enter into relations with other states.

By establishing the principle of territorial sovereignty, the Peace of Westphalia (1648), con-
cluded at the end of the Thirty Years’ War, is often taken to have formalized the modern no-
tion of statehood, by establishing the state as the principal actor in domestic and interna-
tional affairs.

According to Charles Tilly (1990), for instance, the central factor that explains the develop-
ment of the modern state was its ability to fight wars. As Tilly (1975) thus put it, ‘War
made the state, and the state made war’.

Marxists, in contrast, have explained the emergence of the state largely in economic terms,
the state’s origins being traced back to the transition from feudalism to capitalism, with
the state essentially being a tool used by the emerging bourgeois class.

Michael Mann (1993), offered an account of the emergence of the state that stresses the
state’s capacity to combine ideological, economic, military and political forms of power
(Also called the ‘IEMP model’)

key features of the state:

The state is sovereign. It exercises absolute and unrestricted power, in that it stands above
all other associations and groups in society.

State institutions are recognizably ‘public’, in contrast to the ‘private’ institutions of civil
society. Public bodies are responsible for making and enforcing collective decisions, while
private bodies, such as families, private businesses and trade unions, exist to satisfy individ-
ual interests.
122 122

The state is an exercise in legitimation. The decisions of the state are usually accepted as
binding on the members of society. state supposedly reflects the permanent interests of soci-
ety.

The state is an instrument of domination. State authority is backed up by coercion. For

Max Weber, the state was defined by its monopoly of the means of ‘legitimate violence’.

The state is a territorial association. The jurisdiction of the state is geographically defined,
and it encompasses all those who live within the state’s borders, whether they are citizens or
non-citizens.

The capitalist states:

There is no single understanding of the state in the capitalist tradition. Different Traditions
have talked about capitalist state in their own way.

Marxists have typically argued that the state cannot be understood separately from the eco-
nomic structure of society. According to the, state is nothing but an instrument of class op-
pression.

Marx believed that the state is part of a ‘superstructure’ that is determined or conditioned by
the economic ‘base’, which can be seen as the real foundation of social life.

‘The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs
of the whole bourgeoisie’ (Communist Manifesto, 1848).

Features of capitalist states can be summarized as:

1. State as a supplier of public goods: In a capitalist system, the state ensures the pro-
vision of basic public goods like national defence, law and order, infrastructure
(roads, bridges), and sometimes education and health.
• These goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, meaning everyone benefits,
and private markets might underprovide them.
• Adam Smith accepted that the state must provide public goods which private en-
terprises cannot profitably offer.

2. State as a regulator and facilitator: The capitalist state creates and maintains the
rules of the market—like protecting property rights, enforcing contracts, and main-
taining competition.
• It intervenes to correct market failures (like monopolies or pollution).
• The state also facilitates the functioning of capital through policies that favor in-
vestment, trade, and entrepreneurship.
• John Locke emphasized the role of the state in protecting property rights.

3. State as a social engineer: Even capitalist states engage in some social engineering
by influencing societal outcomes through education, welfare, and development poli-
cies. This includes addressing inequalities and investing in human capital to ensure a
productive workforce.
• Example: Welfare programs, subsidies for education and housing, etc.
123 123

• This idea connects with Keynesian economics, where John Maynard Keynes
advocated state intervention to ensure social and economic stability.

4. State as an arbiter: The capitalist state acts as a neutral referee between competing
interests—especially between capital (employers) and labor (workers).
• It creates labor laws, minimum wage regulations, and dispute resolution mecha-
nisms.
• Pluralist theorists like Robert Dahl view the state as a neutral umpire balancing
diverse group interests.

5. The minimalist state: This is the classical liberal view where the state has very lim-
ited functions—mainly maintaining law and order, enforcing contracts, and protecting
property.
• The market is trusted to regulate itself; state intervention is seen as harmful to
freedom and efficiency.
• Robert Nozick in Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974) argued for a “night-watch-
man state”, which only protects individual rights without interfering in economic
activities.

Socialist State

Classical Marxist View:

• State = Instrument of Class Rule. Serves the interests of the bourgeoisie (capitalist
class).
• The economic base (capitalist relations of production) shapes the political superstruc-
ture (state, law, ideology).
• “The state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bour-
geoisie.”- Marx
• State will wither away in a true communist society.
• In socialism, the state is a temporary instrument for the dictatorship of the prole-
tariat to suppress the bourgeoisie.
• Goal: Classless, stateless society (Communism).
• Key Text: Marx’s Critique of the Gotha Programme; Engels’ Anti-Dühring.

Neo-Marxist View:

• State has relative autonomy – not directly controlled by capitalists, but still serves
capitalist system.
• Thinkers: Antonio Gramsci (Hegemony), Nicos Poulantzas (Structuralist), Ralph
Miliband (Instrumentalist).

o Gramsci: State maintains capitalist control through consent, not just coercion.

o Poulantzas: Instead of serving the interest of capitalist class, the state repro-
duces the social structure which perpetuates capitalism.State embedded in the
capitalist structure, but with relative autonomy. (structural view of the state)
124 124

o Miliband: Capitalist state works to serve the interest of the capitalist class.
State is dominated by a capitalist elite; no true separation of politics and eco-
nomics. (instrumental view of state)

Leninist View:

• State as a tool for proletarian revolution.

• Under capitalism, the state is an organ of repression.
• After revolution, a proletarian state is necessary to build socialism and defend it
from counter-revolution.
• Key Text: Lenin’s State and Revolution.

Capitalist State vs. Socialist State

Feature Capitalist State Socialist State

Origin 16th-century Europe 18th-century French Revolution
Tool for maintaining hegemony of Agency for cooperation and coordina-
Role of State
the rich tion
Principles Individual rights Equality
Economic
Private ownership, market allocation Social ownership, planned economy
System
Income Determined by free market forces Equally distributed based on needs
Prices Determined by supply and demand Set by the government
Less incentive due to government own-
Efficiency Encouraged by competition
ership
Taxes Limited, based on individual income High, to fund public services

Post-Colonial State

A Post-Colonial State refers to a state that emerged after gaining independence from colonial
rule, especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• It deals with the legacies of colonialism in state structure, economy, society, and gov-
ernance. They are categorized by political/economic agenda and infrastructural capac-
ity.
• Key thinkers: Edward Said (Orientalism), Gayatri Spivak (Can the Subaltern
Speak?), Homi Bhabha (hybridity), Frantz Fanon (psychopathology of colonization).

Theoretical Perspectives:

Marxist View:

• Post-colonial states are seen as dependent capitalist states, serving the interests of
the global capitalist system (Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin).
• Nicos Poulantzas: State is a site of class struggle; in post-colonial states, the ruling
elites often ally with foreign capital.
125 125

Neo-Colonialism (Kwame Nkrumah):

• Nkrumah coined the term Neo-Colonialism

• Political independence without economic freedom.
• Continued domination through economic control, aid, and institutions like IMF,
World Bank.

Overdeveloped state Theory (Hamza Alavi):

• Post-colonial states are "overdeveloped" bureaucracies, independent from the bour-

geoisie.
• Army and bureaucracy play a dominant role due to the absence of a dominant class.
• Overdeveloped states: Pakistan and Bangladesh

Related Thinkers:

• Frantz Fanon
o Wrote: The Wretched of the Earth
o Focuses on the psychology and politics of decolonization. Emphasizes the
need for violent resistance against colonial domination.
o Also authored Black Skin, White Masks, exploring the psychopathology of
colonization.

• Partha Chatterjee
o Major contributor to Subaltern Studies.
o Argues that the post-colonial state mimics the colonial one in structure and
governance.
o Coined the term "Derivative Nationalism" – post-colonial elites imitate
Western models of nationhood.

• Achille Mbembe
o In his book On the Postcolony, Examines the postcolonial African state, ex-
ploring power, subjectivity, and the politics of death (necropolitics).

• Edward Said
o Orientalism (1978)
o Critiques how the West constructs the East as exotic, backward, and inferior.
o Foundational thinker in Postcolonial and Cultural Studies.

• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

o Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)
o Explores how marginalized voices (subalterns) are often silenced by elite
discourses, including in post-colonial settings.
o Introduced the idea of epistemic violence.

• Homi K. Bhabha
o Key concepts: Hybridity, Mimicry, and the Third Space.
o Shows how colonized identities are neither entirely imposed nor entirely re-
sistant but hybrid.
o Challenges binary divisions between colonizer and colonized.
126 126

Welfare State

A state that provides for various types of social services for its citizens, e.g. social security,
free education, public health, poor relief, supply of essential goods and services like food-
grains, milk, fuel and transport to the needy at subsidized rates.

• John Stuart Mill (1806–73) tried to improve traditional utilitarianism and laissez-
faire (minimal state interference) by giving it a more human and moral touch. His
ideas helped lay the foundation for the welfare state, where the government actively
helps its people.

• T.H. Green (1836–82) added a moral dimension to liberalism, saying the state should
help people develop their full potential. He believed real freedom means having the
opportunity to live a good life, not just being left alone.

• L.T. Hobhouse (1864–1929), Harold J. Laski (1893–1950), and R.H. Tawney

(1880–1962) further expanded this idea.

• They argued that the state must reduce inequality and ensure basic needs, education,
and equal opportunities for all.

Types of Welfare State Models (Richard Titmuss):

Richard Titmuss, a leading British social policy theorist, classified welfare states into three
models based on their approach to social welfare and the role of the state. These models re-
flect different ideological perspectives on government intervention and welfare provision.

1. Residual (Liberal Model): Help only when private market/family fail (e.g., USA,
UK, Canada).
2. Industrial Achievement (Corporatist/Conservative Model): Benefits tied to job
performance (e.g., Germany, Japan, South Korea).
3. Institutional Redistributive (Social Democratic Model): Universal services pro-
vided by social welfare institutions (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Denmark).

Globalization and Nation-States

• Globalization impacts territorial integrity, sovereignty, economic development, and

national culture.
• Challenges traditional notions of state power and autonomy.
• International institutions influence economic policies.
• Increased migration affects local labour markets

Impacts of Globalization on Nation-States:

• Economic Impacts:

o Reduced Economic Sovereignty

o Increased Interdependence
127 127

• Political Impacts:

o Erosion of State Authority

o Rise of Supranational Organizations
o Increased Transnational Issues

• Cultural Impacts:

o Homogenization vs. Heterogenization

o Increased Migration
o Information Flow

According to Robert Cooper (2004), the East–West confrontation of the old world order has
given way to a world divided into three parts: pre-modern, modern and post-modern
world.

(1) In the ‘premodern’ world, by which Cooper meant those post-colonial states that have
benefited neither from political stability nor from economic development, chaos reigns.
Examples of such states include Somalia, Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, sometimes seen as ‘weak states’, ‘failed states’ or rogue states.

(2) In the ‘modern’ world, states continue to be effective and are fiercely protective of their
own sovereignty. Such a world operates on the basis of a balance of power, as the inter-
ests and ambitions of one state are only constrained by the capabilities of other states.

(3) In the ‘postmodern’ world, which Cooper associated primarily with Europe and the Eu-
ropean Union (EU), states have evolved ‘beyond’ power politics, and have abandoned
war as a means of maintaining security in favour of multilateral agreements, international
law and global governance
IMPORTANT BOOKS AND AUTHORS

1. A Critique of Post-Colonial Reason (1999) by Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak

2. A Dying Colonialism (1959) by Frantz Fanon
3. Black Skin, White Masks (1952) by Frantz Fanon
4. Culture and Imperialism (1993) by Edward Said
5. Death of a Discipline (2003) by Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak
6. Hybridity and Discursive Unrest in Late Colonial Anglophone Prose of South Asia
(1880–1950) by Homi Bhabha
7. Identity: The Real Me (1987) by Homi Bhabha
8. In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (1987) by Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak
9. Lectures on the Principle of Political Obligations (1885) by T. H. Green
10. Orientalism (1978) by Edward Said
11. Prolegomena to Ethics (1883) by T. H. Green
12. The Location of Culture (1994) by Homi Bhabha
13. The Wretched of the Earth (1961) by Frantz Fanon
14. Towards the African Revolution (1964) by Frantz Fanon
128 128

Colonialism, Imperialism, De-colonization, Neo-Colonialism, Post-Colonialism.

• What is Colonialism?
o Colonialism is a practice of Domination – which involves the subjugation of
one people to another.
o Colonialism involves the Transfer of Population to a new territory, where the
arrival of this new population is as a Permanent Settler – while still maintaining
allegiance (loyalty) to their country of origin.
o For example – the British Permanent Settlers who came to colonize India were
still loyal to the Crown and their country of origin.
• Colonialism – 12 types of colonialism by Nancy Shoemaker (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Nancy Shoemaker, a professor of history at the University of Connecticut, has
proposed a typology of colonialisation.
• She defines colonialism as foreign intrusion or domination and distinguishes
colonialisms mainly by colonizer’s motivations.
• Her most recent book is “Native American Whalemen and the World: Indigenous
Encounters and the Contingency of Race” (2015)
• She talks about 12 types of colonialisation:
• Settler Colonialism
• Planter Colonialism
• Extractive Colonialism (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Trade Colonialism (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Transport Colonialism
• Imperial Power Colonialism
• Not-in-My-Backyard Colonialism
• Legal Colonialism (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Rogue Colonialism
• Missionary Colonialism
• Romantic Colonialism
• Postcolonial Colonialism

• Difference between Imperialism and Colonialism –

Colonialism Imperialism

- Here, there is Geographical Control (Rule). - Here, there is No Geographical Control .

- In Colonialism, focus is Physical Takeover of - In Imperialism, focus is on Power

Nations and their Resources. Projection and not on Physical Takeover of
resources.
129 129

- Permanent Settlement of people is - Economic & Political domination from afar.

involved.

- Examples of Colonialism are the takeover - Examples of Imperialism are The Scramble
of India, Australia, Southern, and Central for Africa in the 19th Century by the
Africa by the British; and Western and European Powers of Belgium, Britain,
North Africa by the French. France, Germany etc.

• What is Anti-Colonialism?
o Anticolonialism is a term used to describe the various resistance movements
directed against colonial and imperial powers.
o The ideas associated with anticolonialism are –
Justice, Equality, and Self-determination.

• 3 Stages of Anti-Colonialism –
o Proto-Nationalism → Rise of New Leadership → Mass Movements
o 1. Proto-Nationalism – (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Bankim
Chandra, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale, Ranade).
o 2. Rise of New Leadership – (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Aurobindo,
Bhagat Singh, Netaji, Savarkar).
o 3. Mass Movements – (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Non-Cooperation
Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement led by
Gandhi).
• What is De-colonization?
o De-colonization is a process by which colonies become independent of the
colonizing country.
o The League of Nations was the first international body to take steps on
Decolonization.
o Example - In 1776, the 13 colonies of British America declared their
independence and later formed the United States of America. In 1947, The
British Raj leaves and India gains Independence.
• What is Neo-colonialism?
o Neo-colonialism is the control of less-developed countries by the developed
countries through indirect means such as economic exploitation and
promotion of capitalism.
o Economic Exploitation through – MNCs from Developed Countries who exploit
cheap labour and raw materials from the Least Developed Countries.
o Dependency on Developed countries – Developing nations are dependent on
foreign aid by the developed nations.
130 130

o This is highlighted by Dependency School thinkers – Core economies exploiting

Periphery economies.
o Main Thinker – Kwame Nkrumah – Neo-Colonialism : The Last Stage of
Capitalism (PYQ 2022)
• What is Post-Colonialism?
o Post-colonialism is the phase of Aftermath of Western Colonialism.
o Post-colonialism refers to reclaiming, rethinking and overcoming colonialism.
o The field of Postcolonial studies was influenced by Edward Said’s book
Orientalism.
o Main Thinker – Post-colonialism – Edward Said.
o Books – Orientalism (1978), Culture and Imperialism (1993) by Edward Said.
Nationalism –

• What is Nationalism?
o Definition – Nationalism can be defined as sense of commonality i.e., a sense
of having common language, common culture, common religion, common
history, common homeland and common ancestors.
• Nationalism - Eric Hobsbawm’s theory of nationalism in Europe
• The Marxist historian, Eric Hobsbawm highlighted the extent to which nations are
based on "Invention of Traditions"(June 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift 2)
• Hobsbawm argued that a belief in the idea of a continuous history and pure culture is
a myth, and this myth has been created by the idea of nationalism itself.
• Eric Hobsbawm's theory, as in "Invention of Traditions," posits that nations construct
or "invent" their traditions to forge modern identities i.e. Nation and nationalism are
products of social engineering.
• These traditions are often recent creations used to unify diverse populations. Elite-
driven and rooted in industrialization, they involve standardized culture and history
narratives.
• These artificially constructed traditions help maintain national cohesion and identity,
challenging the notion that nations possess deep historical roots.
• Hobsbawm's theory underscores how political elites manipulate culture to serve the
interests of modern nation-states, contributing to a more critical understanding of
nationalism as a product of deliberate construction rather than organic, historical
evolution.
• The petty bourgeoisie were often the driving force behind separatist nationalism in
Europe for a number of factors –
• They were often excluded from political power. (June 2023 Shift 2) In many European
countries, the merchant class was not allowed to participate in government. This was
because they were not considered to be part of the traditional ruling class. As a result,
they felt that they had no say in how their countries were run.
131 131

• They were also often taxed very heavily. The merchant class was often taxed heavily
by the government. This was because they were seen as being wealthy. The high taxes
made it difficult for merchants to do business and to grow their businesses.
• And they wanted to promote free trade for their own benefit. The merchant class
wanted to be able to trade freely with other countries. However, many European
countries had restrictions on trade. These restrictions made it difficult for merchants
to do business and to grow their businesses.
• These were the reasons why Petty bourgeoisie became a driving force behind many
of the Revolutions in the form of Separatist Nationalism that took place in Europe in
the 18th and 19th centuries.

• THEORIES OF NATIONALISM AND ITS MAIN THINKERS –

o 1. Tom Nairn and ‘Uneven Development’ –

o He explains in his book The Break-up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism
(1981) how nationalism emerges in colonial societies
o He was inspired from dependency theory thinkers like Andre Gunder Frank,
Samir Amin and Immanuel Wallerstein.
o He points out that capitalism was supposed to bring progress in world
o But capitalist development was uneven at world level
o Some industrialized countries grew at such level that they dominated other
backward countries
o Elite leaders of backward countries convinced masses that such dominance in
name of progress need to be tackled
o Leaders told their masses, even they wanted school, factories, parliament, so
they had to copy their ruler but they had to rejected the direct intervention
and dominance
o In short, according to Nairn nationalism emerged in the form of anti-
imperialist struggle which was a result of uneven development

o 2. Paul R. Brass and Instrumentalism –

o Instrumentalists hold that ethnic and national identities are convenient tools
at the hands of competing elite groups for generating mass support in the
universal struggle for wealth, power and prestige
o Paul R. Brass in his book Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and comparison
(1991)
o Brass was against the idea that rise of ethnic identities are inevitable which
ultimately transform into nationalism
o He asserts that ethnic identities are manipulated and created by Political
elites of country
132 132

o Ethnic conflict does not arise because of cultural differences but because of
political and economic conditions
o Such conditions lead to competition between elite groups for power and
prestige
o This competition defines and redefines the relevant ethnic group and its
persistence
o Two separate nations state in the Indian subcontinent was result of this elite
competition

o 3. Eric J. Hobsbawm and ‘Invention of Traditions’ –

o He is a Marxist historian, writes his famous book The Invention of Tradition
(1983)
o Nation and nationalism are product of social engineering
o Hobsbawm argued that governments for inculcating the sense of national
identity innovate tradition which is actually had a relatively shallow history.
o Earlier people were loyal to the ruler/ monarchy, but since the emergence of
mass politics particularly from the period of 1870 to 1914
o The new rulers found it difficult to maintain the obedience, loyalty and
cooperation of subjects (citizen)
o Invention of tradition was the strategy adopted by ruling elites to counter the
threat posed by mass democracy
o Three major innovations: development of primary education, the invention of
public ceremonies and the mass production of public monuments

o 4. Ernest Gellner and ‘High Culture’ –

o He gives the idea of nationalism in his book Nation and Nationalism (1983)
(PYQ 2019) (June 2024 Shift 2)
o Previous societies, Agro-literate societies, were based on culture diversity.
There was no need of culture homogenization for ruler to control his subject
and thus there was no nation
o In industrial societies, shared culture plays very important role.
o This shared culture is defined as ‘high culture’ by Gellner
o To run the industrial societies, high culture is needed. Specialized knowledge
and skills are needed, such societies can’t survive on manual labor
o This is why such societies develop high culture, a culture of merit, equality
and mobility.
o Nationalism is nothing but imposition of this high culture on society

o 5. Benedict Anderson and ‘Imagined Communities’ –

133 133

o He describes nation as ‘imagined communities’ in his popular book –

Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism
(1983)
o A nation ‘is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will
never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them,
yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion’ creation of
imagined communities became possible because of ‘print capitalism’.
o Capitalist entrepreneurs printed their books and media in the vernacular
(instead of exclusive script languages, such as Latin) in order to maximize
circulation.

o 6. Partha Chatterjee and ‘Derivative discourse’ –

o He gave the idea of nationalism in his book – Nationalist Thought and
Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse (1986)
o He argues that India after 1947, kept British ideologies and practices
unbroken
o It is because Indian nationalist thought was borrowed from western ideas
o Nationalism in India was a ‘derivative discourse’ from the west i.e., taken
from west
o Even he questions the idea of imagined community in case of postcolonial
societies
o In his essay Whose Imagined Community (1996), he explains how west had
been defining the character of our anticolonial struggle. Even our imagination
is colonized.
134 134

Models of Representation

(1) Trusteeship Model

• Representatives act based on their own judgment and expertise rather than following
the direct wishes of constituents. They prioritize the national interest over local de-
mands.
• According to Burke: Representatives are those sent to Parliament to safeguard the
general and long-term good of the community.
• Burke, considering representation a moral duty, said: "The educated and enlight-
ened people of society should represent the uneducated and less fortunate."
• J.S. Mill, a supporter of the trusteeship theory of representation, advocated for
weighted voting. Mill favoured giving those with degrees or diplomas votes equal to
four or five.
• Supporters: Edmund Burke and J.S. Mill
• Thomas Paine, in his pamphlet "Common Sense" (1778), criticizes this model,
stating: ‘the elected should never form to themselves an interest separate from the
electors’.

(2) Delegated Model

• Representatives act as the voice of their constituents, strictly following public opinion
and preferences rather than their own views.
• This model believes that "The representative should act according to the instructions
of the common people, not according to their own decisions and wishes."
• According to Thomas Paine: "The representative should maintain constant inter-
change with their voters."
• Supporters: Thomas Paine, Joseph Tussman.
• The representative should work according to the instructions of the voters, not accord-
ing to their own wishes.

3. Mandate Model

• Votes are given to parties, not individuals.

• Based on different issues, programs, and ideologies, parties are important, not candi-
dates. Therefore, parties should have a role in governance.

4. Resemblance Model

• Representative government and legislatures should have representation from all

castes, religions, and classes. That is, representation of different groups.
• This theory is less concerned with the method of representation and more with repre-
senting the interests of the groups they come from.
• It is based on the idea that the government should be composed of different groups
from the wider society. Therefore, it is also called "Microcosmic representation."
• Supporters: Multiculturalists and group theorists
135 135

5. Politico Model
• The Politico Model of Representation is a hybrid approach that combines elements of
both the Trustee and Delegate models.
• It is a hybrid approach where representatives switch between the trustee and delegate
roles depending on the issue—acting as delegates on key public matters and trustees on
complex or less-known issues. (Politico Model = Trusteeship + Mandate)
• Hannah Pitkin – In The Concept of Representation (1967), she discusses different
forms of representation and how representatives often shift roles based on context.

Electoral Systems
The electoral system is fundamental to how elections are conducted and how representation is
determined in democratic processes. Here are the main types of electoral systems discussed:
Proportional Representation
Proportional representation (PR) aims to ensure that the number of seats a party wins in an
election reflects the proportion of votes it receives from the electorate. Hare, Droop, Ha-
genbach-Bischoff, and Imperial Quota, all four are related to the proportional representa-
tion system. There are different sub-types of proportional representation systems:

1. Single Transferable Vote (STV) System:

• Origin: Suggested by Thomas Hare. (also called Hare system)
• Mechanism: Voters rank candidates in order of preference on the ballot. Each voter
has one
• vote.
• Applicability: Used in multi-member constituencies where several representatives are
• elected from a single constituency.
• Voting Process: Votes are transferred according to the preferences indicated by vot-
ers. Candidates with the fewest votes are progressively eliminated, and their votes are
redistributed to more preferred candidates.
• Quota: A candidate must reach a specific quota (determined by the total votes cast di-
vided by seats plus one) to be elected.
• Examples: Used in elections such as Rajya Sabha in India, Senate of Australia, and
parliamentary elections in Malta and Ireland.
136 136

2. Party List System:

• Mechanism: Multi-member constituencies where parties submit lists of candidates in
preferred order.
• Voting: Voters cast their vote for a political party rather than individual candidates.
• Allocation: Seats are allocated to parties based on the proportion of votes they re-
ceive. Parties determine which candidates from their list fill the seats won.
• Examples: Practiced in countries like South Africa, Indonesia, Albania, Argentina,
Turkey, and Israel.
3. Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP):
• Nature: Combines elements of proportional representation and first-past-the-post sys-
tems.
• Voting: Voters have two votes - one for a candidate in their single-member constitu-
ency and one for a political party.
• Seats Allocation: Seats are first filled by successful constituency candidates, and then
additional seats are allocated to parties to ensure overall proportionality.
• Alternative Names: Also known as personalized proportional representation.
• Examples: Used in the German Bundestag, Japan, Nepal, South Korea, New Zealand.
Majoritarian Electoral Systems

Majoritarian electoral systems differ from proportional representation in how they convert
votes into seats, typically favouring candidates or parties with the highest share of votes in a
particular constituency. Here are the main types of majoritarian electoral systems:

1. First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) System:

• Mechanism: Candidates compete in single-member constituencies.
• Winner: The candidate with the plurality (most votes, not necessarily a majority)
wins the seat.
• Simplicity: Simplest form of majoritarian system.
• Criticism: Can lead to disproportionality between votes received and seats won.
• Examples: Used in countries like the United Kingdom (House of Commons), Canada,
India (Lok Sabha), and the United States (for some state and local elections).
2. Two-Round System (TRS):
• Mechanism: If no candidate wins an absolute majority (over 50%) in the first round,
a second round (runoff) is held between the top two candidates.
• Winner: The candidate with the majority of votes in the runoff wins the seat.
137 137

• Purpose: Ensures the winning candidate has broader support than under FPTP.
• Examples: Used in France (for presidential and legislative elections), many Latin
American countries, including Brazil and Argentina, and some former Soviet repub-
lics.
3. Alternative Vote (AV) System:
• Mechanism: Voters rank candidates in order of preference.
• Distribution: If no candidate receives an absolute majority in the first count, the can-
didate with the fewest votes is eliminated, and their votes are redistributed based on
voters' next preferences.
• Winner: The process continues until one candidate obtains a majority of the votes.
• Examples: Used in Australian House of Representatives elections and some mayoral
elections in the United Kingdom.

Countries with compulsory voting: Several countries have compulsory voting, meaning
eligible citizens are legally required to vote in elections. Failure to vote often results in fines
or other penalties. Some key countries with compulsory voting include:

• Australia, Argentina, Belgium, Bolivia

• Brazil, Ecuador, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg
• Nauru, Peru, Singapore, Uruguay
Key Terms

• Gerrymandering: The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor a partic-

ular party or group.
• Effective Threshold: The minimum percentage of votes a party must receive to win
seats in a PR system.
• Electoral College: An indirect system of electing a president, where voters elect elec-
tors who then cast votes. (Example: United States)
• Constituency: a body of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a leg-
islative body.
• Runoff Election: A second election held when no candidate receives a majority of
votes in the first election.

Important Facts:
• D'Hondt Method – Used in many European countries for distributing seats in PR.
• Hare Quota & Droop Quota – Used in Single Transferable Vote (STV) systems.
• France – Uses a Two-Round System for presidential elections.
• Some countries have shifted to Ranked-Choice Voting (RCV) for fairer elections
(e.g., Australia, some US cities).
138 138

• Secret voting is sometimes also called the Australian ballot. Secret voting was first
implemented in South Australia in 1856.
• Bentham supported secret voting, while J.S. Mill was an advocate of open voting.

Important Books on Electoral Systems

1. "Electoral Systems and Party Systems" – Arend Lijphart

2. "Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six
Countries" – Arend Lijphart
3. "Comparative Electoral Systems" – Michael Gallagher & Paul Mitchell
4. "Electoral Engineering: Voting Rules and Political Behavior" – Pippa Norris
5. "Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India" – Steven
Wilkinson
6. "Representation and Inequality in Electoral Systems" – David Lublin
7. "The Politics of Electoral Systems" – Michael Gallagher & Paul Mitchell

Party Systems –
• Party system is a system of system, it not only emphasizes upon the motives, agendas and
interest of the Political Parties but it also highlights the relation of people towards political
parties and their set of interests.

• A Party system represents the whole political spectrum in which the present configuration
of political parties are the constituent units.

Typology of party system by various thinkers

Almond’s classification follows the following pattern:

1. Authoritarian Parties. (One of its sub-categories is called totalitarian parties or dicta-

torships.)
2. Dominant non-authoritarian (democratic) parties.
3. Competitive two parties.
4. Competitive multi-parties.

James Jupp accepted the above classification generally but modified it and gave his own
version, which is as under:

1. Indistinct (not very clear) bi-partisan system.

2. Distinct bi-partisan system.
3. Multi-party system.
4. Dominant (one-party) party system.
5. Broad one-party system.
6. Narrow one-party system.
7. Totalitarian system.
139 139

According to Hitchner & Levine, modern party system may be classified as under:

1. Competitive two-party systems.

2. Competitive multi-party systems.
3. Dominant non-authoritarian systems.
4. Authoritarian party systems.
5. States without party system.

Duverger broadly divided all the party systems into two categories:

(i) Pluralistic party systems and (ii) One-party systems and dominant party systems.

(i) Pluralistic party systems: In the first category, Duverger included:

1. Multi-party systems 2. Two-party systems.

(ii) One-party systems and dominant party systems: In the second category, Duverger in-
cluded:

1. One-party systems. 2. Dominant party systems.

Sartori's classification of political parties includes:

a) One-Party System:

i) Monopolistic – Totalitarian, Authoritarian, Pragmatic

ii) Hegemonic – Ideological, Non-ideological
iii) Predominant

b) Two-Party System

c) Multiparty System: G. Sartori has presented a comprehensive analysis of multi-

party system:

i) Pluralism – Moderate (Limited), Extreme (Unlimited)

ii) Atomism

Theories of Political Parties:

1. Development Theory - J. L. Palombra

2. Spatial Theory - Giovanni Sartori
3. Permeation Theory - Maurice Duverger
4. Political Parties and Political Development - La Palombara & Myron Weiner
5. Democratic Theory - Giovanni Sartori
6. New Theory of Democracy - Schumpeter and Anthony Downs
140 140

• Types of Party System –

o There are Five Major types of Party System which have significant variations
in the arrangement, characteristics and way of representation :-
No. Type of Party System Features and Examples of Party System

1 No-Party System • Party system where there is no legal

framework for party functioning.
• Parties in this system have no authority to
compete.
• Examples - Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia.

2 Single-Party System • Allows a Single Party to hold power

• Leadership of a single existing party isdominant.
• Examples - N.Korea, China, Vietnam, Cuba

3 Dominant PartySystem • Different parties exist but only one party hasthe
capability to rule.
• Other parties have rare chances to come topower.
• Examples -
India (Congress DominantSystem till 1967)
South Africa (African National Congress)
Hungary (Fidesz)
4 Two-Party System • The Two Crucial Political Parties compete to gain
power.
• Constant Competition between two parties.
• Examples - Australia, UK, USA

5 Multi-Party System • Multiple parties with its unique ideology, beliefs, &
objectives.
• Role of Coalition governments plays a major role in this
party system.
• Examples - Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, India, New
Zealand

Polarized Multiparty System

141 141

• A polarized multiparty system, also known as polarized pluralism, is a political system

where multiple parties exist, but the system is seen as overly polarized and therefore
potentially dysfunctional.

• This polarization can be seen in both two-party and multi-party systems.

• Giovanni Sartori argues that the way in which multiparty systems function largely
depends on the degree to which parties are ideologically polarized.

• He has distinguished two main types of multiparty systems: Moderate Multiparty

systems and Polarized Multiparty systems.

1. Moderate Multiparty Systems – the number of parties is small, and the direction of
the competition is Centripetal, i.e. the main parties tend to converge towards the
centre of the left–right scale to attract the support of the moderate electorate. Since
here the differences between parties are small, coalitions can form easily.

2. Polarized Multiparty Systems – “There is a large ideological distance between

parties with a strong dose of radicalism.” (June 2023 Shift 2) There is a one main
party placed at the centre of the left–right axis which represents the ‘system’ against
which extreme anti-system parties are opposed. These Anti-system parties aim to
change not only government but also the system of government.

Thus, “not all coalitions are viable,” with some parties continuously excluded from coalitions
and remain in constant opposition. They become irresponsible and radicalize with promises
they will never be called to put into practice. When one party controls the center, it stops
other parties from moving towards it. This leads to divergence and competition is
Centrifugal (away from center).
142 142

• Major Contributions Given by Thinkers on Party System -

Thinker Classification of Party System

Gabriel Almond has classified Party Systems into four types :-

Almond (i) Authoritarian party system
(ii) Dominant non-authoritarian party system
(iii) Competitive two-party system
(iv) Competitive multi-party system (March 2023 Shift 2)

The Competitive Party system can be further divided into

● Turnover and Hegemonic
● Ideological and Pragmatic

When One Party hegemonizes political power for a long period of time
it is called a hegemonic party system.
For example - the Congress System in India (Rajni Kothari).
Maurice Duverger classified Party Systems on the basis of -
Duverger Number of Parties.
He has classified Party Systems into two broad categories:-
(a) One Party System .
(b) Pluralist Party System.
The One-Party System is further divided into two types -
(i) one-party system & (ii) dominant party system.
The Pluralist Party System is further divided into two types -
(i) two-party system & (ii) multi-party system.
143 143

Jean Blondel has classified Party Systems on the basis of -

Blondel Share of Votes.
He has classified Party Systems into three categories:-
(i) Two Party System
(ii) Two-and-a-half Party System
(iii) Multi-party System with a predominant party
(iv) Multi-party System without a predominant party

Elite Theory

• Main Thinkers of Elite Theory –

• 1. Vilfredo Pareto –
o He gave his theory in his famous work ‘The Mind and Society’ (1916) (PYQ
2022)
o Inequality is inevitable in society
o Some individuals are superior in their attributes than other on the basis of
their knowledge, talents etc.
o Society consists of two classes:
▪ 1. Higher Stratum: governing and non-governing elite
▪ 2. Lower Stratum: non-elite (masses)
o Circulation of Elite:
▪ ‘History is a graveyard of aristocracies’ (PYQ 2019) (March 2023 Shift
2)
▪ Circulation of elite is a process in which individuals circulate between
elite and non-elite strata
▪ It also refers to a process where one elite replaces another elite
o Why Circulation Happens?
▪ When there is imbalance in ‘residues’ & ‘derivatives.
▪ Residues are Logical actions & Derivatives are non-logical actions.
▪ Logical actions are those that achieve an end
▪ Non-Logical actions are those that have no purpose and are based on
sentiments
o Residues:
o Pareto locates total Six Residues, which means the major motivation of
action:
▪ 1. Combination: tendency to invent (fox)
▪ 2. Persistence: tendency to consolidate (lion)
144 144

▪ 3. Expressiveness: tendency to express feelings

▪ 4. Sociability: tendency to affiliate with others
▪ 5. Integration: tendency to maintain a good self-image
▪ 6. Sex: tendency to see social events in erotic terms
o 2. Gaetano Mosca –
o He developed his theory of elites in his work ‘The Ruling Class’ (1939) (PYQ
2022)
o Mosca gave the ‘Political Formula’.
o In every society there are two classes exist:
▪ 1. A Class that rules: Ruling class
▪ 2. A class that is ruled: Ruled class
o Ruling class is always in minority, performs all political functions &
monopolizes power
o While ruled class is directed and controlled by ruling class
o Circulation of elites happens when ruling class lose command and political
control. And When they fail to provide valuable services to masses.
o 3. Robert Michels –
o He is known for ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’ (March 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift
1) (June 2024 Shift 2)
o His main work is ‘Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical
Tendencies of Modern Democracy’ (1911). (PYQ 2022)
o All organizations, including those committed to democratic ideals and
practices, will inevitably succumb to rule by an elite few (an oligarchy).
o Majority of human beings are apathetic, indolent and slavish, incapable of
self- government
o Therefore, they are depended on leaders and submit themselves to oligarchy.
o 4. James Burnham –
o In his book ‘The Managerial Revolution’ (1931), he explains his elite theory
from Marxist perspective (June 2023 Shift 1) (June 2024 Shift 1) (June 2024
Shift 2)
o According to him capitalism originally were managers and owners of their
business
o When their business grew, they left it to professional managers
o Thus, capitalist ruled class displaced by managerial elite
o Similarly in government, executive becomes more imp than legislation
o Bureaucrats backed by executives run the country
o 5. C. Wright Mills –
o In his book ‘The Power Elite’ (1959), he explains distribution of power in
U.S.A (June 2024 Shift 1)
o C. Wright Mills focuses on ‘The Economic Elite’. (PYQ 2022)
o He does not believe elite rules because of their superior traits
145 145

o They rule on society because they hold key institutional positions

o The corporation, the military, the federal government are three institutions
constitute three elites
o In American society, these three elites decide all important issues and matter
o They skillfully control the masses through mass media and manipulation

o Theory of Democratic Elitism

o This theory does not believe, like classical elitist theorists, that ‘democracy is
a myth’. Elites protects the democracy
o Political parties compete for masses’ votes
o Elites are relatively ‘open’ and recruited on the basis of merit
o Mass is able to participate in ruling the society
o By exercise choice between the rival elites
o 1. Karl Manheim –
o He is famous for his work ‘Ideology and Utopia’ (1929)
o According to him, if elites take major decision on policy, it does not mean
society is not democratic
o In Mass democracy, all individuals can’t participate in forming a government
or to take decision
o But they can force their leaders to take decision in their interests or else they
will remove them
o Same is not possible in despotic society
o 2. Joseph Schumpeter – (March 2023 Shift 2)
o His Famous work is ‘Capitalism, Socialism & Democracy’ (1942). (December
2023)
o He points out that people’s role in democratic society is not govern or take
major decision
o Their role is to produce a government
o Thus, people do not decide political issues in democracy or nor they choose
leaders to take decision
o Rather, they choose leaders to take decisions for them
o He called it a ‘democratic method’.
146 146

Political regimes: democratic and non-democratic regimes

Political regimes are broadly classified into democratic and non-democratic regimes.

Democratic regimes ensure political participation, free elections, and civil liberties (e.g., lib-
eral democracy).

Non-democratic regimes lack genuine political competition and suppress dissent, including
authoritarian, totalitarian, and military rule.

Democratic Regimes:

1. Liberal Democracy: Prioritizes individual liberty, operates under a constitution, and em-
phasizes separation of powers and rule of law. (Examples: Australia, Canada, India, USA)

Features of Liberal Democracy:

1. Liberal democracy is an indirect and representative form of democracy, in that politi-

cal office is gained through success in regular elections that are conducted on the ba-
sis of formal political equality.

2. It is based on competition and electoral choice. These are achieved through political
pluralism, tolerance of a wide range of contending beliefs and rival political move-
ments and parties.

3. It is characterized by a clear distinction between the state and civil society.

4. It provides protection for minorities and individuals, particularly through the alloca-
tion of basic rights that safeguard them from the will of the majority.

2. Deliberative Democracy: Deliberative democracy argues that political decisions should

be based on fair and reasonable deliberations among citizens.

Features of Deliberative Democracy:

1. Deliberative democracy is also called discursive democracy because it adopts the pro-
cedure of consensus-based decision-making.
2. A form of democracy that emphasizes the need for discourse and debate to help to de-
fine the public interest.
3. Deliberation implies that people are autonomous individuals sharing an equal plat-
form to discuss and find solutions to their social and political issues.
4. Joseph M. Bessette proposed this form of government in his book “Democracy: The
Majority Principle in Republican Government”.
5. John Rawls and Jurgen Habermas have argued for a deliberative democracy.
6. Rawls believed that reason could overcome self-interest to attain a just political soci-
ety.
7. Habermas believed that fair procedures and clear communication would lead to legit-
imate and mutually agreed upon decisions.
147 147

3. Participatory Democracy: Encourages active citizen participation in decision-making be-

yond voting. (Example: Switzerland)

Features of Participatory Democracy:

1. It regards people's political participation as the basic principle of democracy. They are
the manifestation of a strong awareness of public interest. Advocates of participatory
democracy have portrayed politics as a moral, healthy and even noble activity.

2. The classical theory of participatory democracy is found in the writings of Rousseau

and John Stuart Mill.

3. The present-day champions of participatory democracy argue that representative de-

mocracy gives little opportunity to its citizens for any significant participation in the
decision-making process.

4. If people get better opportunities of political participation, they will be inclined to dis-
cuss public issues elaborately, keep a strict watch on the activities of politicians, and
they shall be able to prevent the corruption and abuse of power.

5. J. S. Mill in his Book “Considerations on Representative Government” supports ‘a

pure idea of democracy’ which he defines as ‘government of the whole people by the
whole people, equally represented’.

6. Macpherson, In his book, The Life and Times of Liberal Principle of Justice Democ-
racy (1977), Macpherson has discussed about ‘participatory democracy’ implying
‘substantial citizen participation in government decision making’.

7. This is also known as radical democracy and has been supported by New Left think-
ers. They include C. B. Macpherson, T. B. Bottomore and Carole Pateman.

Non-Democratic Regimes:

1. Totalitarianism: Government controls all aspects of life, including personal, economic,

and cultural spheres. (Examples: Stalin's USSR, North Korea)

Totalitarian regimes are sometimes identified through a ‘six-point syndrome’ Given by Frie-
drich and Brzezinski:

(1) an official ideology.

(2) a one-party state, usually led by an all-powerful leader.
(3) a system of terroristic policing.
(4) a monopoly of the means of mass communication.
(5) a monopoly of the means of armed combat.
(6) state control of all aspects of economic life.
148 148

Features of Totalitarianism:

1. Totalitarianism seeks to direct all political, economic, social-cultural and intellectual

activities of people towards fulfilling certain aims which are determined by the state
itself.
2. No citizen has the right or opportunity to oppose or criticize the state, or to propose
any new aim.
3. Hannah Arendt (1906-75), in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) defined totalitar-
ianism as a system of total domination, characterized by ideology and terror.
4. Max Horkheimer explained totalitarianism in terms of the psychological, racial and
political tendencies of liberal capitalism.

2. Fascism: Racist ideology glorifying militarism, violence, and the state over individual
rights. (Example: Nazi Germany)

Features of Fascism:

(1) Fascism stands for a doctrine, ideology or a set of principles underlying the movement
founded in Italy by Benito Mussolini and his followers.

(2) It was partly adopted by Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) and the Nazis in Germany, Franco
(1892-1975) and the Falangists in Spain.

(3) Fascism rejected the ideas that had shaped Western political thought since the French
Revolution, symbolized by the slogan "1789 is dead.

(4) It replaced Enlightenment values like rationalism, progress, freedom, and equality with
ideals such as struggle, leadership, power, heroism, and war.

(5) Fascism is openly opposed to liberalism and Marxism. Fascism is defined largely by
what it opposes, as it is anticapitalist, antiliberal, anti-individualist, and anticommunist.

(6) The belief in "strength through unity" means the individual must completely surrender
their identity to the collective. In fascist thought, the individual has no separate value and
must fully merge into the community or social group.

• Patrimonialism: Authority based on personal power of the ruler, seen as a father fig-
ure by the masses. (Examples: Roman Catholic Church)

• Authoritarian Regimes: Power concentrated in a specific group, with limited per-

sonal freedoms and suppression of dissent. (Example: Communist regimes)

• Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Government composed of bureaucrats and techno-

crats, focusing on economic development through repression. (Examples: Brazil,
Chile in the 1960s-80s)

• Military Dictatorship: Military holds political power, often established through

coups. (Example: Myanmar)
149 149

In the mid-twentieth century, Hannah Arendt (The Origins of Totalitarianism), J. L.

Talmon (The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy), Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew
Brzezinski (Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy), Alex Inkeles (‘The Totalitarian
Mystique’) have analysed how official ideology of Communism, Nazism and Fascism pro-
vides doctrinal basis for a totalitarian system.

Key Differences: Democratic and non-democratic regimes

Feature Democratic Regimes Non-Democratic Regimes
Ruling elite or a single
Source of Authority The people
leader
Elected officials accountable
Accountability Limited or no accountability
to the people
Rule of Law Upholds the rule of law May be arbitrary or selective
Individual Liberties Protects individual liberties Limited or suppressed
Encourages citizen partici-
Political Participation Restricted or controlled
pation
USA, UK, Canada, India, North Korea, China, Myan-
Examples
Switzerland mar

Books/Works on Political Regimes

1. Arendt Hannah: The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)

2. Gentile Giovanni and Mussolini Benito: The Doctrine of Fascism (1932)
3. Lijphart Arend: Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (1977)
4. Linz Juan José: Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (1975)
5. Macridis Roy C.: Contemporary Political Ideologies: Movements and Regimes (1980)
6. O’Donnell Guillermo A.: Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism (1973)
7. O’Donnell Guillermo A.: Bureaucratic Authoritarianism (1988)
8. Paxton Robert O.: The Anatomy of Fascism (2004)
9. Trotsky Leon: Fascism: What it is and How to Fight it

Major Facts:

✓ Unitary countries: United Kingdom, France, Japan

✓ Federal countries: United States, Germany, India
✓ Presidential countries: United States, Brazil, Mexico
✓ Parliamentary countries: United Kingdom, Canada, India
✓ Authoritarian countries: China, Russia, Saudi Arabia
✓ One-party system countries: China, North Korea, Cuba
✓ Two-party system countries: United States, United Kingdom
✓ Multi-party system countries: India, Germany, Italy
150 150

Old Social Movements vs New-Social Movements

Social Movements
Social movements are collective actions within civil society aimed at bringing about social
change. They are often loosely organized but represent a powerful force for transformation.

The major components of a social movement are: Objectives, Ideology, Programmes, Leader-
ship, and Organization.

Theories of Social Movement

1. Theory of Consequence of social breakdown: Neil Smelser

• Also called Structural Strain Theory. Given by Neil Smelser (Theory of collec-
tive behavior, 1962).
• Movements arise when societal structures fail to meet people's needs, creating dis-
content.
• Movements emerge when society fails to meet expectations, creating frustration
and unrest.
• Includes six factors: structural conduciveness, strain, growth of beliefs, triggering
events, mobilization, and government response. Movements arise when all these
factors align, leading to collective action.

2. Theory of Politics by other mean: Doug McAdam

• Doug McAdam describes social movements as "politics by other means" in A
Handbook of Sociology (1988).
• Movements emerge when traditional political systems fail marginalized groups.
• Political opportunities (government weakness, elite divisions) shape movement suc-
cess. Mobilizing structures (networks, organizations, leadership) sustain movements.
• Movements challenge power structures through non-institutional channels.
• Success depends on resource availability and state response.
• Examples: Civil Rights Movement in USA, Arab Spring.

3. Theory of Cross-national Contact: Anthony Giddens

• Anthony Giddens, in The Consequences of Modernity, discusses the Theory of

Cross-National Contacts, emphasizing how globalization transforms social, political,
and economic interactions.
• Giddens links social movements to cross-national contacts in a globalized world.
• Social movements today are not just local but global phenomena, influenced by
worldwide interactions and shared grievances.
• Movements gain momentum through transnational networks (e.g., environmental,
human rights movements).
• Globalization weakens state control, allowing international influences to shape local
activism.
• Examples: Arab Spring, Climate Justice Movement, Black Lives Matter.
151 151

Theory of Cultural identity: Jane Jenson (social movement and culture, 1995)

• Identity as a Driving Force: Social movements are not just about economic or politi-
cal grievances but also about cultural recognition.
• New Social Movements: Unlike older class-based struggles, modern movements fo-
cus on gender, ethnicity, and community identity.
• Framing and Narratives: Successful movements construct cultural symbols and
narratives to gain legitimacy.
• Examples: Feminism, Indigenous rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and Anti-racism move-
ments.

New Social Movements

• They grew alongside globalization, democratization, and the rise of individual

rights.
• New Social Movements (NSMs) focus on identity, culture, and human rights rather
than just economic issues.
• Unlike old movements based on class struggle, NSMs address environment, gender,
LGBTQ+ rights, peace, and democracy.
• They are decentralized, grassroots-based, and rely on social media and networks
instead of strong leadership.
• NSMs challenge dominant ideas through protests, art, media, and cultural identity.
• Many operate globally, such as climate movements and human rights activism.
• Alain Touraine, Jürgen Habermas, and Claus Offe explain how NSMs shape mod-
ern society.
• Examples: Fridays for Future, MeToo, Black Lives Matter, LGBTQ+ rights
movements.

Old Social Movements vs. New Social Movements

Feature Old Social Movements New Social Movements

19th and early 20th centu-
Time Period Late 20th century onwards
ries
Identity, cultural, and envi-
Economic and class-based ronmental issues (femi-
Primary Focus
issues (labour rights, etc.) nism, LGBTQ+ rights, en-
vironmentalism)
Often hierarchical and cen- Decentralized, network-
Organization
tralized based, and grassroots
Strikes, protests, and politi- Protests, boycotts, direct
Methods
cal lobbying action, and use of media
Redistribution of resources Recognition, autonomy,
Goals
and power and cultural change
Feminist movement, envi-
Labor movement, socialist
Examples ronmental movement,
movement
LGBTQ+ movement
152 152

Important Books on Social Movements:

1. "The Politics of Collective Action" – Mark Lichbach

2. "Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics" – Sidney Tar-
row
3. "Social Movements, 1768–2012" – Charles Tilly
4. "New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity" – Enrique Larana, Hank
Johnston & Joseph R. Gusfield
5. "Social Movements: An Introduction" – Donatella della Porta & Mario Diani
6. "Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970" – Doug
McAdam
7. "Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail" – Frances Fox
Piven & Richard A. Cloward
8. "The Social Movements Reader: Cases and Concepts" – Jeff Goodwin & James
M. Jasper
9. "Social Movements in India: Poverty, Power, and Politics" – Rajendra Singh
10. "Globalizations and Social Movements" – Pierre Hamel, Henri Lustiger-Thaler &
Margit Mayer

• Difference between Old Social Movement and New Social Movements :-

Old Social Movement (OSM) New Social Movement (NSM)

- 19th and 20th Century Movements. - Emerged in the later half of 20th Century.

- OSM Focus is on ideology, class distinction - NSM Focus is non-materialistic in nature,

based, Marxian idea of economy-based NSMs goes beyond class, boundary, borders,
movements. state and culture.

- Instead of economy, focus of NSM are on

issues of culture, symbolic identities-based
movements.

- OSM are centralized around particular - NSM are diffused and decentralized.
leaders. - NSM are mainly Non-violent in nature.

- OSM is Centered on Materialistic Goals - NSM is Centered on Certain Societal Goals

like improving the standard of living of a which needs to meet the present
particular social class. generation’s needs.

Examples of OSM :- Examples of NSM :-

- Workers Movements - Students Movements

- Peasant Movements - Civil Rights Movements
- Women’s’ Movements
- Environmental Movements
153 153

- Peace Movements
- Anti-Racist Movements
- Movements for the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples’
- ‘Anti-Political’ Movements

• Major Theories of Social Movements and Thinkers –

o Relative Deprivation Theory – Robert Merton, Runciman, Marx, Ted Gurr, MSA
Rao
o Resource Mobilization Theory – Charles Tilly, Douglas McAdam
o New Social Movement Theory – Alain Touraine, Claus Offe, Jurgen Habermas
o Post-materialism – Ronald Inglehart

• Four Stages of Social Movements by Bloomer and Tilly –

o 1. Emergence → 2. Coalescence → 3. Bureaucratization → 4. Decline

Social Movements – Process Model by Doug McAdam

▪ The ‘Political Process Model’ of Movement Emergence was first given by Doug
McAdam in 1982. (June 2023 Shift 2)
▪ The political process approach focuses on how social movements interact with
their surroundings. This viewpoint also helps us understand the various stages that
social movements go through in its life cycle.
This model has Two Main Arguments –
• Firstly, the political process approach argues that Social Movements don't just follow
a set pattern internally but are also influenced by things outside like where does it
stand on an issue, what resources they have to carry out the movement, and how
they strategize and deal with their rivals (movements’ opponents).
• Secondly, the political process model suggests that Social Movements happen when
people who are organized, and are aggrieved about something, and believe they can
make a difference and take advantage of new chances in politics.
▪ According to Doug McAdam, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald: a lot of political
movements and revolutions start because changes in society make the current
political system weaker or more open to change.
▪ However, these "political opportunities" are just the first step. Without enough
organization, whether formal or informal, people won't likely take advantage of
these chances.
▪ In conclusion, the 'Political Process Model' highlights how social movements
interact with surroundings, influenced by external factors and opportunities.
McAdam’s model focuses on three crucial factors:
154 154

1. Political Opportunities: These are external factors in the political environment that
can affect the prospects of a social movement. They can include shifts in ruling
political alignment, changes in societal structures, or even international political
trends.
2. Mobilizing Structures: These are the networks, norms, and organizational structures
that facilitate collective action. They can include existing social networks and formal
organizations.
3. Framing Processes: These are the shared meanings and interpretations that people
bring to their situation. Framing helps people make sense of the issues at stake in a
social movement.
McAdam’s Process Model has been influential in the field of sociology and political
science, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the rise,
development, and impact of social movements.

NGOs & Civil Society Campaigns

Civil society is the third sector of society, separate from government and businesses. It repre-
sents the collective interests, values, and behaviours of the public. NGOs are a key compo-
nent of civil society.

Characteristics of NGOs
1. Private and Independent: NGOs operate independently of the government.
2. Non-Profit: Their primary focus is on providing services rather than generating prof-
its.
3. Lobbying Groups: NGOs advocate for the interests of corporations or civil society to
influence decision-making at the state level.
4. No Profit Distribution: Any profits generated are reinvested into the organization's
mission.
5. Organized with Clear Objectives: NGOs are typically registered organizations or
informal groups with well-defined aims and objectives.

Role of NGOs in Civil Society Campaigns

NGOs play a crucial role in civil society campaigns by:

• Raising Awareness: Educating the public about important issues and mobilizing sup-
port for change.
• Advocacy: Lobbying governments and international organizations to adopt policies
that benefit society.
• Service Provision: Delivering essential services, especially to marginalized commu-
nities.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Holding governments accountable for their actions and
commitments.
155 155

• Promoting Participation: Encouraging citizens to engage in decision-making pro-

cesses that affect their lives.

Types of Civil Society Campaigns

• Environmental Campaigns: Advocating for sustainable practices and policies to

protect the environment.
• Human Rights Campaigns: Defending the rights of marginalized groups and pro-
moting equality.
• Public Health Campaigns: Raising awareness about health issues and advocating for
better healthcare access.
• Education Campaigns: Promoting access to quality education for all.

Civil Society Campaigns in India:

•
Chipko Movement (1973): Villagers hugged trees to prevent deforestation in Utta-
rakhand.
• Save Silent Valley Movement (1980s): Protested against a hydroelectric project, sav-
ing Kerala’s forests.
• Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985): Medha Patkar-led movement against displace-
ment due to dams.
• RTI Movement (2005): Led by MKSS, it resulted in the Right to Information Act for
transparency.
• India Against Corruption (2011): Anna Hazare-led campaign demanding the Jan
Lokpal Bill.
• Nirbhaya Movement (2012): Protests leading to stronger laws against sexual vio-
lence.
• LGBTQ+ Rights Movement (2018): Led to the decriminalization of Section 377 by
the Supreme Court.
Anti-CAA Protests (2019-20): Nationwide protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act.

Political Development
• What is Political Development?
o Development is a process of continuous growth. It has its origin in the western
framework of thinking.
o Political Development tries to explain the Political changes in the Developing
world.
• Thinkers of Political Development – Lucian Pye, Fred W Riggs, Edward Shills,
Huntington, Almond and Powell.
• Important Concepts of Development and Thinkers –
o Modernization Approach – W.W. Rostow, AFK Organski, Samuel Huntington
(PYQ 2022)
o Political Development and Political Decay Model – Samuel Huntington
156 156

o Centre-Periphery Model of Development – Rajni Kothari and AG Frank

o Functional Model – Gabriel Almond
o Change Model – Leonard Binder
o Environmental Model – F.W. Riggs
o Developmental Syndrome – Lucian Pye (PYQ 2019)
o Market-Society Model – WW Rostow, Organski, Almond and Coleman.
o Political Man – S.M. Lipset (PYQ 2018)
o Third World – Alfred Sauvy
• What the 4 stages of David Apter’s Political Modernization?
▪ 1. Contact and Control
▪ 2. Reaction and Counter-reaction
▪ 3. Contradiction and Reaction
▪ 4. Search for new generative solution
• What are the 5 Types of Political Systems acc. to Edward Shills?
▪ 1. Political Democracy (USA, UK, India)
▪ 2. Tutelary Democracy
▪ 3. Modernizing Oligarchy (Pakistan)
▪ 4. Totalitarian Oligarchy (Nazi Germany, Stalin USSR)
▪ 5. Traditional Oligarchy (Saudi Arabia)
▪ Acc to Edward Shills, Political Democracy is the BEST type and
Traditional Oligarchy is the WORST.
• What are the 3 Aspects of Political Development acc to Lucian Pye? (PYQ 2019)
▪ ECD – Equality , Capacity, Differentiation
• What are the 6 Crisis of Political Development acc to Lucian Pye? (PYQ 2018) (June
2023 Shift 1)
▪ Identity Crisis
▪ Legitimacy Crisis
▪ Penetration Crisis
▪ Participation Crisis
▪ Unification Crisis
▪ Distribution Crisis
• In which country did Pye mention about his Crisis of Pol Development in 1966?
o United Kingdom, 1966 – in his book, “Aspects of Political Development
(1966)”.
• Who has criticized Lucian Pye’s theory of Political Development?
o Fred W. Riggs
• What is the difference between Lucian Pye and Fred W. Riggs?
o For Pye – ECD, three factors
o For Riggs – EC, two factors
o Riggs mentions that the degree of Differentiation is directly related to the
level of development of a country.
157 157

• Who gave the concept of Development Trap?

o Fred W. Riggs – Development Trap
• Who gave the concept of Political Decay?
o Samuel P. Huntington – Political Decay (PYQ 2018) (June 2024 Shift 1)
o Huntington mentions in his book, “Political Development and Political
Decay” (1965).
o When Political Institutionalization is HIGHER than Political Mobilization
= Political Development
o When Political Institutionalization is LOWER than Political Mobilization
= Political Decay
• What are the Four Stages of Political Development of Kenneth Organski?
▪ 1. Political Unification
▪ 2. Industrialization
▪ 3. National Welfare
▪ 4. Abundance / Affluence
Modernization Theory

Modernization Theory explains the transition of societies from traditional, agrarian, and un-
derdeveloped structures to modern, industrialized, and advanced economies.

• It emphasizes economic growth, technological progress, and cultural changes as

essential factors in development.
• This theory emerged after World War II as part of Western efforts to understand and
promote economic and political development in newly independent nations.
• It suggests that all societies follow a similar linear path from "traditional" to "mod-
ern" stages of development. (Advocates a linear, progressive transition to moder-
nity.)
Overview:

• Modernization involves changes in economy, society, culture, and politics.

• Originated in the late 1950s, influenced by Max Weber and developed by Talcott Par-
sons.
• Suggests traditional societies develop by adopting modern practices.
• There is a fixed path of development & modernization as traversed by western na-
tions; by following the same path, poor 3rd world nations would also become devel-
oped.
• These theories were claimed to be applicable across cultural and were able to explain
political processes everywhere.
• Closely linked to US foreign policy towards developing countries and its attempt to
check the tides of socialism/communism (For example: containment policy by Tru-
man Doctrine)
158 158

Key Features of Modernization Theory:

1. Phased Process:
o Linear and progressive, with defined stages.
o Irreversible once initiated.

2. Homogenizing Effect:
o Societies become more alike as they modernize.

3. Westernization:
o Equated with Europeanization or Americanization.
o Development synonymous with westernization, modernization, and industrial-
ization.

4. Advantages of Modern Societies:

o Wealthier, more powerful, higher standards of living.
o Political maturity, economic growth, political freedom, and civil liberties.

Talcott Parsons’ Views:

• Advocated adopting values and practices of developed nations.

• Criticized traditional customs and rituals as impediments to progress.
• Comparative analysis of traditional vs. modern values.

The Stages of Political Development By A. F. K. Organski:

Book: The stages of political development, 1965
4 Stages of Political Development: Primitive unification, Industrialization, National welfare,
Politics of Abundance.
Walt Rostow’s Five Stages of Economic Growth: Book: "The Stages of Economic
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto" (1960).

1. Traditional Society
2. Preconditions for Take-off
3. Take-off Stage
4. Drive to Maturity
5. High Mass Consumption Society

Samuel P. Huntington’s Critique: ("Political Order in Changing Societies" 1968)

• Huntington criticized Modernization Theory, which believed that all societies would
follow a linear path from traditional to modern.

• He argued that political stability and social order cannot be guaranteed by merely
adopting Western-style economic development and democratic values.
159 159

• He emphasized the importance of political institutions and social order for stable
political systems, pointing out that rapid modernization often leads to instability, so-
cial fragmentation, and political chaos.

• "Political decay" happens when social and political systems fail to adapt to rapid
change, leading to conflict and political repression.

• He argued that economic growth and democracy don’t necessarily evolve together,
rejecting the idea that all societies naturally progress toward democracy.

Thinkers and Their Contributions

Thinker Contribution
Daniel Ler- The Passing of Traditional Society - Argued that mass media and commu-
ner nication play a key role in modernization.
Seymour Linked economic development with democracy, arguing that moderniza-
Martin Lipset tion fosters political stability.
Stages of Economic Growth (1960) - Five-stage model of development: Tra-
Walt Rostow ditional Society → Pre-conditions for Take-off → Take-off → Drive to
Maturity → High Mass Consumption
Talcott Par- Focused on social structures that promote modernization, such as meritoc-
sons racy, rational-legal authority, and secularism.
Samuel Hun- Political Order in Changing Societies - Warned that rapid modernization
tington can lead to political instability.

Alternatives to Modernization Theory:

• Dependency Theory (Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin): Focuses on external ex-
ploitation.
• World-Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein): Core-periphery model.
• Post-Colonial Approaches: Emphasize local agency, hybridity, and cultural specific-
ity.

Important Books

1. Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman — The Politics of Developing Areas (1960)
2. David Apter — The politics of modernization(1965)
3. Paul Baran — The Political Economy of Growth (1957)
4. Samuel P. Huntington — Political Development and Political Decay (1965), Politi-
cal Order in Changing Societies (1968)
5. S. M. Lipset — Political Man (1960)
6. A. F. K. Organski — The Stages of Political Development (1965)
7. Lucian Pye — Political Culture and Political Development (1963), Lucian Pye —
Aspects of Political Development (1966)
8. Walt Rostow — The Stages of Economic Growth (1960)
160 160

Dependency School and World Systems Theory

• Dependency Theory –
o Dependency School Emerged in the second half of 1950s in Latin America.
o Dependency School Emerged from the ECLA School of Latin America.
o Dependency School is Criticism against Liberal theories of Political
Development.
o Dependency is defined as a situation in which Underdeveloped economies
are conditioned by the exploitation and expansion of Developed economies.
o The Underdeveloped economies here - belong to the (Periphery).
o The Developed economies here - belong to the (Core).

• Major Thinkers of Dependency –

o 1. Ander Gunder Frank –
▪ AG Frank is one of the Founding Fathers of Dependency School.
▪ Concept – Development of Underdevelopment.
▪ Book -
o 2. Raul Prebisch –
▪ Prebisch was head of United Nations Economic Commission for Latin
America (ECLA)
▪ Concept – The Singer-Prebisch Terms-of-Trade (ToT) Thesis.
▪ Book – The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal
Problems (1950).
o 3. Samir Amin –
▪ Samir Amin is one of the prominent Islamic Scholars of Dependency
Theory
▪ Concept – Theory of Unequal Exchange.
▪ Book – Accumulation on a World Scale
o 4. Dos Santos –
▪ Concept – New Dependency
▪ There are 3 types of Dependency acc to Dos Santos –
▪ (i) Colonial Dependency (monopoly of land, mines, manpower)
▪ (ii)Financial Industrial Dependency (domination of capital for raw
materials)
▪ (iii) New Dependency (after WWII, this is based on investments by
large MNCs in dependent periphery countries)
o 5. Cardoso –
▪ Concept – Dependency and Development
o 6. Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy –
161 161

▪ Concept – Dependency and Imperialism

o 7. Immanuel Wallerstein –
▪ Concept – World Systems Theory (June 2024 Shift 1)
▪ World Systems Theory introduced the concept of ‘Semi-periphery’ as
a third category between Core and Periphery.
▪ Semi-Periphery states are the emerging developing economies such
as India, China, South Africa, Brazil etc. with both features of modern
industries, cities, as well as of large peasantry.
▪ According to World Systems Theory, the possibility of changing
position in the core/semi-periphery/periphery hierarchy is very rare.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
• Dependency Theory criticizes Modernization Theory.
• Why? – Because Modernization Theory states that every country can follow a similar
path and the same formula of ‘One Size Fits All Development’ through mass
industrialization, high rates of economic growth and by adopting liberal democratic
values.
• Dependency Theory argues that modernization theory is ethnocentric and ignores the
social and cultural arrangements in other parts of the world. It ignores the impact of
colonization on the former colonies of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• Dependency Theory also say, the current phase of Globalization is dominated by the
interest of large Transnational Corporations (TNCs) in a Neoliberal world. This has a
drastic impact on ‘sovereign’ decision making power of the underdeveloped
‘Peripheral’ states.

USA Constitutional Development

• The Constitutional development of the United States is a fascinating journey that
began with the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The original constitution
was drafted at the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 and ratified by state conventions in 1787
and 1788.
• Since its inception, the Constitution has been amended 27 times to address various
societal changes and needs. Notable amendments include the Bill of Rights (the first ten
amendments) and the three Reconstruction Amendments.
• The Constitution was designed to establish a federal government of limited power and
to protect the rights of the states. It has served as the supreme law of the United States since
taking effect in 1789.
• The development of the American Constitution is an ongoing process, reflecting the
evolving needs and values of the society it governs. It continues to be a cornerstone of
American democracy, embodying the principles of justice, liberty, and equality for all.
162 162

In the history of the United States of America, these are some Landmark events in the
development of their Constitution: (June 2023 Shift 2)
▪ Introducing the Articles of Confederation of the U.S.A. The Articles of Confederation were
adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1776. This document served as the
United States' first constitution. It was in force from 1781 to 1789 when the present-day
Constitution went into effect.
▪ Establishment of the Federal Constitution of the U.S.A.: Written in 1787, ratified in 1788,
and in operation since 1789, the United States Constitution is the world's longest surviving
written charter of government.
▪ Addition of Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution: On December 15, 1791, the new United
States of America ratified the Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution,
introducing Fundamental rights to the citizens of U.S.A.
▪ 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees equal protection of laws: Passed
by the Senate on June 8, 1866, and ratified two years later, on July 9, 1868, the Fourteenth
Amendment granted citizenship to all persons "born or naturalized in the United States,"
including formerly enslaved people, and provided all citizens with “equal protection under
the laws.

Mancur Olson - The Logic of Collective Action

Mancur Lloyd Olson Jr. (1932–1998) was an influential American economist and political
scientist. His work primarily centered around new institutional economics, exploring topics
such as private property, taxation, public goods, collective action, and contract rights in
economic development.
• Olson is best known for his first book, “The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods
and the Theory of Groups” (1965), where he theorized that what stimulates people to
act in groups is incentive; members of large groups do not act in accordance with a
common interest unless motivated by personal gain (economic, social, etc.)
• In 1965, American economist Mancur Olson challenged the Pluralist idea that group
formation was equally available to everybody. He believed that people's decisions are
based on weighing the costs and benefits for themselves.
• In his 1965 book "The Logic of Collective Action" Olson argued that people are more
likely to join groups that offer specific rewards that they personally value (selective
incentives). (June 2023 Shift 2)
• With the help of the concept of Rational choice, Olson suggests that only groups which
offers individual benefits would succeed.
• While groups offering benefits for the general public (public goods) would struggle to
attract members, as these benefits aren't tied to a person's membership.
• In other words, Olson suggested that people are more motivated to join groups that
directly benefit them, rather than those that offer benefits to everyone.
163 163

Types of Welfare State Models given by Richard Titmuss

Richard Morris Titmuss (1907 – 1973) was a pioneering British social researcher and teacher.
He is best known for founding the academic discipline of social administration, now largely
known as social policy.
In the late 1950s, Richard Titmuss gave a three-fold model of Types of Welfare State regimes
as follows:
1. Residual Welfare Model – In this kind of welfare system, help is offered only when the
usual ways like private market and family can't meet people's social needs anymore.
Examples – United States, United Kingdom, Canada.

2. Industrial Achievement Performance Model – In this type of welfare system, the

benefits you get are connected to your job, and how well you work. It's based on your
effort and how productive you are. Examples – Germany, Japan, South Korea.

3. Institutional Redistributive Model – In this model of welfare state Social Welfare

Institutions are an integral part of society, providing Universalist Services to everyone,
not just through buying and selling. Examples – Sweden, Norway, Denmark.
(Scandinavian Social - Democratic Regimes) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Democratic Transition and Consolidation by Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan

“Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and
Post-Communist Europe” is a significant work by Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan. Published in
1996, this book presents a systematic comparative analysis of the process of democratic
consolidation in southern Europe, South America, and post-Communist Europe.
This book is the first to ground post-Communist Europe within the literature of comparative
politics and democratic theory.
In this book, Linz and Stepan break new ground in several areas:
• They reconceptualize the major types of modern nondemocratic regimes.
• They point out for each type the available paths to democratic transition and the tasks
of democratic consolidation.
• They argue that, although “nation-state” and “democracy” often have conflicting
logics, multiple and complementary political identities are feasible under a common
roof of state-guaranteed rights.
• They also illustrate how, without an effective state, there can be neither effective
citizenship nor successful privatization.
• They provide criteria and evidence for politicians and scholars alike to distinguish
between democratic consolidation and pseudo-democratization.
164 164

Out of these Linz and Stepan argue that in Southern Europe we see Completed Consolidations,
in South America we see Constrained Transitions and in Post-Communist Europe we see most
complex paths towards democratic transition. They argue:
A. Both civil society and political society are complementary to each other. (June 2023
Shift 2)
B. Rule of law is condition for consolidation of democracy. (June 2023 Shift 2)
C. Modern democracies must have effective capacity to command, regulate and extract
(June 2023 Shift 2)
They Further argued that:
• Within the democratic community, champions of either Civil or Political Society adopt
practices which limits the development of the other. They remain in opposition.
• To form supportive conditions for a Consolidated democracy we need neither
command economy or pure market economy, - instead – what we need is “economic
society” – one which mediates between the state and market.
Breakdowns of Modernisation by S.N. Eisenstadt
S.N. Eisenstadt wrote a research paper titled “Breakdowns of Modernization” (1964). (June
2023 Shift 1)
• In this work, Eisenstadt explores the complexities and challenges associated with
modernization.
• He examines the factors that can lead to the breakdown of modernization processes
and the implications of these breakdowns for societies undergoing change.
• The optimism which guided much of the concern with many of the studies of
undeveloped areas or new nations, and which assumed that these countries were
advancing – even if slowly and intermittently – towards full-fledged modernization,
has lately given way to a much more cautious and pessimistic view.
• This is due to the fact that in many such new nations, where initially modern
frameworks were established in different institutional fields, especially in the political
one, the progress towards modernization was not only slow, but also these regimes
faltered, giving way, in their place rise to – autocratic or semi-authoritarian regimes.
• Indonesia, Pakistan, Burma and Sudan are perhaps the most important examples of
this trend highlights Eisenstadt.
• Eisenstadt set to analyze the nature of the social processes in these countries which
led to these changes, which he called as “Breakdowns in their political
modernization”.

Role of Representative by John Wahlke

John C. Wahlke, a political scientist, has made significant contributions to the understanding
of representative democracy.
165 165

In his work “Policy Demands and System Support: The Role of the Represented,” (2009) he
explores the functioning of representative bodies and the discontent associated with them.
Wahlke suggests that much of the disillusionment with modern representative government
arises from a fascination with the policy decisions of representative bodies, what he calls a
‘policy-demand-input’ conception of government.
In defining the Role of Representative John Wahlke has given a three-fold classification: (June
2023 Shift 1)
1. Trustee-Deputy Role: The deputy can act as a delegate of the people they represent,
following their instructions, or make decisions on their own without consulting them.
2. Facilitator-Neutral Role: The representative consults various interest groups and others to
some extent while trying to serve their constituents.
3. District-State or Country Role: The deputy decides whether to prioritize the interests of
their local area or those of the entire country in their actions.

Revolutions: Theories and Approaches

A revolution is a fundamental and sudden change in political, social, or economic struc-
tures, often involving mass mobilization and sometimes violence.

• Revolutions may lead to a complete overhaul of government, society, or ideology.

• Revolutions are major, often violent, events that lead to fundamental changes in soci-
ety and power structures.
• Karl Marx famously called them the "locomotives of history."
• Theda Skocpol's comparative analysis of France, Russia, and China emphasized the
role of state breakdown and class conflict in revolutions.
• Crane Brinton likened revolutions to a fever, with stages of symptoms, fever, and re-
covery.

Types of Revolutions

1. Political Revolutions – Change in government but not necessarily in social structure

(e.g., American Revolution 1776).
2. Social Revolutions – Overhaul of both political and social structures (e.g., French
Revolution 1789, Russian Revolution 1917).
3. Economic Revolutions – Transformation of economic systems (e.g., Industrial Rev-
olution).
4. Anti-Colonial Revolutions – Struggles for independence from colonial rule (e.g., In-
dian Independence Movement 1947, Algerian Revolution 1954–62).
5. Cultural Revolutions – Transformation in cultural and ideological structures (e.g.,
Chinese Cultural Revolution 1966-76).
6. Technological Revolutions – Rapid advancements in technology changing societal
structures (e.g., Digital Revolution).

Theories of Revolution
166 166

A. Classical Theories

1. Karl Marx – Historical Materialism & Class Struggle

o Revolutions occur due to class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the prole-
tariat.
o Transition from feudalism → capitalism → socialism → communism
through revolutionary struggle.
o Example: Russian Revolution (1917) as a transition to socialism.

2. Alexis de Tocqueville – Relative Deprivation Theory

o Revolutions occur when expectations rise faster than real social improve-
ments.
o Example: French Revolution (1789) – Middle class demanded more political
power despite economic growth.

B. Structuralist Theory

3. Crane Brinton – Stages of Revolution ("Anatomy of Revolution")

o Revolutions follow four stages:
1. Crisis of the Old Regime – Government loses legitimacy.
2. Moderate Phase – Reformists take control.
3. Radical Phase – Extreme elements take over (e.g., Reign of Terror in
France).
4. Thermidorian Reaction – Return to stability (e.g., Napoleon’s rise in
France).
o Example: French & Russian Revolutions followed this pattern.

4. Barrington Moore – Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy

o The role of the bourgeoisie determines whether revolutions lead to democ-
racy or dictatorship.
o Example: England’s Glorious Revolution (1688) led to democracy, while
Russia’s 1917 revolution led to dictatorship.

C. Psychological Theories

5. James C. Davies – J-Curve Theory

o Revolutions occur when people’s expectations rise but reality does not match
up.
o Example: Russian Revolution 1917 – After economic growth under Tsar
Nicholas II, sudden decline led to unrest.

6. Ted Gurr – Relative Deprivation

o When people perceive a gap between what they have and what they expect,
they revolt.
o Example: Arab Spring (2011) – People in Tunisia and Egypt revolted due to
economic struggles and political corruption.

D. Contemporary Theories
167 167

7. Theda Skocpol – State-Centered Theory

o Revolutions occur due to state breakdown and peasant uprisings.
o Example: French, Russian, and Chinese Revolutions – Weak states col-
lapsed due to war and economic crisis.

8. Samuel Huntington – Political Order and Change

o Rapid modernization without stable political institutions leads to political vio-
lence and revolutions.
o Example: Iranian Revolution (1979) – Westernization without strong institu-
tions led to a backlash.

9. Jack Goldstone – Demographic & Resource Theory

o Revolutions occur due to population growth, economic strain, and elite
competition.
o Example: English Civil War (1642-1651) – Economic decline and elite ri-
valry triggered conflict.

Revolution: Various Approach

Comparative Approach (Theda Skocpol)

• Analyses revolutions by comparing different cases (France, Russia, China).

• Rejects the notion of conscious purpose in revolutions; they are unplanned outcomes
of competing forces.
• Criticism: Oversimplifies the role of agency and ideology in revolutions.

Psychological Approach

• Explores the psychological motivations of revolutionaries.

• Early theories focused on the irrational behaviour of crowds.
• Modern theories examine the interaction of individuals with others and the role of
concepts like "relative deprivation."
• Criticism: Can't fully explain why revolutions occur in some situations but not oth-
ers.

Sociological Approach (Functionalist)

• Society's stability depends on meeting citizens' needs.

• Revolutions occur when underlying consensus on values breaks down.
• Criticism: Doesn't explain why revolutions don't always occur even when conditions
seem ripe.

Political Approach (Charles Tilly)

168 168

• Focuses on the processes of alienation and regrouping before a revolution.

• Analyses the causes, course, and outcomes of revolutions.

Philosophical Approach (Hannah Arendt)

• Revolution is the search for freedom in the face of tyranny.

• Freedom is the highest achievement of human society.
• Revolution's spirit hasn't found appropriate institutions to express itself.

Case Studies of Major Revolutions

Revolution Causes Outcome

French Revolution Economic crisis, inequality, weak
Republic, rise of Napoleon
(1789) monarchy
Russian Revolution WWI failures, economic collapse,
Communist USSR
(1917) class struggle
Chinese Revolution
Civil war, economic hardship Communist China under Mao
(1949)
Iranian Revolution Religious backlash, corruption,
Islamic Republic
(1979) Westernization
Mixed results (Tunisia succeeded,
Arab Spring (2011) Economic crisis, dictatorship
Syria collapsed)

Important Books on Revolutions

1. "The Anatomy of Revolution" – Crane Brinton

2. "On Revolution" – Hannah Arendt
3. "The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny" – Ian Davidson
4. "Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements" – James DeFronzo
5. "The Russian Revolution: A New History" – Sean McMeekin
6. "States and Social Revolutions" – Theda Skocpol
7. "The Communist Manifesto" – Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels
8. "The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789" – Robert Mid-
dlekauff
9. "Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History of the French Revolution" – Jona-
than Israel
10. "The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime" – James Gelvin
169 169

Constitutions and Constitutionalism: A Comparative Perspective

Constitution: A set of fundamental rules that define the powers of the government and the
rights of the citizens.

• A constitution is a set of rules, both written and unwritten, that guide the functioning
of a government. It establishes the duties, powers, and functions of various govern-
ment institutions.

• It regulates the relationships between these institutions to ensure smooth governance.

It also defines the relationship between the state and the individual, outlining rights
and responsibilities.

• The mix of written (legal) and unwritten (customary or conventional) rules differs
across political systems. In a narrower sense, the term ‘constitution’ refers to a single,
authoritative written document.

• This written constitution aims to codify the major constitutional provisions in one
place. It stands as the highest law of the land, taking precedence over all other laws
and policies.

• A.V. Dicey argued that the 'constitution directly or indirectly affects the exercise of
the sovereign power of the state'

• K.C. Wheare said that 'the term 'constitution' is commonly used in two senses: first,
it describes the whole system of a government of a country and second, it holds a
bunch of rules that establish and regulate or govern the government'

• C.F. Strong said that a constitution 'may be said to be a collection of principles ac-
cording to which the powers of the government, the rights of the governed, and the
relations between two are adjusted'

Constitutionalism: The principle that insists on organization and working of the state ac-
cording to a constitution so that no organ or officeholder of the state is allowed to use arbi-
trary power. Constitutionalism makes the government constitutional, civilized, and limited.

• An effective constitution therefore requires not merely the existence of constitutional

rules, but also the capacity of those rules to constrain government and establish con-
stitutionalism.

• Common devices that support constitutionalism include codified constitutions, bills

of rights, separation of powers, bicameralism, and federalism.

• Constitutionalism, in a narrow sense, refers to the practice of limited government

guaranteed by the presence of a constitution. It exists when government institutions
and political processes are effectively restrained by constitutional rules.

• In a broader sense, constitutionalism is a set of political values and mechanisms de-

signed to divide power and prevent its concentration. This division of power creates a
170 170

system of checks and balances to ensure accountability and prevent abuse.

• Gerald Ford (Former US President) reiterated the classic sentiment of constitutional-

ism: ‘we have a government of laws, not of men’.

• Carl J. Friedrich argued that “constitutionalism, by dividing power, provides a sys-

tem of effective restraints upon governmental action.”

Forms of Constitutions:

Feature Written Constitution Unwritten Constitution

Not codified in a single doc-
Codification Formal, single document ument, based on conventions
and traditions
Flexible, can be changed
Difficult to amend, requiring
Rigidity through ordinary legislative
special procedures
processes
Limited judicial review, fo-
Courts have the power to in-
cused on interpretation ra-
Judicial Review terpret and declare laws un-
ther than declaring laws in-
constitutional
valid
Example United States, India United Kingdom, Canada

Countries with a Written Constitution: A written constitution is a formal, structured

document that clearly outlines the fundamental laws and principles of a country. Some exam-
ples include:

1. United States – U.S. Constitution (1787)

2. India – Constitution of India (1950)
3. Germany – Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (1949)
4. France – French Constitution (1958, Fifth Republic)
5. Canada – Constitution Act (1867 & 1982)
6. Australia – Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (1901)
7. Brazil – Constitution of Brazil (1988)
8. Russia – Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993)
9. South Africa – Constitution of South Africa (1996)
10. Japan – Constitution of Japan (1947)

Countries with an Unwritten Constitution: An unwritten constitution is based on

customs, judicial decisions, statutes, and historical documents rather than a single written
document. Examples include:

1. United Kingdom – Relies on statutes (e.g., Magna Carta, Bill of Rights 1689), com-
mon law, and conventions.

2. New Zealand – Based on multiple legal sources, including the Constitution Act 1986,
conventions, and judicial decisions.
171 171

3. Israel – Functions with Basic Laws and judicial precedents instead of a single formal
constitution.

4. Saudi Arabia – The Quran and Sharia law serve as the guiding framework rather than
a codified constitution.

Rule of Law
The Rule of Law is a fundamental principle of governance that ensures that laws apply
equally to all individuals, including the government itself. It prevents arbitrary rule and up-
holds justice, fairness, and accountability.

• A system where all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to the
law.
• Ensures equal treatment, protects individual liberties, and limits arbitrary government
power.
• Key thinkers: Aristotle, John Locke, Edward Coke, Jeremy Bentham, Albert
Venn Dicey.

Key Principles of the Rule of Law

1. Supremacy of Law – No one is above the law, and laws must be followed strictly.
2. Equality Before the Law – All individuals, regardless of status, are subject to the
same laws.
3. Legal Certainty – Laws must be clear, publicized, and stable to guide behavior.
4. Fair Trial and Due Process – Everyone is entitled to a fair and impartial judicial
process.
5. Separation of Powers – Judiciary, legislature, and executive must function inde-
pendently.
6. Judicial Independence – Courts should be free from external influence to uphold jus-
tice.
7. Fundamental Rights Protection – Laws must safeguard individual freedoms and hu-
man rights.
8. No Arbitrary Power – Government actions must be based on law, not personal dis-
cretion.

Albert Venn Dicey and the Rule of Law

Key Work: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885)

Core Principle: "No man is punishable except for a distinct breach of law" established in the
ordinary legal manner before the ordinary court.

Three Criteria for Rule of Law:

1. Supremacy of Law: All individuals and institutions are subject to the law.
2. Equality before the Law: Law applies equally to everyone, regardless of status.
3. Predominance of Legal Spirit: Rights and liberties are best protected through the
common law rather than a bill of rights.
172 172

Judicial Independence:

Judicial Independence refers to the principle that the judiciary must be free from external
influence, particularly from the executive and legislative branches of government, political
pressures, or private interests. The judiciary is often referred to as the "Guardian of the
Constitution" and "Protector of the Rule of Law."

• Essential for upholding the rule of law and protecting constitutional rights.
• Separation of powers doctrine ensures judiciary's autonomy from the executive and
legislature.
• Montesquieu: Advocated judicial independence as a core component of the separa-
tion of powers doctrine in "The Spirit of the Laws."
• American Revolution (1776): Founding Fathers enshrined judicial independence as a
fundamental principle of American democracy.

Key Features of Judicial Independence

1. Separation from Executive and Legislature – The judiciary must function inde-
pendently of the government to prevent political interference.
2. Security of Tenure – Judges should have fixed terms or retirement ages to prevent
arbitrary removal.
3. Financial Independence – Judicial salaries and budgets must not be subject to gov-
ernment control.
4. Appointment Process – Judges should be selected based on merit, not political fa-
vouritism.
5. Power of Judicial Review – Courts should have the authority to review laws and ex-
ecutive actions for constitutionality.

Liberal Constitutionalism:
Liberal Constitutionalism refers to a system of governance where a constitution limits gov-
ernment power and guarantees individual rights, based on the principles of liberalism, such
as democracy, rule of law, separation of powers, and protection of civil liberties.

• Emphasizes individual liberty, limited government, and protection of rights.

Key features:

o No absolutism
o Separation of powers
o Protection of individual liberties and market economy
o Judicial independence
o Free and fair elections
o Freedom of speech, religion, and basic human rights
o Strong civil society
173 173

Thinkers on Liberal Constitutionalism

1. John Locke – Advocated limited government and natural rights (Two Treatises of
Government).
2. Montesquieu – Proposed separation of powers in The Spirit of the Laws.
3. James Madison – Defended constitutional checks and balances in The Federalist Pa-
pers.
4. A.V. Dicey – Linked liberal constitutionalism to the Rule of Law.
5. John Rawls – Developed the concept of justice as fairness, promoting constitutional
democracy.

Examples of Liberal Constitutionalism

• United States: U.S. Constitution (1787) limits government power and protects indi-
vidual rights.
• India: The Constitution of India (1950) balances democracy, rights, and state power.
• Germany: The Basic Law (1949) ensures fundamental rights and a democratic sys-
tem.
• France: The Fifth Republic Constitution (1958) maintains constitutional democracy.

Emergency Powers and Crisis of Constitutionalism:

• Extraordinary powers granted to the government during crises (war, rebellion, etc.).
• Can undermine constitutionalism and lead to abuse of power.
• Example: India's 1975 Emergency, which severely curtailed civil liberties.

Emergency Powers: Meaning and Features

Emergency powers refer to extraordinary powers granted to the executive or government to

deal with national crises such as war, internal unrest, or economic collapse. These powers of-
ten allow temporary suspension of rights and constitutional provisions for security and
stability.

Key Features of Emergency Powers:

1. Executive Supremacy – The executive is granted special powers to handle crises.

2. Suspension of Rights – Civil liberties, such as freedom of speech or movement, may
be restricted.
3. Temporary Nature – Emergency provisions are intended to be short-term and re-
voked once stability is restored.
4. Legislative & Judicial Oversight – Ideally, checks and balances should regulate
emergency powers.
5. Martial Law or Special Laws – In extreme cases, military or emergency laws may
be imposed.
174 174

Crisis of Constitutionalism

The crisis of constitutionalism arises when emergency powers are misused, leading to the
erosion of constitutional democracy. This happens when governments use emergencies as a
pretext for authoritarian rule, bypassing constitutional limits permanently.

Key Aspects of the Crisis of Constitutionalism:

1. Executive Overreach – Governments extend emergency powers beyond necessity.

2. Permanent State of Emergency – Some regimes never restore normal constitu-
tional rule (e.g., Nazi Germany under Hitler).
3. Suppression of Civil Liberties – Freedom of press, speech, and assembly is often re-
stricted.
4. Weakening of Judiciary and Legislature – Courts and parliaments may be sidelined
or controlled.
5. Rise of Authoritarianism – Emergency provisions can lead to dictatorship or illib-
eral democracies.

Examples of Emergency Powers & Constitutional Crisis

• Weimar Republic (Germany, 1933) – Hitler used Article 48 to suspend civil rights,
leading to Nazi dictatorship.

• India (1975-77) – Indira Gandhi declared a national emergency, curbing press free-
dom and arresting opponents.

• USA (Post-9/11, Patriot Act) – Expanded surveillance and detention powers raised
concerns about constitutional rights violations.

• Turkey (2016-2018) – After a failed coup, Erdogan declared emergency rule, jailing
journalists and political opponents.

Important Books on Constitutions and Constitutionalism

1. "The Constitution of Liberty" – F.A. Hayek

2. "The Spirit of the Laws" – Montesquieu
3. "Constitutionalism and Democracy" – Giovanni Sartori
4. "We the People: Foundations" – Bruce Ackerman
5. "The Politics of the Constitution" – Adam Tomkins
6. "The Concept of Law" – H.L.A. Hart
7. "Constitutional and Political Theory" – Ernst-Wolfgang
8. "The Federalist Papers" – Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, & John Jay
9. "Constitutionalism: Past, Present, and Future" – Dieter Grimm
175 175

UNIT 5 – INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Main Theories of IR –
• (1) Idealism in IR –
• Main Points – Idealism in IR emerged during First World War (1914-1918).
• Idealism argued that war can be avoided by reforming international system.
• The idealist school of thought in international relations proposed to replace ‘balance
of power’ by Disarmament. (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Main Thinkers & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Woodrow Wilson ● 14 Points Speech in 1918 (Shift 2

2021) (June 2024 Shift 2) (Dec.
2024)
● Formation of League of Nations
● 1920 Received Nobel Peace Prize

Norman Angell ● He gave Idealist explanation to ● The Great Illusion (1909)

prevent war. ● The Problems of War and
Peace (1915)

J.A. Hobson ● He argued that war happens ● The Morals of Economic

because of Imperialism. Internationalism (1920)
● Imperialism is the primary source
of International Conflict.

• (2) Realism in IR –
• Main Points – Realism Theory in IR emerged during 1930s and 1940s.
• Realism emerged as a challenge against Idealism during the inter-war period (1919-
1939).
• Realism believes in these Core Points –
o Pessimistic view of Human Nature – Human nature is greedy, have lust for
Power.
o IR is necessarily Conflictual in nature – Conflicts are ultimately resolved by War.
o States are the main Primary Actors of IR. (December 2018)
o International System is Anarchic in nature (There is No World Government).
• Types of Realism & Their Thinkers –
• Classical Realism – Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau, E.H. Carr, Reinhold
Niebuhr.
• Strategic Realism – Thomas Schelling
176 176

• Neo-Realism / Structural Realism / Scientific Realism – Kenneth Waltz, John

Mearsheimer
• According to structural realism, the distribution of capabilities and the ordering
principle of the international structure are what determine how it is.
• Neorealism is a reformulation of the classical realist school of E. H. Carr, Hans
Morgenthau, George Kennan, and Reinhold Niebuhr.
• Waltz addressed the flaws of classical realism in this work, which was significantly
inspired by ideas and models of microeconomics. Waltz argued that the market and
international relations are similar in that they both function without a clear hierarchy.
• States are similar to businesses in a domestic market in that their main goal is to
survive via competition in a setting where self-help is the norm. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The anarchic framework of international relations is to blame for governments' similar
behaviour. (June 2024 Shift 1)
• Neo-Classical Realism – Fareed Zakaria, Randal Schweller.
• Offensive Realism – John Mearsheimer
• Defensive Realism – Kenneth Waltz, Stephen Walt (June 2024 Shift 1) (Dec. 2024)
• Types of Realism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

(i) CLASSICAL REALISM –

Thucydides (June ● Structure of International system affects ● The History of

2024 Shift 1) relations between the States. Peloponnesian War
● Moral Reasoning has little or nothing to do (431-404 BC)
with relations between States. (2020)
● The Strong do what they have the Power to ● The Melian Dialogue
do and the Weak accept what they have to
accept

Machiavelli ● Rulers should have both qualities of Lion ● The Prince (1532)
(Strong) and Fox (Cunning) to survive.
● Rulers should always defend the interests of
the State and ensure its survival.

Thomas Hobbes ● He says the International System is a ● Leviathan (1651)

permanent ‘State of Nature.’

E.H. Carr ● EH Carr criticizes the ‘Utopian’ thinking of ● The Twenty Years
(20 Years Crisis) Idealists and advocated a realistic approach to Crisis (1919-1939)
(June 2024 Shift 1) International affairs.
● EH Carr said – Realism and Utopianism are ● What is History?
mutually dynamic and dialectic. (1961)
177 177

Hans J ● Morgenthau argues that Human is a political ● Politics Among

Morgenthau animal. Nations (1948)
(Power Politics) ● He gives the term ‘ANIMUS DOMINANDI’ – (Shift 1 2022)
which means Lust for Power.
(December 2018) ● Six Principles of Morgenthau –
(2020) (June 2024 1. Politics is governed by Objective Laws.
Shift 1) 2. National Interest is defined in terms of
Power.
3. Political Ethics is diff from Universal moral
principles.
4. Particular nations cannot impose their
national aspirations onto other nations.
5. Pessimistic view of Human Nature.
6. Politics is an autonomous sphere. (Shift 2
2021)

(ii) STRATEGIC REALISM –

Thomas Schelling ● State Leaders think Strategically, i.e., ● The Strategy of

(Strategic logically to deal with Diplomatic and Military Conflict (1960)
Realism) issues.
● It deals with how to employ Power to get
our enemy to do what we desire, without
using brute force.
● “Diplomacy is Bargaining” act according to
Schelling.

(iii) STRUCTURAL or NEO-REALISM –

Kenneth Waltz ● Main thinker of Neo-Realism. (Shift 2 2022) ● Theory of

(International ● States in IR exist in a system of International International Politics
System Anarchy. (June 2024 Shift 1) (1979) (Shift 1 2022)
is Anarchic) ● Here focus is not on Human Nature, but on
(June 2024 Shift 1)
the Structure of the International System. ● Man, the State and
(Shift 1 2021) (June 2024 Shift 1) War (Shift 2 2022) (June
(Dec. 2024)
● States differs in their capabilities. 2024 Shift 1)
● Acc. to Kenneth Waltz – Bipolar System is
more stable (during Cold War) and Bipolar
System provides more peace than in a
Multipolar arrangement. (2020) (June 2024
Shift 1)
● He gave 3 Levels of Analysis –
Individual Level
State Level
International System Level.
178 178

John ● Main thinker of Neorealist Stability Theory. ● The Tragedy of Great

Mearsheimer ● He considers three reasons why Bipolar Power Politics (2001)
(Great Power systems are more stable & peaceful than (Shift 1 2022)
Politics) Multipolar systems -
● Europe during Cold War – condition of
(2020) Stable Bipolarity
● Europe before 1945 and after 1990 –
condition of Unstable Multipolarity

(iv) NEO-CLASSICAL REALISM

Fareed Zakaria ● Neo-Classical Realism combines both ● From Wealth to

(Neo-Classical elements of classical and neorealism. Power (1999)(Shift 1
Realism) ● Neo-Classical Realism combines the 2022)
Structure of International system is Anarchic in
nature and also mentions the importance of
Domestic factors.
● Domestic factors + Anarchic Intl System =
Neoclassical Realism.

(v) OFFENSIVE vs DEFENSIVE REALISM

Offensive Realism Offensive Realism – Realists who seek for

John ‘Power’.
Mearsheimer Power = Offensive.

(March 2023 Shift 2)

Defensive Realism Defensive Realism – Realists who seek for

Kenneth Waltz ‘Security’.
Stephen Walt Security = Defensive.

• (3) Liberalism in IR –
• Main Points – Focus on : Human Progress, Humans are Rational Logical Beings,
Cooperation in IR.
▪ Types of Liberalism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

SOCIOLOGICAL LIBERALISM

Karl Deutsch ● Deutsch gave the concept Security ● Political Community

(Security Community. and North Atlantic
Community) ● Example of Security Community – in the (1957)
North Atlantic area
179 179

● 4 conditions of Security Community –

(a) Increase social communication,
(b) greater mobility,
(c) stronger economic ties and
(d) mutual human transactions.

John Burton ● Burton supports the Cobweb Model ● World Society (1972)
(Cobweb Model) ● Burton says IR cannot be understood by
the billiard board model, instead he
proposes Cobweb.
● Cobweb Model focuses on – World will
benefit by Mutual Cooperation not
Conflict.

James Rosenau ● Rosenau gave imp. to Transnational ● The Study of Global

(Transnational Networks Interdependence
Networks) ● These transnational networks of (1980)
individuals and groups will focus on
bringing world peace .

INTERDEPENDENCE LIBERALISM

Richard ● He gave the concept ‘Trading States’ ● Action and Reaction

Rosecrance ● The most economically successful in World Politics (1963)
(Trading States) countries of the post-war period are
‘Trading States’ – Japan, Germany and
South Korea.
● Studied the link between Economics and
IR.

David Mitrany ● Mitrany gave Functionalist Theory of ● A Working Peace

(Functional Integration System (1966)
Theory) ● Cooperation should be arranged by
● Functionalist Theory
Focus on - EU Technical Experts, not by Politicians.
of Politics (1975)
● Example – Mitrany studied European
Union (EU).

Ernst Haas ● Haas gave Neo-Functionalist Theory of ● Beyond the Nation-

(Neo-Functional Integration State (1964)
Theory) ● Haas says, Integration in IR depends on
(Spillover Effect) ‘Spillover’ effect – that is – Increased
180 180

Cooperation in one area leads to Increased

Cooperation in other areas.

Robert Keohane ● They gave concept – ‘Complex ● Power and

& Interdependence’ (June 2024 Shift 1) Interdependence
Joseph Nye ● Keohane & Nye say that instead of State (1977)
(Neoliberalism Leaders, various branches of Govt. and
in IR) (June 2024 different actors maintain relations
Shift 1) between states.
● The ‘Low Politics’ of Economics has high
priority over the ‘High Politics’ of Security
and Survival.
● Military force less useful, Economic and
Institutional Instruments more useful.

INSTITUTIONAL LIBERALISM (June

2024 Shift 1)

Robert Keohane ● Liberal Institutionalists argue that ●

International Orgs and International
&
Regimes help Cooperation between States.
Joseph Nye
(June 2023 Shift 2)
(Institutions and
● High Level of Institutionalization
Regimes)
reduces the destabilizing effects of
Multipolar anarchy.
● Institutions bridge trust between States
in IR.
● Enhances the ability of governments to
monitor each-others’ compliance to signed
Intl agreements.

REPUBLICAN LIBERALISM (June

2024 Shift 1)

Immanuel Kant ● He gave ‘Perpetual Peace Theory’ ● Metaphysics of

(Perpetual Peace Morals (1797)
Theory)

(Dec. 2024)
181 181

Michael Doyle ● He gave ‘Democratic Peace Theory’ ● Liberalism and World

(Democratic ● Liberal Democracies are More Peaceful Politics Revisited (1995)
Peace Theory) states
● Do Democracies not Go To War? –
Yes, Democracies Have Gone to War, but
argument is they have gone to war against
non-democracies, they do not fight with
other democracies.

● Why? – Doyle gives 3 Reasons :-

1.Democratic Governments are controlled
by their own Citizens – who will not
advocate war with democracies.
2. They hold Common Moral Values which
leads to the formation of ‘Pacific Union’ –
prefers solution over violence.
3. Peace between Democracies is
strengthened by Economic Cooperation
and Interdependence.

• (4) Social Constructivism in IR –

• Main Points – Focus on Ideas, Interests and Ideational Factors in International
Relations. (June 2024 Shift 1)
• The term ‘Constructivism’ was coined by Nicholas Onuf.
• Previously, Neorealists highlighted that Identities and Interests are given, States know
who they are and what they want (by default).
• But, for Social Constructivists – It is not a given, Constructivists say that it is the very
interactions with other actors that Creates New Identities and New Interests.
o Main Thinkers of Social Constructivism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Alexander Wendt ● Wendt says, “Anarchy is not given. It is ● Anarchy is What

(3 Types of what States Make of it.” In his famous 1992 States Make of It
Anarchy) (June Article. (March 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift (1992)
2024 Shift 1) 1)
● Wendt criticized Neorealism on the point
that Anarchy compels States to take certain
action (by default)
182 182

● Anarchy according to Wendt depends on

– the Interaction between States.
● Wendt says there are 3 types of Anarchy -
Hobbesian Anarchy
Lockean Anarchy
Kantian Anarchy (March 2023 Shift 2)
● Hobbesian – State view War of all against
all.
● Lockean – States view each other as
rivals, they consider the right of other
states to exist.
● Kantian – States view each other as
friends, they emerged among consolidated
Liberal Democracies.

● “Construction idea of social structures” –

Wendt refers to the concept that the social
structures within a society, including
institutions, systems, and relationships, are
not inherent or naturally existing entities,
but rather they are shaped and brought
into existence through human thought
processes, beliefs, and interpretations.

● It emphasizes that these social structures

are not merely the result of physical
entities or material resources, but rather
they are formed and organized based on
the ideas, concepts, and understandings
that people have about these entities.
(June 2023 Shift 2)
Martha ● Norms of International Society define the ● National Interests in
Finnemore identities and interests of States in IR. International Society
(Norms in IR) (1996)

• (5) Feminist Theory in IR –

• Main Points – World Politics does not affect Women and Men equally.
For example – War affects women more than men and it has not been accounted for
in IR.
• There is domination of Males in the field and study of IR.
183 183

• Main Thinkers – Ann J. Tickner, Christine Sylvester, Cynthia Enloe, Jean Bethke
Elshtain.
▪ Main Thinkers of Feminism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Ann J. Tickner ● Anna Tickner attacked the Masculinism ● Gender in

(On Masculinism and Misogyny of Realism. International Relations
and Misogyny in ● Tickner reformulated Morgenthau’s Six (1992) (Shift 1 2022)
IR) Principles of Realism :-
● 1. Dynamic Objectivity – Human nature is
both masculine and feminine.
● 2. National Interest is Dynamic – It
cannot be just defined in terms of Power
alone. It is more dynamic
● 3. Power cannot be defined universally –
Power in Realist lens was domination and
control. It ignores the possibility of
‘Collective Empowerment’.
● 4. Morality and Politics cannot be
separated – All Political Actions have moral
significance behind it.
● 5. To Discover Moral Commonalities in
Human
● 6. Rejects Autonomy of Politics in IR
(2020) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Cynthia Enloe ● Enloe focused that International division ● Bananas, Beaches

(On Military, of labour subordinates women, and Bases (1990)
Wars and its International politics also depends on
effect on men’s control of women – Serving wives of
Women) Diplomats, Around foreign military bases
(sex industry).

Jean Bethke ● Elshtain is a Conservative Feminist ● Women and War

Elshtain Thinker. (1987)

• (6) Postmodernism Theory in IR –

• Main Points – Focus on How Knowledge and Power are integrally connected in
theory and practice of International Relations.
▪ Main Thinkers of Postmodernism in IR & Their Key Points –
184 184

Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Michel Foucault ● Discourse, Genealogy ● Madness and

Civilization
● Discipline and Punish

Derrida ● Deconstructionism ● On Grammatology

Richard Ashley ● Meta-theory and Critical Theory ● The Poverty of

Neorealism

RBJ Walker ● Inside-Outside distinction – Walker says, ● Interrogating State

Inside the state there is order, trust, loyalty, Sovereignty
but outside there is conflict, suspicion, self-
help and anarchy.

Judith Butler ● Concept of Gender Performativity. ● Gender Trouble

● Identities have no objective existence, ● Undoing Gender
they depend on discursive practices.

• (7) Critical International Theory in IR –

• Main Point – Critical Theory emerged from the Frankfurt School, Germany in 1923.
(Shift 1 2021)
• First Generation Critical School Thinkers – Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert
Marcuse.
• Second Generation Critical School Thinkers – Jurgen Habermas. (June 2024 Shift 2)
• Main Thinkers of Critical School in IR – Robert Cox, Andrew Linklater.
• Critical School Focus on – Criticizing the existing system of Domination. It tries to
create an Alternative World Order based on Emancipatory Values.
o Main Thinkers of Critical Theory in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Robert Cox ● Robert Cox gives the Neo-Gramscian ● Production, Power

(Neo-Gramscian) Approach. and World Order
(Problem ● Cox differentiates between - (1987)
Solving) ‘Problem Solving’ vs ‘Critical Theory’
● Cox says, “Theories are always for
someone and for some purpose”.

● Robert W. Cox describes the difference

between problem-solving and critical theory
in this way: "[problem solving theory] takes
185 185

the world as it finds it, with the prevailing

social and power relationships and the
institutions into which they are organized,
as the given framework for action. The
general aim of problem solving is to make
these relationships and institutions work
smoothly.” (March 2023 Shift 2)

Andrew Linklater ● Linklater gave Normative Approach in ● Transformation of

(Normative Critical theory. Political Community
approach) ● He says European Union (EU) is an (1998)
example of
post-Westphalian Community.

• (8) English School in IR –

o Main Point – Focus on International ‘Society of States.’
o Main Thinkers – Hedley Bull, Barry Buzan, Timothy Dunne, Martin Wight
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Hedley Bull ● Anarchical Society of States ● The Anarchical

● Intl System is explained as “Society of Society (1977)
States”.

Barry Buzan ● International Society ● From International

● Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT) System to
(2020) International Society
(1993)

Timothy Dunne ● Three Preliminary Articles tracing the ● Inventing

History of English School International Society

Martin Wight ● Father of English School. ● System of States

● Wight gave the 3 Rs of IR :-
● International Theory
Realist tradition of Hobbes – Intl System
: The Three Traditions
Rationalist tradition of Hugo Grotius – Intl
(1991)
Society
Revolutionist tradition of Kant – World ● Why is there no
Society international theory?
(1960)

(June 2023 Shift 1)

186 186

• (9) Structural Marxism in IR –

• Main Point – Marxist theories are Positivist Theories which reject Realist/Liberal view
of State Conflict or Cooperation. Instead, Marxist Theory Focuses on – Economic and
Material aspects.
• Marxist Theory says International System is an Integrated Capitalist System in pursuit
of Capitalist Accumulation.
• Capitalism culminates into Imperialism- Lenin said Imperialism is the Highest Stage
of Capitalism
• Thinkers
Ralph Miliband (Instrumentalist thinker) , Nicolas Poulantzas (Structuralist thinker)
• Books
Miliband – The State in Capitalist Society (1969), (June 2023 Shift 2) Poulantzas –
State, Power, Socialism.

• (10) Systems Theory in IR –

• Main Point – There is a System in International Relations.
• In Systems Theory – all Nation-States are parts involved in a process of constant
interaction as each nation is in contact with ‘the whole’ – the International
Environment. (Shift 2 2021)
• Main Thinkers – Morton Kaplan, Karl Deutsch. (Shift 2 2021)
• Morton Kaplan’s – Six Models of International System :-
• Balance of Power System
• Loose Bipolar System
• Tight Bipolar System
• Universal System
• Hierarchical System
• Unit Veto System
• Main Book – Morton Kaplan - System and Process in International Politics (1957).

• (11) Game Theory in IR –

• Main Point – Game Theory is Rational Decision Strategies in situations of Conflict and
Competition – when each participant tries to – maximize Gains and minimize Losses.
• This theory applies Mathematical models to the study of Political Science.
• In Game Theory, there are ‘Players’ or ‘Decision-Makers’ – and the Reward of the
Game is called “Pay-off”. The best pay-off is victory, draw is the second best.
• Main Thinkers – Martin Shubik, Oskar Morgenstern, Karl Deutsch – first to recognize
the importance of Game Theory in IR.
• Kaplan, Schilling, Riker – first to apply this Game theory in International Politics.
187 187

• (12) Decision Making Theory in IR –

• Main Point – This approach takes a “State-centric” model of International Relations.
• Main Thinkers – Richard Snyder, HW Bruck and Sapin.

Major Concepts – Power, Security, Sovereignty, War, Human Rights, Treaties

• Power –
o Hard Power – Traditional Realist view of Power is Hard Power.
o Hard Power = Military + Economic power.
o Hard Power is also called Command Power – the ability to change what others do
o Soft Power – given by Joseph S. Nye. (Shift 1 2022)
o Soft Power is invisible power. It is power of attraction rather than coercion.
o Soft Power includes use of Culture, Diaspora, Diplomacy etc.
o Smart Power – given by Joseph S. Nye. Smart Power is = Hard + Soft Power.
o Smart Power was popularized by Hillary Clinton.
o Fast Power – given by John Chapman.
o Fast Power focuses on the Speed and Timing of our decisions to secure our
National Interest.
o Structural Power – given by Susan Strange.
o Susan Strange gives 4 types of Power Structures –
1. Knowledge Structure. 2. Financial Structure. 3. Security Structure.
4. Production Structure.
o Books by Susan Strange –
States and Markets (1988), Retreat of the State (1996), Casino Capitalism (1998).

• Security –
o Traditional Security – Realist / Neo-realists focus is limited to National Security,
Military threats
o Traditional Security – Liberals focus is that Institutions at World Level can enhance
Security.
o Non-Traditional Security – Main Thinker - Barry Buzan.
o Barry Buzan in his book “People, States and Fear (1983)” broadened this definition
of Security in IR – Non-traditional security includes Political, Economic, Societal
and Environmental as well as military aspects in IR.
o Human Security thinkers – Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq conceptualized
UNDP’s Human Development Index (HDI).
o Security Community – Karl Deutsch (2020)
o Security Regimes – Robert Jervis (2020)
188 188

o Security Complex – Barry Buzan (2020)

o Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT) – Barry Buzan and Ole Weaver. (2020)
o Copenhagen School of Security – Barry Buzan and Ole Weaver.
o Security Dilemma
o One of the core concepts of realism, which is based on the Westphalian world
order.
o John Herz has used the Hobbesian theory of state of nature to develop security
dilemma, a vicious cycle of insecurity which makes power politics a permanent
feature (March 2023 Shift 2).
o Robert Jervis has developed ‘offence defence theory’ to explain severity of
security dilemma.
o Social constructivists believe that security dilemma is because anarchy is
interpreted in a specific way. They suggest that communications can address
security dilemma.
o George Sorenson has given the concept of insecurity dilemma. Insecurity dilemma
suggests that in 21st century, nations suffer from internal security threats.
Reasons – rise of ethnic movements, non-state actors, failed states, civil wars.
o Prof. Amitabh Acharya also believe that security dilemma may not be a relevant
concept for third world states.

• Sovereignty –
o Jean Bodin – first systematic presentation of sovereignty in his book – Six Books of
the Republic.
o Thomas Hobbes – defined Sovereignty as a monopoly of coercive power.
o Two Types of Sovereignty – Internal and External Sovereignty.
o Internal Sovereignty – It means within the State, State is the final authority whose
decisions are binding upon all its citizens.
o External Sovereignty – It means the State’s capacity to act as an Independent and
Autonomous entity in World affairs.

• War –
o Main Thinker – John von Clausewitz – “War is an extension of Politics by other
means.”
o von Clausewitz Books – On War (1832).
o Autarky – means 100% Self-rule by a complete cutting-off /withdrawal from
international trade
o Negative Peace – Peace defined when war is not being fought, although the
forces which give rise to war remain in place. (War ki possibility rehti hai)
189 189

o Positive Peace – Peace defined in terms of harmony, absence of not just of war
but also of the causes of war. (War ki possibility nehi rehti hai)
o Pacifism – A commitment to Peace and Rejection of War under any
circumstances. (MK Gandhi)
o Jus ad bellum = Justice Before War - describes the conditions under which it is just
to go to war against a nation. (Let's remember this as a Country's right to self
defence against hostile attack) (2020)
o Jus in bello = Justice During War - describes the conduct that is just / morally
permissible within a war. (Let's remember this as when a Ceasefire is declared -
soldiers cannot fire against opponents - a peace corridor is established - following
protocols of the just conduct of war) (December 2019)
o Mary Kaldor – New Wars and Old Wars, Global Civil Society.
o Raymond Aron – Hyperbolic Wars.
o Martin Shaw – Degenerate Wars.
o Martin van Creveld – The Transformation of War.
o David Kilkullen – Countering Global Insurgency, The Accidental Guerilla.
o Michael Walzer – Just Wars and Unjust Wars, Spheres of Justice, Arguing about
War.

• Human Rights
o Three Generation of Human Rights –
o First Generation Rights (18th & 19th Century) – Civic and Political Rights –
Negative Rights – Right to Life, Liberty and Property.
o Second Generation Rights (20th Century) – Economic, Social, Cultural Rights –
Positive Rights – Right to Work, Social Security, Healthcare.
o Third Generation Rights (post-1945) – Solidarity Rights – Human Rights –
Right to Self-determination, Peace, Environmental Protection. (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Major International Human Rights Documents & Conventions

• 1948 – Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (Shift 1 2022) (Dec. 2024)
• 1949 – Geneva Convention on Treatment of Prisoners of War
• 1951 – Genocide Convention (On Prevention and Punishment for Crimes of Genocide)
• 1954 – Convention Relating to Status of Refugees
• 1966 – International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Came to force in 1976)
(Shift 1 and 2 2022)
190 190

• 1966 – International Covenant on Eco, Social and Cultural Rights (Came to force in 1976)
(Shift 1 2022)
• 1975 – Declaration on Torture
• 1981 – Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (Shift 1 2022)
• 1990 – Convention on Rights of the Child (Shift 2 2022)
• 1993 – Vienna Convention on Human Rights (Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties)

Major International Human Rights related events:

Medieval Period

• 1215 – Magna Carta signed in England, limiting the power of the monarchy and es-
tablishing legal rights.
• 1628 – Petition of Right in England, asserting the rights of individuals against the
state.
• 1679 – Habeas Corpus Act in England, protecting individuals from arbitrary deten-
tion.
• 1689 – English Bill of Rights, establishing parliamentary supremacy and individual
freedoms.

18th & 19th Century

• 1776 – U.S. Declaration of Independence, affirming natural rights and equality.

• 1789 – French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, establishing civil
liberties.
• 1863 – Emancipation Proclamation in the U.S., freeing enslaved people.
• 1864 – First Geneva Convention, laying the foundation for humanitarian laws in war.
• 1893 – New Zealand grants women the right to vote, the first country to do so.

20th Century

• 1919 – League of Nations founded, promoting international peace and human rights.
• 1945 – United Nations (UN) established, emphasizing human rights in its charter.
• 1948 – Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted by the UN.
• 1951 – Refugee Convention, defining the rights of refugees and asylum seekers.
• 1965 – International Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
• 1966 – International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and Economic,
Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) adopted.
• 1979 – Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW).
• 1989 – Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) adopted by the UN.
• 1989– Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Coun-
tries
191 191

• 1993 – Vienna Declaration, reaffirming the universality of human rights.

• 1998 – Rome Statute established the International Criminal Court (ICC).

21st Century

• 2006 – UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).

• 2011 – UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.
• 2015 – UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted, emphasizing human
rights.
• 2017 – #MeToo movement for women's rights and against sexual harassment.
• 2020 – Black Lives Matter protests highlight racial justice issues worldwide.

UN Human Rights Conventions

Opened for Entered

Convention
Ratification into Force

GENERAL HUMAN RIGHTS

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 1976
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural
1966 1976
Rights

RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
1965 1969
Racial Discrimination
International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment
1973 1976
of the Crime of Apartheid

RIGHTS OF WOMEN
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimina-
1979 1981
tion against Women

HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND OTHER PRACTICES

UN Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons
1949 1951
and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others
International Convention on the Abolition of Slavery and the
1953 1955
Slave Trade (1926), as amended in 1953
UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Pro-
tocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, 2000 2003
Especially Women and Children

REFUGEES AND STATELESS PERSONS

Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 1954

CHILDREN
192 192

Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 1990

PHYSICAL SECURITY
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
1948 1951
Genocide
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or De-
1984 1987
grading Treatment or Punishment
Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
2006 2010
Disappearance

MIGRANT WORKERS
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of
1990 2003
All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2007 2008
193 193

Major Humanitarian Intervention in IR –

• 1991 – Northern Iraq (Kurdish people)
• 1992 – Somalia
• 1994 – Haiti
• 1994 – Rwanda (Tutsi vs Hutu)
• 1999 – Kosovo
• 1999 – East Timor
• 2000 – Sierra Leone

Key Examples of Humanitarian Intervention

• 1991 - Northern Iraq: In the aftermath of the Gulf War, the USA launched Operation
Provide Comfort to establish 'safe havens' for the Kurdish people in Northern Iraq by es-
tablishing a no-fly zone policed by US, UK, and French aircraft.

• 1992 – Somalia: On the brink of a humanitarian catastrophe, a UN-authorized and US-led

intervention (Operation Restore Hope) sought to create a protected environment for con-
ducting humanitarian operations in southern Somalia.

• 1994 – Haiti: Following a military coup and in the context of growing lawlessness and
accelerating Haitian emigration to the USA, 15,000 US troops were dispatched to Haiti to
restore order and help in the establishment of civil authority.

• 1994 – Rwanda: Following the Rwandan genocide and once the Tutsi RPF had gained
control of most of the country, the French established a 'safe zone' for Hutu refugees to
flee to (Operation Turquoise).

• 1999 – Kosovo: In a context of fears about the 'ethnic cleansing' of the Albanian popula-
tion, a campaign of airstrikes, conducted by US-led NATO forces, forced the Serbs to
agree to withdraw their forces from Kosovo.

• 1999 - East Timor: As Indonesia stepped up a campaign of intimidation and suppression,

a UN-authorized peacekeeping force, led by Australia, took control of the island from In-
donesia.

• 2000 - Sierra Leone: After a prolonged civil war in Sierra Leone, the UK government
sent a small force, initially to protect UK citizens, but ultimately to support the elected
government against rebel forces that were being accused of carrying out atrocities.
194 194

• Major Treaties and Agreements in IR –

o 1959 – Antarctic Treaty –
▪ prohibits weapons testing and deployment in Antarctica.
o 1963 – Partial Test Ban Treaty ( PTBT ) – also called Limited Test Ban Treaty
▪ bans atmospheric, underwater,outer-space nuclear tests
o 1967 – Outer Space Treaty –
▪ bans deployment of nuclear weapons in outer-space
o 1968 – Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT ) –
▪ NPT prohibits horizontal proliferation to non-nuclear states.
o 1972 – Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1 ( SALT – 1 ) – USA & USSR. (Shift 1 2021)
▪ SALT-1 limits strategic nuclear weapons and freezes ICBMs at 1972 levels.
▪ The period of easing of tensions between 1967-1979 is called Détente.
o 1972 – Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty ( ABM ) – USA & USSR.
▪ limits number of anti-ballistic missiles btwn USA & USSR.
o 1979 – Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 2 ( SALT – 2 ) – USA & USSR (Shift 1 2021)
▪ limits long range missiles of USA & USSR to 1320 missiles.
o 1987 – Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty – USA and USSR.
(December 2018) (Shift 1 2021)
▪ eliminates all intermediate range nuclear weapons in Europe of USA and
USSR.
o 1991 – Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 1 ( START I ) – USA and USSR.
(December 2018) (Shift 1 2021)
▪ Limits number of nuclear warheads and delivery systems.
o 1993 – Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 2 ( START II ) – USA and Russia.
(December 2018)
▪ Further limits number of nuclear warheads & eliminates certain
categories of warheads.
o 1972 – Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention ( BTWC )
▪ BTWC signed on 1972, enforced in 1975. India signed BTWC in 1973.
▪ Bans Biological and toxic weapons by prohibiting their development,
production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use.
o 1993 – Chemical Weapons Conventions ( CWC )
▪ CWC signed on 1993, enforced in 1997. India signed CWC in 1993.
▪ Bans chemical weapons and requires their destruction within a specified
period of time.
o 1996 – Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty ( CTBT )
▪ Bans the testing of weapons.
▪ USA and China have not ratified CTBT yet.
▪ Not signed, Not ratified by – India, Pakistan, North Korea.
o 2002 – Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty ( SORT or Moscow Treaty ) – USA
and Russia.
195 195

▪ SORT signed on 2002, enforced in 2003.

▪ Limits number of deployed nuclear warhead btwn USA & Russia.
o 2010 – New START ( or Prague Treaty ) – USA and Russia.
▪ NEW START signed on 2010, enforced in 2011.
▪ New START replaced the Treaty of Moscow (SORT).
▪ Limits both sides nuclear warheads to 1,550.

Cold war and Post cold war: Timeline

The Cold War Period The post-Cold War period
1945 United Nations created (June) Jan-Feb 1991: Gulf War
1945 Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb at- 1992: Civil war breaks out in former Yugoslavia
tacks (August)
1946 Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials begin 1993: European Union created
1947 Truman Doctrine announced (April) April-July 1994: Rwandan genocide
1947 Marshall Plan introduced (June) September 1994: Apartheid ends in South Africa
1948-9 Berlin Blockade/Airlift 1996: Taliban seize power in Afghanistan
1949 Soviet atomic bomb explosion (August) 1997-8: Asian financial crisis
1949 Chinese Revolution (October) 1999: Kosovo War
1950-53 Korean War 2001: September 11 terrorist attacks on the
USA1
1955-75 Vietnam War October 2001: US-led invasion of Afghanistan
1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary 2003: US-led invasion of Iraq
1973 Oil crisis 2008: Russia invades Georgia (August)
1977 Economic reforms begin in China September 2008: Global financial crisis deepens
1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran
1980 Soviet Union invades Afghanistan
1980-88 Iran-Iraq War
1985 Gorbachev becomes Soviet leader
1989 Berlin Wall falls (November 9)
1990 CSCE meeting formally ends the Cold War
(November)
1991 Collapse of the Soviet Union (December)
196 196

Major Organizations of IR –

• United Nations
o The United Nations was founded on 24th October 1945. (December 2019)
(March 2023 Shift 1)
o UN has Total 193 members. South Sudan was latest member in 2011.
o The term ‘United Nations’ coined by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
o There are 6 Main Organs of the UN :-
▪ 1. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) – HQ → New York
▪ 2. United Nations Security Council (UNSC) – HQ → New York
▪ 3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – HQ → New York
▪ 4. Trusteeship Council – HQ → New York
▪ 5. International Court of Justice (ICJ) – HQ → The Hague, Netherlands
(Shift 2 2022)
▪ 6. UN Secretariat – HQ → New York
o UNGA is called ‘Parliament of Nations’. Each member has one vote.
o UNSC has 5 permanent members, 10 non-permanent members. (Shift 1 2021)
o The P5 members of UNSC have veto power – USA, UK, France, Russia, China.
o ECOSOC has 54 members, elected for a 3 years term.
o Trusteeship Council suspended its operation on 1st November 1994.
o ICJ has 15 judges. Term for 9 years. Court decides disputes between Countries.
o UN Secretariat comprises of the Secretary General. Term for 5 years.
o UN Charter –
o The UN Charter was signed on 26th June 1945 at San Francisco. (Shift 1 2021)
o The UN Charter has 19 Chapters. It has been amended 3 times in –
1963,1965,1973.
o Chapter 1 – Purposes and Principles (Shift 1 2021)
o Chapter 2 – Membership
o Chapter 3 – Organs of the UN
o Chapter 4 – The General Assembly
o Chapter 5 – The Security Council
o Chapter 6 – Pacific Settlement of Disputes (December 2018)
o Chapter 7 – Action with Respect to Threats of Peace and Acts of Aggression
o Chapter 18 – Amendments
o UN Secretary Generals – in Chronological Order →
o Trygve Lie → Dag Hammarskjold → U Thant → Kurt Waldheim → Javier
Perez de Cuellar → Boutros Boutros-Ghali → Kofi Annan → Ban Ki-moon →
Antonio Guterres (2017-Present). (March 2023 Shift 2)
197 197

History of the United Nations

Key Events

• 1944: Dumbarton Oaks Conference (USA, Soviet Union, UK, and China) sets down
the general aims and structure of the future UN.

• 1945: UN Charter approved in San Francisco by 50 states (Poland was not repre-
sented but signed the Charter later to become one of the UN’s 51 original members).

• 1946: Trygve Lie (Norway) appointed Secretary-General.

• 1948: Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted.

• 1950:
o Security Council approves military action in Korea.
o UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) established.

• 1953: Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden) appointed Secretary-General.

• 1956: First UN peacekeeping force sent to the Suez Canal.

• 1960: UN operation in the Congo established to oversee the transition from Belgian
rule to independence.

• 1961: U Thant (Burma) appointed Secretary-General.

• 1964: UN peacekeepers sent to Cyprus.

• 1965: UN Development Programme (UNDP) founded.

• 1968: General Assembly approves the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear

weapons (NPT).

• 1971: People's Republic of China replaces the Republic of China (Taiwan) at the UN
Security Council.

• 1972:
o First UN environment conference is held in Stockholm, leading to the estab-
lishment of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).
o First UN conference on women in Mexico City, inaugurates International
Women's Year.
o Kurt Waldheim (Austria) appointed Secretary-General.

• 1982: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru) appointed Secretary-General.

• 1990: UNICEF convenes the World Summit for Children.

• 1992:
o Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) appointed Secretary-General.
198 198

o The 'Earth Summit' in Rio approves a comprehensive plan to promote sustain-

able development.
o Security Council issues 'An Agenda for Peace,' highlighting new approaches
to peacemaking, peacekeeping, and peace-building.

• 1997: Kofi Annan (Ghana) appointed Secretary-General.

• 2000: General Assembly adopts the Millennium Development Goals.

• 2002: International Criminal Court (ICC) established.

• 2005: UN Peacekeeping Commission is established.

• 2007: Ban Ki-moon (South Korea) appointed Secretary-General.

2010:

o Haiti Earthquake Response: Following the devastating earthquake in Haiti, the UN

launched one of its largest humanitarian efforts to assist in recovery and rebuilding.

o Creation of UN Women: The General Assembly established UN Women, the United

Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, to consolidate
efforts to promote gender equality globally.

2011: South Sudan's Independence: On July 9, South Sudan became an independent nation
and was subsequently admitted as the 193rd member state of the UN.

2015:

o Adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The UN introduced the

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, comprising 17 goals aimed at addressing
global challenges such as poverty, inequality, and climate change.

o Paris Agreement on Climate Change: In December, the UN facilitated the adoption

of the Paris Agreement, a landmark accord uniting nations in the fight against climate
change.
2016:

o Leadership Transition: António Guterres of Portugal was appointed as the UN Sec-

retary-General, succeeding Ban Ki-moon, and began his term on January 1, 2017.
2018:

o Global Compact on Migration: The UN General Assembly endorsed the Global

Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration, the first intergovernmental agree-
ment covering all dimensions of international migration.
2020:

o COVID-19 Pandemic Response: The UN coordinated global efforts to combat the

COVID-19 pandemic, emphasizing international cooperation, providing humanitarian
aid, and supporting vaccine distribution through initiatives like COVAX.
199 199

2021:

o UN Common Agenda: Secretary-General António Guterres presented "Our Common

Agenda," a report outlining recommendations to address current and future global
challenges, emphasizing multilateralism and solidarity.

2023:

o Summit on Transforming Education: The UN hosted a global summit focusing on

transforming education systems to better meet the needs of learners in a rapidly
changing world.
2024:

o Security Council Reform Discussions: The United States expressed support for the
addition of two permanent seats for African countries on the UN Security Council,
aiming to enhance representation and address contemporary global dynamics.
2025:

o 80th UN General Assembly High-Level Week: Scheduled for September 23-29, this
session marks the 80th anniversary of the UN, providing a platform for world leaders
to discuss pressing global issues.

o UN Peacekeeping Ministerial Meeting: Set for May 13-14 in Berlin, this meeting
aims to strengthen international support for UN peacekeeping operations.

o World Expo 2025 in Osaka: Opening on April 13, the Expo will feature a UN Spe-
cial Day on August 26, highlighting the organization's contributions to global devel-
opment.

o COP30 Climate Summit: Scheduled for November 10-21 in Belém, Brazil, this con-
ference will focus on global climate action, with Brazil implementing creative solu-
tions to accommodate the influx of participants.
200 200

• ICC vs ICJ –
o Both ICC and ICJ Headquarters is located at – The Hague, Netherlands. (2020)
o ICC – International Criminal Court is an Independent body. ICC formed by the
1998 Rome Statute. (Shift 2 2022)
o ICJ – International Court of Justice is a body of the United Nations formed in
1945.
o ICC – has 123 countries as signed to the Rome Statute.
o ICJ – has 193 countries as State Parties of the United Nations.
o Focus of ICC cases – Criminal matters – investigating and prosecuting crimes
of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
o Focus of ICJ cases – Civil matters – settling legal disputes between the
member-states and giving advisory opinions on international legal issues.
o ICC is “the court of last resort”. Meaning – It exercises its powers when a
state’s legal system collapses, or when a government is the perpetrator of
heinous international crimes. (2020)

• Bretton Woods Agreement – (March 2023 Shift 1)

o Bretton Woods Conference was formally called the ‘United Nations
Monetary and Financial Conference’. Signed on 1944 by 44 states at New
Hampshire, USA.
o Bretton Woods Conference resulted in formation of 3 bodies :-
▪ International Monetary Fund (1944)
▪ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World
Bank) 1944 (December 2019)
▪ General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1948. (Shift 2 2022)
o Bretton Woods system collapsed in the 1970s after the Oil Shock crisis.
o In 1971, USA abandoned the system of Fixed exchange rates.

• IMF
o Established – 1944 at Bretton Woods Conference. IMF = 190 Members. HQ
→ Washington D.C. (March 2023 Shift 1) (June 2024 Shift 1)

o Purpose – to Maintain Stable Exchange Rates, to give Resources to countries

facing a Balance of Payment crisis, to promote International Monetary
Cooperation. (Shift 2 2021)
201 201

o IMF Quota System – decides how much financial resources a member gives to
IMF is directly proportional to the voting power in IMF.

• World Bank
o Established – 1944 as IBRD. WB = 189 Members. HQ → Washington D.C.
(March 2023 Shift 1)

o Purpose – to Provide Loans for countries in need for reconstruction and

development.

• WTO
o WTO – Established – 1st January 1995. WTO replaced the GATT in 1995. HQ
→ Geneva. (December 2019) (June 2024 Shift 1)
o 8 Rounds of GATT talks to WTO – Timeline of the Journey →
o 1. GATT Geneva 1947 → 2. Annecy 1949 → 3. Torquay 1951 → 4. Geneva
1956 →
→ 5. Geneva (Dillon Round) 1960-61 → 6. Geneva (Kennedy Round) 1964-67
→ 7. Geneva (Tokyo Round) 1973-79 → 8. Geneva (Uruguay Round) 1986-94
→ Marrakesh Agreement 1994 → WTO 1995 .
o Purpose – WTO overlooks rules and regulations of International Trade and
Tariffs.
o WTO does NOT favour Most Favored Nation (MFN) principle.
o China entered WTO in the 2001 Doha Round.

GATT/WTO Negotiating Rounds

• 1947 – 23 countries sign the GATT treaty, which comes into force on 1 January 1948.
• 1949 – Second GATT round held at Annecy, France.
• 1950 – Third GATT round held at Torquay, the UK.
• 1955–56 – Fourth GATT round held at Geneva, Switzerland.
• 1960–62 – Fifth GATT round, called the Dillon Round after US Secretary of Treas-
ury Douglas Dillon.
• 1964–67 – Kennedy Round – achieves tariff cuts worth $40 billion of world trade.
• 1973–79 – Tokyo Round – achieves tariff reductions worth more than $300 billion
and reductions in non-tariff barriers.
202 202

• 1986–93 – Uruguay Round – trading system extended into areas such as services and
intellectual property; rules covering agriculture and textiles reformed; and agreement
to create the World Trade Organization, established in 1995.
• 2001 – Doha Round launched by the WTO.

Directors-Generals of WTO (Chronological order)

1. Peter Sutherland (1 July 1993 – 30 April 1995)

2. Renato Ruggiero (1 May 1995 – 31 August 1999)
3. Mike Moore (1 September 1999 – 31 August 2002)
4. Supachai Panitchpakdi (1 September 2002 – 31 August 2005)
5. Pascal Lamy (1 September 2005 – 31 August 2013)
6. Roberto Azevêdo (1 September 2013 – 31 August 2020)
7. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala (1 March 2021 – Present)

• G20
o Established – 1999. No Headquarters. 19 countries + European Union.
(December 2019) (June 2024 Shift 1)
o G20 Members – Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany,
India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South
Korea, Turkey, UK, USA,
and European Union. … G20’s has a Permanent Guest – Spain (not a member,
Spain is guest).
o G20 Presidency rotates annually. Troika System.
o Present G20 Troika – Indonesia (2022), India (2023), Brazil (2024).
o G20 is a forum, its decisions are NOT legally binding.
o (i) Sherpa Channel – Heads of G20 States meet.
(ii) Finance Channel – Finance Ministers of G20 States meet.
o India holds the current G20 Presidency for 2023.
o Theme of G20 – “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.”

• G7
o Established - 1975. Russia was expelled from G8 in 2014 due to Crimea
Invasion. (December 2019)
o G7 Members – United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and
the United States.
o World’s Seven Most Advanced Economies is the G7 Nations.
o India, Australia, South Korea were invited to the 2021 G7 Summit.
o Carbis Bay Declaration – was signed by G7 to prevent future pandemics.
203 203

• G4
o G4 – comprises of Brazil, India, Germany and Japan. Formed in 2005.
o Purpose – G4 is to support each other's bids for permanent seats on the
United Nations Security Council and bring in the UNSC Reforms.
o In response to this grouping, another group – Uniting for Consensus was
formed
nicknamed – the Coffee Club – it includes Italy, Pakistan, South Korea,
Argentina, Spain, Turkey, Canada, Mexico and Malta.

• BRICS
o BRICS – acronym stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
o Initially, 4 countries initiated the grouping BRIC – and South Africa joined in
2010, making it BRICS
o India joined the BRICS in 2009.
o Timeline of BRICS –
o 2001 – The term BRIC was coined by Jim O’Neil.
o 2006 – Leaders of BRIC countries formalized BRIC.
o 2009 – First BRIC Summit took place in Yekaterinburg, Russia.
o 2010 – South Africa joins, making it BRICS.
o 2011 – South Africa is included in BRICS summit at Sanya, China.
o 2012 – New Delhi hosts 4th BRICS summit.
o 2012 – BRICS Cable with optical fiber communications system announced.
o 2014 – Fortaleza Declaration, BRICS New Development Bank (NDB) formed and
BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) signed. (December 2019)

• ASEAN
o ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Formed in – 1967.
(December 2019) (Dec. 2024)
o Secretariat – Jakarta, Indonesia.
o Motto of ASEAN – ‘One Vision. One Identity. One Community.’
o 10 Members – Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam,
Brunei, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia. (March 2023 Shift 2)
o ASEAN + 3 = China, South Korea, Japan.
o ASEAN + 6 = China, South Korea, Japan, Australia, India, New Zealand.
o East Asia Summit (EAS) = 10 ASEAN members + China, South Korea, Japan,
Australia, India, New Zealand, USA, Russia.
o India and ASEAN celebrated 30 years of Relations at the 19 th ASEAN-India
Summit in 2022.
204 204

• EU
o European Union – Formed in 1993 with Maastricht Treaty. 27 Members.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
o EU Headquarters – Brussels, Belgium.
o EU European Council – is the Topmost body. It includes top political leaders
from EU states. (2020)
o EU European Commission – this body is appointed by Council and approved
by EU Parliament. (2020)
o EU European Parliament – members elected on the basis of Proportional
Representation. (2020)
o EU European Court of Justice – located in Luxembourg.
o 1951 – Treaty of Paris. European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
o 1957 – Treaty of Rome. European Economic Community (EEC).
o 1957 – Euratom – European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC).
o 1985 – Schengen Agreement – Schengen Free Movement Zone – NO
passports, NO Borders.
o 1993 – Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992, enforced in 1993.
o 1999 – Monetary Union signed in 1999, enforced in 2002. EU has a common
currency-the Euro.
o 2007 – Treaty of Lisbon.
o 2016 – Brexit Referendum. Britain votes to leave EU. Article 50 – To Leave EU.
(December 2019) (Shift 1 2022)
o 2020 – Britain leaves EU on 31st January 2020.
History of the European Union

• 1951 – The Treaty of Paris establishes the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC), which begins work the following year, with France, Germany, Italy, and the
Benelux countries as members.

• 1957 – The Treaty of Rome provides for the establishment, the next year, of the Euro-
pean Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community
(Euratom).

• 1967 – European Community (EC) is created through the merging of the ECSC, the
EEC, and Euratom.

• 1973 – Denmark, Ireland, and the UK join the EC.

• 1981 – Greece joins the EC.

• 1986 – Portugal and Spain join the EC.

205 205

• 1986 – The Single European Act (SEA) prepares for the establishment of a common
market (completed in 1992) and abolishes national vetoes in a host of areas.

• 1993 – The Treaty of European Union (TEU or the Maastricht Treaty) is ratified,
bringing the European Union (EU) into existence and preparing for monetary union.

• 1995 – Austria, Finland, and Sweden join the EU.

• 1997 – The Treaty of Amsterdam is signed, paving the way for the eastward expan-
sion of the EU and further reducing the influence of the national veto.

• 1999 – The euro comes into effect as the official currency of 11 member states, with
national currencies being replaced by euro notes and coins in 2002.

• 2001 – The Treaty of Nice is signed, helping to ensure the effective functioning of the
new Union with extra members; it comes into force in 2003.

• 2004 – 10 new states join the EU, bringing its membership to 25 countries.

• 2004 – The Constitutional Treaty is signed, but withdrawn in 2005 following its rejec-
tion by the Netherlands and France.

• 2007 – Bulgaria and Romania join, bringing the membership to 27.

• 2009 – The Treaty of Lisbon is ratified as a modified version of the Constitutional

Treaty, introducing new decision-making arrangements within the Union.

• 2013 – Croatia Joins the EU: Croatia becomes the 28th member state of the EU.

• 2016 – United Kingdom Votes to Leave the EU: In a referendum, the UK votes to exit
the EU, initiating the Brexit process.

• 2020 – Brexit: The United Kingdom officially leaves the EU on January 31, conclud-
ing 47 years of membership.

• AU
o African Union – AU Formed in 2002. 55 Members. (March 2023 Shift 2)
o 1999 – AU first time announced in Sirte Declaration.
o 2001 – AU bloc was founded on 26 May 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
o 2002 – AU was launched in the Durban Summit of 2002.
o The Pan-African Parliament is the highest legislative body of the AU.
206 206

• SCO
o Shanghai Cooperation Organization – It is Eurasian Political, Economic and
Military organisation with purpose to maintain Peace, Security and Stability in
the region.
o SCO 8 members – Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, India and Pakistan.
o SCO Headquarters – Beijing, China.
o SCO was created in 2001.
o SCO Charter was signed in 2002.
o SCO Charter came into force in 2003.
o Official Languages are – Russian and Chinese.
o The Group was previously known as Shanghai Five.
o SCO Heads of State Council is the Supreme Body.
o RATS – Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure is the body to combat terrorism,
separatism, extremism. RATS located in Tashkent.
o India and Pakistan became members of SCO in 2017 – at the Astana Summit
in Kazakhstan.
o Iran to become 9th Member of SCO in 2023. (Samarkand Declaration).

• QUAD
o The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is an informal strategic forum.
o QUAD is Group of 4 Democracies – India, Japan, United States and Australia
focusing on the Indo-Pacific region.
o Timeline of QUAD –
o 2004 – For the first time these four nations cooperate on the Tsunami Core
Group – a relief and rescue operation organized for the victims of the Dec 2004
Tsunami.
o 2007 – Japanese PM Shinzo Abe delivers the ‘Confluence of the Two Seas
Speech’ at the Indian Parliament. He defines the concept of ‘Free and Open
Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP). This is the vision that will compete against China’s vision
in the Indo-Pacific region.
o 2007 – Beginning of QUAD 1.0.
o 2008 – Australia backs out from QUAD due to economic pressures from
China.
o 2012 – Shinzo Abe begins the “Democratic Security-Diamond” concept
comprising of the 4 nations – India, Japan, United States and Australia.
o 2017 – QUAD 2.0 is revived at the East Asia Summit in Manila in 2017.
o 2019 – The first ministerial level meeting of QUAD takes place.
o 2021 – The first in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit takes place in Washington.
o 2022 – The second in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit takes place in Tokyo.
207 207

o QUAD focuses on the following areas :-

o ▪ Vaccine Partnership.
o ▪ Critical and Emerging Technologies.
o ▪ Semiconductor and Supply Chain Resistance.
o ▪ Cybersecurity, Space, Maritime Cooperation.

Beijing Consensus (June 2023 Shift 1)

• In international development debates, the "Beijing Consensus" refers to the
economic model of the People's Republic of China.
• The term was coined by Joshua Cooper Ramo to contrast with the Washington
Consensus, (June 2023 Shift 1) which was the standard model of development
prescribed by Western institutions to developing countries.
• The Beijing Consensus emphasizes aspects like controlled political development,
economic pragmatism, a growth-oriented focus, and pursuit of innovation and
experimentation.
• It rejects the 'one-size-fits-all' approach to development, allowing for more flexible
and context-specific economic practices.
• This model has resulted in rapid economic growth for China over the past few
decades, and has been lauded for lifting hundreds of millions of people out of
poverty.

Humanitarian Interventions
• Humanitarian interventions, involving the use of military force by states to address
grave human rights violations or humanitarian crises in other countries, present
complex ethical dilemmas but are justified on grounds of global interdependence
and regional stability. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The intention behind such interventions is often noble to protect civilians and
alleviate suffering. They also raise significant ethical concerns.
KEY EXAMPLES

1991 US launched in Northern Iraq (Operation Provide Comfort) (June

2023 Shift 1)

1992 UN-authorized and US-led intervention in Somalia (Operation

Restore Hope) (June 2023 Shift 1)

1994,2004,2022 US troops were despatched to Haiti to restore order. In October

2022, Haitian PM called on the international community to send a
"specialised armed force" to combat gang violence. The United
208 208

States has provided over $300 million in humanitarian aid to Haiti

over the last three years.

1994 French established 'safe zone' for fleeing Hutu refugees post-
Rwandan genocide (Operation Turquoise) (June 2023 Shift 1)

1999 NATO air strikes halt Serbian ethnic cleansing, ensuring Kosovo
safety (Operation Allied Forces) (June 2023 Shift 1)

1999 UN-backed Australian force intervenes, taking control from

Indonesia in East Timor

2000 UK deploys forces to protect citizens, aid elected government

against rebels in Sierra Leone

2003 United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) conducted by the United

Nations to stabilize Liberia after years of civil war.

2006 UNIFIL (United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon) expanded its

presence in Southern Lebanon after the 2006 Lebanon War to
maintain peace.

2011 NATO-led intervention in Libya aimed to protect civilians during the

Libyan Civil War.

2013 French-led Operation Sangaris intervened to stabilize the Central

African Republic amidst conflict and violence.

2014 International coalition led by the United States launched airstrikes

against ISIS (Islamic State) in Iraq and Syria to combat terrorism and
protect civilians.

2014 International efforts, including those by the World Health

Organization (WHO) and various aid organizations, intervened in
West Africa to combat the Ebola virus outbreak.
209 209

2015 Saudi-led intervention in Yemen aimed to restore the Yemeni

government against Houthi rebels, leading to a complex
humanitarian crisis.

2017 Humanitarian aid was provided to Rohingya refugees fleeing

violence in Myanmar, primarily led by international organizations
and neighbouring countries.

2018 Humanitarian aid missions were conducted to assist Venezuelans.

2021 Humanitarian aid missions intensified after the Taliban takeover in

Afghanistan

GLOBALISATION
• David Held, (A globalizing world culture, economics, politics, 2004) a
prominent political theorist, advocates the transformationalist view of
globalization, emphasizing its multifaceted nature. He highlights four key
aspects:
1. Space compression reduces physical distance, facilitating rapid global exchanges.
2. Globalization challenges traditional state sovereignty, necessitating transnational
cooperation.
3. New spatial organizations like global cities emerge, fostering economic and cultural
exchange.
4. Globalization engenders both integration and fragmentation, creating interconnectedness
alongside disparities.
• Stiglitz has criticized aspects of globalization such as deregulation, capital
flight, and inequality, advocating for policies that prioritize social equity,
environmental sustainability, and fair trade. He argues that globalization
should be harnessed to promote inclusive growth and address global
challenges effectively. Additionally, Stiglitz has been critical of certain
international institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
World Bank, suggesting reforms to make them more responsive to the needs
of the global community. (Globalization and Its Discontents, 2002)
• Held and McGrew’s (Globalization/anti-globalization, 2002) analytical
framework is constructed by developing a three-part typology of theories of
210 210

globalisation consisting of “hyper-globalist,” “sceptic,” and

“transformationalist” categories. (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ Hyperglobalist Perspective:
- Globalization seen as a potent force eroding national sovereignty.
- Advocates assert declining state control due to global economic
integration.

▪ Anti-Globalists/Sceptic Perspective:
- Critical view questioning the extent and novelty of globalization.
- Emphasizes intact regional processes and state power, suggesting
globalization as a myth.

▪ Transformationalist Perspective:
- Acknowledges globalization's significant impact but challenges
hyperglobalist predictions.
- Views globalization as reshaping rather than diminishing national
power, leading to reconfigured global politics and economics. (June
2023 Shift 1)

Just War
• Just war is military ethics often known as a tradition that is studied by military
leaders, theologians, ethicists, and policymakers. The doctrine's goal is to ensure
that a war is morally justifiable by establishing a set of criteria that must all be met
for a war to be declared just.
• The conditions are divided into two categories:
- jus ad Bellum (right to fight)
- jus in Bello (right conduct in war)
• The first set of criteria deals with the morality of going to war, whereas the second
set of criteria deals with moral behaviour during the fight.
• Three principles: (June 2023 Shift 2)
1. War as last resort: Just War theory advocates exhausting peaceful means first to
avoid unnecessary violence, making war a response to imminent threats.
2. Justifiable war aims: Just War theory emphasizes morally acceptable objectives like
self-defence or human rights protection, rejecting wars with unjust aims.
3. Wholesale invasion not justifiable: Just War theory stresses proportionality,
suggesting responses to threats should match the level of provocation to avoid
excessive harm.
211 211

• Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius in his book The Rights of War and Peace argued that war is
only acceptable if a country is in imminent danger and the use of force is both
necessary and proportionate to the threat.
• Grotius distinguishes three types of such pursuits:
- self-defence,
- property recovery, and
- retribution.
• Each of them is founded on natural law albeit the specific rights at issue may come
from other sources such as international law.
• The right to self-defence stems from everyone's fundamental desire to protect
themselves from harm. Property recovery includes not just tangible goods and land,
but also rights over people (such as rightful subjects or slaves), rights to actions (such
as contract fulfilment), and damages recompense.

UN PEACEKEEPING (March 2023)

• UN peacekeeping operations are police and peacebuilding operations carried out by
the UN to restore order and stability to war-torn countries. Peacekeeping is not
stated in the United Nations Charter.
• The United Nations Security Council is empowered by the UN Charter to take
collective action to safeguard international peace and security.
• The UN Security Council is responsible for deploying peacekeepers in conflict zones
to ensure stability and security.
• The UN engages in preventive diplomacy by proactively identifying potential
conflicts and working to prevent their escalation.
• Peacekeepers from the United Nations guarantee that peace agreements and
accords are implemented in conflict zones.
• They provide assistance through confidence-building measures, electoral support,
law and order improvements, and social development that will result in beneficial
economic changes.
• Its provisions are not explicitly given in the UN Charter and it has undergone
quantitative and qualitative changes in the post-cold war period are true about the
UN peace-keeping.
• UN has not been able to resolve the following conflicts:
o Israeli-Palestinian conflict (1948-Now)
o Cambodia Violence (1975-1979)
o Civil War in Somalia and South Sudan (1991-Now)
o Darfur Conflict in Sudan (2003-Now)
o Iraq Invasion (2003-2011)
o Syrian Civil War (2011-Now)
212 212

o Yemen Civil War (2014-Now)

o Rohingya Crisis, Myanmar (2017-Now)
o Russia-Ukraine War (2014-2022- Now)
• India has taken part in 49 peacekeeping missions so far. India’s all women contingent
was deployed in 2007 in Liberia as the first ever all-women unit. List of countries in
which India participated in the peacekeeping operations. (March 2023)
✓ Korea
✓ Lebanon
✓ Congo
✓ Gaza strip
✓ Sudan and South Sudan
✓ Golan Heights
✓ Cyprus
✓ Ivory Coast
✓ Haiti
✓ Liberia
• The Indian Army commemorated the 75th International Day of United Nations (UN)
Peacekeepers on 29th May (which was designated by the UN General Assembly) at
the National War Memorial in New Delhi. Theme for 2023: 'Peace begins with me'.

Important UN Peacekeeping Missions:

1. UNEF I - 1956-1967 - Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

2. UNIFIL - Since 1978 – Lebanon
3. UNAMIR - 1993-1996 – Rwanda (June 2023 Shift 2)
4. UNMIBH - 1995-2002 - Bosnia and Herzegovina
5. UNAMSIL - 1999-2006 - Sierra Leone
6. UNMIS - 2005-2011 - Sudan
7. MINUSTAH - 2004-2017 - Haiti
8. UNMIL - 2003-2018 - Liberia
9. MONUSCO - Since 2010 - Democratic Republic of the Congo
10. UNMISS - Since 2011 - South Sudan (June 2023 Shift 2)
11. UNPROFOR- 1992-1995- Yugoslavia (June 2023 Shift 2)
12. UNAMID -2007- Darfur (June 2023 Shift 2
13. UNMEE (UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea) – Sept. 2000 – July 2008
14. ONUC (UN Operation in the Congo) – July 1960 – June 1964
15. UNTAC (UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia) – Feb. 1992 – Sept. 1993
16. MINUSMA (UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali) – April 2013 –
present
213 213

SDGs and MDGs

•
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (June 2023 Shift 2) and the
subsequent Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are global frameworks designed
to address complex social, economic, and environmental challenges.
• In September 2000, world leaders came together at the United Nations
Headquarters in New York to adopt the United Nations Millennium Declaration and
aimed to alleviate poverty, promote education, and improve healthcare, among
other objectives.
• The SDGs replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which had started a
global effort in 2000 to tackle the indignity of poverty.
• The Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by all United Nations Member
States as a universal call to action to end poverty and protect the planet by 2030.
They are built on the principle of “leaving no one behind”.
• The 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets are integrated and
indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the
economic, social, and environmental.
• Following are the 17 SDGs: (June 2023 Shift 2)
GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goal

Problem Solving Theory

Robert Cox was a prominent scholar in the field of international relations and is known for
his Two kinds of theories: Problem-solving and Critical Theory. He held that ‘theories are
‘always for someone and for some purpose’. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Critique of Problem-Solving Theory:
214 214

• Identified flaw: neglect of power structures and social dynamics.

• Theory accepts existing structures without questioning them.
• Cox's Perspective:
• Advocated for deeper analysis of power dynamics.
• Proposed solutions should challenge and transform existing structures.
• Influence on Critical Theory:
• Cox's work shaped critical theory in international relations.
• Emphasizes the need to question power dynamics for effective solutions.

Modern Global Capitalism (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Post-1945 Keynesian Era:

o Western governments initially believed Keynesian principles solved business
cycle instabilities.
o Keynesianism declined after the 'stagflation' crisis in the 1970s.
• Rise of Neoliberalism:
o Neoliberalism revived laissez-faire thinking post-1970s.
o Instead of mitigating, neoliberalism accentuated capitalist system
fluctuations.
• Financialization and Instability:
o Financialization intensified capitalist fluctuations, leading to a 'risk society'.
o Globalized financial systems increased vulnerability to speculative bubbles.
• Casino Capitalism:
o A form of capitalism that is highly volatile and unpredictable because it is
susceptible to speculatively-orientated lifts in finance capital.
o It was popularised by Susan Strange (1986).
• Bonus Culture and Risk-Taking:
o Bonus-driven short-term risk-taking incentivized instability.
o Banks and financial institutions became more vulnerable to collapse.
• Global Financial Crisis of 2007–09:
o Most serious crisis since the Great Depression.
o Revealed deeper instabilities in economies with extensive financial
deregulation and debt burdens.
• Crises of Modern Global Capitalism
o 1994–95: The Mexican economic crisis begins with the sudden devaluation of
the Mexican peso, sparking the 'Tequila effect' across Latin America.
o 1997–98: The Asian financial crisis commences in Thailand with the collapse
of the baht, spreading to Southeast Asia and Japan, resulting in currency
devaluations and stock market crashes.
215 215

o 1998: The Russian financial crisis unfolds with the collapse of stock, bond,
and currency markets, exacerbated by falling commodity prices following the
Asian financial crisis.
o 1999–2002: The Argentine economic crisis starts with a loss of investor
confidence, leading to capital flight amid declining GDP.
o 2000: The Dot-com crisis ensues as the 'dot-com bubble' bursts, following
speculative rises in IT-related stocks since 1998.
o 2002: The Uruguay banking crisis erupts with a massive run on banks driven
by concerns over the Uruguayan economy, linked to Argentina's economic
meltdown.
o 2007–08: The US sub-prime mortgage crisis triggers the onset of the global
financial crisis, causing widespread economic turmoil.
o 2007–09: The global financial crisis persists, encompassing various economic
crises worldwide.
• Key Modern Political Economists:
o George Soros:
- Contribution: Emphasized reflexivity over market fundamentalism, challenging rational-
actor economic models.
- Key Works: "Open Society" (2000) and "The New Paradigm for Financial Markets" (2008).
(June 2024 Shift 2)

o Joseph Stiglitz:
- In Globalization and its Discontents (2002), Stiglitz mentioned about IMF policies.
- In Making Globalization Work (2006), he linked globalization to ‘Americanization’,
environmental degradation and a ‘roll-back’ of democracy.
- Stiglitz’s main works include Whither Socialism? (1996), The Roaring Nineties (2003)
and Freefall (2010).

o Paul Krugman:
- Contribution: Advocated for expansionary fiscal policy as a solution to recession,
critiquing unsustainable fiscal policies.
- Key Works: "The Conscience of a Liberal" (2007) and "The Return of Depression
Economics and the Crisis of 2008" (2008). (June 2024 Shift 2)

o Ben Bernanke:
- Contribution: Led the US Federal Reserve during the 2007–09 global financial crisis,
focusing on managing economic fallout and lending.
- Key Work: "Essays on the Great Depression" (2004).
o Herman Daly:
- Contribution: Pioneered the theory of steady-state economics, advocating for qualitative
development over quantitative growth.
216 216

- Key Works: "Steady-State Economics" (1973) and "For the Common Good" (1990). (June
2024 Shift 2)

INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

The term "terrorism" was first used in reference to the actions of a nation during the French
Revolution's "Reign of Terror" (1793–1794).

It involves violent acts carried out by individuals or groups with political, ideological, or reli-
gious motives, targeting civilians or governments to create fear and achieve their objectives.

In modern usage, terrorism refers to violent actions carried out by non-state groups.

• Walter Laqueur defined terrorism as “the use or threats of violence”

• According to Wittkopf, "Terrorism is a strategy used by the weak against the power-
ful."

Types of International Terrorism

According to Audrey Kurth Cronin (How Terrorism Ends, 2011), terrorism can be cate-
gorized into 4 types based on its ideology:

1. Left-Wing Terrorism: Revolutionary groups (e.g., Red Brigades in Italy, FARC in

Colombia)

2. Right-Wing Terrorism: Neo-Nazi, White supremacist groups (e.g., Ku Klux Klan,

Aryan Nations)

3. Religious (Sacred) Terrorism: Groups motivated by religious ideologies (e.g., Al-

Qaeda, ISIS)

4. Ethno-Nationalist (Separatist) Terrorism: Groups seeking self-determination (e.g.,

LTTE in Sri Lanka, IRA in Ireland)

Michael Ignatieff, in his book "The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror"
(2004), distinguishes four types of terrorism:

1. Insurrectionary Terrorism: Aimed at the revolutionary overthrow of the state.

2. Loner or Issue Terrorism : Focused on promoting a single issue or cause.

3. Nationalist Terrorism: Seeks to overthrow colonial rule or foreign occupation.

4. Global Terrorism: Aimed at inflicting damage or humiliation on global powers.

Post modern or ‘New’ terrorism

217 217

Post-modern or ‘New’ terrorism emerged in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, marked
by religious extremism, mass casualty attacks, and global networks.

Unlike traditional terrorism, which was politically motivated and regionally confined, new
terrorism is ideological, decentralized, and transnational.

It heavily relies on internet propaganda, social media recruitment, and suicide bomb-
ings. Groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS operate in loosely connected cells, making them
harder to track. They aim for global destruction and often justify violence through apoca-
lyptic ideologies.

Key features include targeting civilians, use of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs),
and a shift from hierarchical structures to network-based operations.

Notable attacks include 9/11 Attacks (2001) by Al-Qaeda , Madrid Train Bombings
(2004), London Bombings (2005), and ISIS Attacks in Paris, Brussels, Sri Lanka (2015–
2019), Lone-wolf attacks inspired by ISIS or Al-Qaeda.

Scholars on New Terrorism

• Bruce Hoffman: Described new terrorism as more lethal, ideological, and decen-
tralized.
• Walter Laqueur: Emphasized the fanatical nature and use of religion in new ter-
rorism.
• Jessica Stern: Studied religious terrorism and psychological aspects in her book "Ter-
ror in the Name of God".

Old Terrorism vs. New Terrorism: A Comparison

Feature Old Terrorism New (Post-Modern) Terrorism

Motivation Political / Nationalist Religious / Ideological
Structure Centralized groups Decentralized, network-based
Scale of Vio-
Limited, symbolic violence Mass casualty attacks
lence
Target Mostly military or government Civilians and symbolic global targets
Technology
Low High (cyber tools, social media)
Use
Globalization Regional/local Transnational/global
Suicide bombings, beheadings,
Tactics Bombings, hijackings
WMDs

Chronological List of Famous Assassinations of Leaders

1. Abraham Lincoln (USA) – April 14, 1865 (Assassinated by: John Wilkes Booth)
2. Mahatma Gandhi (India) – January 30, 1948 (Assassinated by: Nathuram Godse)
3. Liaquat Ali Khan (Pakistan) – October 16, 1951 (Assassinated by: Said Akbar)
4. S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike (Sri Lanka) – September 25, 1959 (Assassinated by:
Somarama Thero)
218 218

5. John F. Kennedy (USA) – November 22, 1963 (Assassinated by: Lee Harvey Os-
wald)
6. Malcolm X (USA) – February 21, 1965 (Assassinated by: Talmadge Hayer, Nor-
man 3X Butler, and Thomas 15X Johnson)
7. Robert F. Kennedy (USA) – June 5, 1968 (Assassinated by: Sirhan Sirhan)
8. Indira Gandhi (India) – October 31, 1984 (Assassinated by: Beant Singh and Sat-
want Singh)
9. Olof Palme (Sweden) – February 28, 1986 (Assassinated by: suspect Stig Eng-
ström)
10. Ziaur Rahman (Bangladesh) – May 30, 1981 (Assassinated by: Dissident military
officers)
11. Rajiv Gandhi (India) – May 21, 1991 (Assassinated by: A female LTTE suicide
bomber)
12. Yitzhak Rabin (Israel) – November 4, 1995 (Assassinated by: Yigal Amir)
13. Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan) – December 27, 2007 (Assassinated by: A suicide
bomber and gunman)

International Cooperation in Fighting Terrorism

• United Nations (UNCTC – UN Counter-Terrorism Committee)
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
• Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization)
• Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) – Anti-terrorism cooperation, FATF
(Blacklist & Greylist)

United Nations (UN) Initiatives

• UN Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC): Oversees global counterterrorism strat-

egies.
• UN Sanctions List: Blacklists terror organizations (e.g., Al-Qaeda, ISIS, LeT).
• UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC): Works against narco-terrorism.

Major International Terrorist Organizations

Terrorist Organization Region Ideology Notable Attacks

Islamic 9/11 (2001), USS Cole
Al-Qaeda Global
Extremism Bombing (2000)
Paris Attacks (2015),
Islamic
ISIS (Islamic State) Middle East, Global Sri Lanka Bombings
Extremism
(2019)
Lebanon, Middle Shia Islam- Beirut Barracks
Hezbollah
East ist Bombing (1983)
Islamist
Hamas Palestine Attacks on Israel
(Sunni)
219 219

Islamic Chibok School Kid-

Boko Haram Nigeria
Extremism napping (2014)
Islamic Westgate Mall Attack
Al-Shabaab Somalia, Kenya
Extremism (2013)
Islamic Ex- Kabul Bombings, Sui-
Taliban Afghanistan
tremism cide Attacks
Islamic Ex- Mumbai Attacks
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) Pakistan, India
tremism (2008)
Islamic Ex- Pulwama Attack
Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) Pakistan, India
tremism (2019)
FARC (Revolutionary Armed Narco-Terrorism,
Colombia Marxist
Forces of Colombia) Guerrilla Warfare
LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Ethno-Na- Assassination of Rajiv
Sri Lanka
Tamil Eelam) tionalist Gandhi (1991)
Bombings in London,
IRA (Irish Republican Army) UK, Ireland Nationalist
Belfast
Kidnapping and assas-
Com-
Red Brigades Italy sination of Aldo Moro
munist
(1978)

Conventions on Terrorism

1. Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft

(Tokyo), 1963
o Held in 1963, this convention addresses offenses and other acts that may jeop-
ardize the safety of aircraft and passengers.

2. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Avi-
ation (Montreal), 1971
o Adopted in 1971, this convention focuses on preventing unlawful acts that
threaten civil aviation security.

3. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing, 1997

o Adopted in 1997, this convention aims to combat terrorist bombings globally.
o Entered into force in 2001.

4. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism,

1999
o Held in 1999 in New York, this convention seeks to criminalize the financing
of terrorist activities.
o Entered into force in 2002.
220 220

UNIT 6 – INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

– IMPORTANT EVENTS & AGREEMENTS –
– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBOURS –
INDIA – PAKISTAN
YEAR EVENT KEY POINTS
1947 Independence and India and Pakistan become two Independent States.
Partition A Violent Partition takes place displacing millions.

1947 Junagadh Dispute Indian troops annex Junagadh on 9th Nov 1947 by the
order of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

1947- India – Pakistan ▪The First India-Pak War on Kashmir.

1948 War ▪ (October 1947 to December 1948).
The War ends with –
▪India gains - 2/3rd control of territory, Pak - 1/3rd control.

1948- United Nations on UNSC Resolution 47 – forms a Five-Member UN

1951 Kashmir Commission (UNCIP) to deal with a ceasefire agreement
in the Subcontinent. (December 2019)

1950 Liaqat – Nehru Treaty signed to guarantee Rights of Minorities to both

Pact India and Pak after violence they suffered from Partition.

1958 Nehru – Noon ▪ Half of Berubari Union No. 12 was agreed to be given
Agreement to Pakistan and other half to be retained by India.
▪ Then, Supreme Court of India in Landmark Judgement
(Berubari Union Case) citied Article 3 of Indian
Constitution and stated Parliament is NOT competent to
give away a territory of India.

1960 Indus – Water ▪Signed between PM Nehru and Pak Pres Ayub Khan.
Treaty ▪The Treaty gives India control over 3 eastern rivers –
(Shift 2 2022) Ravi, Beas, Sutlej. (June 2019)
▪The Treaty gives Pakistan control over 3 western rivers –
Indus, Chenab, Jhelum.

1965 India-Pakistan War ▪ Second India-Pak war begins in August 1965.

▪ Pakistan launches two Military Operations –
▪ Operation Gibraltar and Operation Grand Slam.
▪ Both Pakistani operations fail in objectives.
▪ India then launched offensive to Lahore through Punjab.
▪ During War, PM Shastri gave the famous slogan –
▪ “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisaan” at Urwa, Allahabad.
221 221

▪ Soviet Union acts as mediators to bring end to conflict.

1966 Tashkent ▪ Soviet Premier Kosygin invites both leaders of India

Agreement and Pak to Tashkent to end the conflict with Ceasefire line.
(Shift 1 2021) ▪ Tashkent Agreement signed on – 10th January 1966.
(Shift 1 2022) ▪ PM Shastri dies in Tashkent.

1971 India – Pakistan ▪ Third India-Pak War begins in 1971 – and this is the first
War war not to be centred around Kashmir.
/ ▪Tensions arose between the Urdu speaking and Bengali
Bangladesh speaking population in East Pakistan.
Liberation War ▪ Pakistan brutally kills Bengali minorities with
Operation Searchlight.
▪ India supports Awami League leader Mujibur Rahman.
▪India actively supported Bangladesh’s cause for
Liberation – and their liberation force Mukti Bahini.
▪ Indian army wins this war decisively.
▪ The conflict ends with signing of Simla Agreement.

1972 Simla Agreement ▪ On 2nd June 1972 – Simla Agreement is signed between
Indian PM Indira Gandhi, Pak PM Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
(December 2019) As per terms of Simla Agreement (1972) –
(2020) (Shift 2 ▪ The Charter of the UN shall govern relations between
2022) India and Pakistan.
(March 2023 Shift ▪ The Ceasefire Line (CFL) of December 1971 shall be
1) respected as the Line of Control (LoC). (Shift 1 2022)
▪ Any Differences shall be settled by Peaceful means
and through Bilateral Negotiations.

1986 Operation ▪ During PM Rajiv Gandhi the Indian Army undertook a

Brasstacks military operation from November 1986 to January 1987.
▪ This Large scale military operation conducted in
Rajasthan by the Indian Army involving 500,000 troops
on the ground in the military exercise was to conduct a
war-like simulation exercise to determine the strength and
tactical nuclear strategy of Pakistan.

1988 Nuclear Non- Rajiv Gandhi enjoyed good rapport with next Pakistan
Aggression Pact Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and they signed the
Nuclear Non-Aggression Agreement in 1988.

1998 Pokhran – II tests ▪ Operation Shakti – Between 11-13 May 1998 India
Nuclear Tests carried 3 underground nuclear tests at Pokhran range.
(Shift 2 2021) ▪ India became a Nuclear Weapon State in 1998.
▪ USA heavily condemned India’s Pokhran-II tests and
imposed sanctions against India. (December 2018)
▪ Seeing India secure its nuclear security in South Asia,
Pakistan could not resist and carried out its only nuclear
tests till date codenamed: Chagai-I and Chagai-II on 28th
and 30th May 1998.
222 222

1998 Composite Dialogue India on PM Vajpayee’s initiative started

Process Composite Dialogue Process with Pak on 8 subjects –
▪ Confidence Building Measures;
▪ Jammu & Kashmir;
▪ Siachen; (Shift 2 2021)
▪ Tulbul navigation project;
▪ Sir Creek Dispute; (Shift 2 2021)
▪ Trade and Economic Cooperation;
▪ Terrorism and Drug Trafficking;
▪ Friendly Exchanges in different field.

1999 Delhi-Lahore Inaugural run of the Delhi-to-Lahore Bus Service started

Bus Diplomacy in February 1999. (Bus Diplomacy). (December 2019)
(Shift 2 2021)

1999 Lahore Declaration PM Vajpayee met Pakistan PM Nawaz Sharif and signed
the Lahore Declaration in Feb 1999. (2020)
(Shift 1 2022) (Shift Under the Lahore Declaration, both countries agreed to
2 2022) (March stop any more nuclear arms race.
2023 Shift 1)
1999 India – Pakistan ▪Fourth India-Pak War is fought at Kargil May-July 1999.
War ▪Three Military Operations were carried out by India –
Kargil War ‘Operation Vijay’ carried out by the Indian Army,
‘Operation Safed Sagar’ by the Indian Air Force and
‘Operation Talwar’ by the Indian Navy.

2001 Agra Summit ▪Despite incidents of Terrorist attacks from Pak,

(Shift 2 2022) ▪Vajpayee tried to restart the Composite Dialogue process.
▪Vajpayee and Musharraf eventually met at the historic
city of Agra on July 2001. (December 2019)
▪However, the two countries could not meet at an
agreement point – for Pakistan, Kashmir was the core
issue and for India, cross-border terrorism supported by
the Pakistan State.

2001 Terrorist Attack on ▪ A deadly terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament took
Indian Parliament place on 13th December 2001.
▪ India retaliated with ‘Operation Parikrama’.
▪ This was biggest military mobilization since Kargil and
soon India drastically reduced all contacts with Pakistan.

2003 India’s ▪ Father of India’s Nuclear Program – Homi J. Bhabha.

NUCLEAR
DOCTRINE ▪ What is Nuclear Doctrine?
(March 2023 Shift It is a document which states – How a Nuclear Weapon
2) State would employ its nuclear weapons both during times
of Peace and War.

▪ Who first passed the India’s Nuclear Doctrine?

223 223

Cabinet Committee on Security - January 2003.

▪ When was India’s Nuclear Doctrine established?

January 2003.

▪ What are Two Points of India’s Nuclear Doctrine? –

1. NO FIRST USE
2. CREDIBLE MINIMUM DETERRENCE.
(Shift 2 2021)

2005 Srinagar- PM Manmohan Singh tried to restart the Composite

Muzaffarabad Bus Dialogue Process with Pak. In this context,
Service Srinagar to Muzaffarabad Bus Service started in 2005.

Series of A Series of Terrorist attacks impacted India-Pak relations:

Terrorist Attacks
2006 ▪ 2006 – Mumbai Train Bombings.
2007 ▪ 2007 – Samjhauta Express bombed in Panipat.
2008 ▪ 2008 – 26/11 terror attacks on Mumbai. (March 2023
Shift 2)

2015 Terrorist Attack on Pak state-sponsored terrorist attacks saw the militancy
– theatre shift from J&K to Punjab.
Gurdaspur,
Udhampur A Series of Terrorist attacks occurred in 2015 & 2016 :
Pathankot Airbase Gurdaspur (27th July 2015)
Udhampur (5th August 2015)
and Pathankot Airbase (2nd Jan 2016).

2016 Terrorist Attack on On 18 September 2016, the army camp at Uri town of
– Baramulla district was attacked by a group of terrorists
Uri town having roots traceable to Pakistan.

2016 Uri Surgical Strikes On 29 September 2016, Indian Army carried out a limited
and calculated counter-terrorism operation based on
precise inputs on concentration of militant groups.
(The Uri Surgical Strikes).

2017 Kulbhushan Illegal detention of Indian national Kulbhushan Jadhav

Jadhav Case consular access under the Vienna Convention was asked
several times. Finally, after India’s approach to the ICJ at
Hague stayed his death sentence on 28th May, 2017.

2019 Terrorist Attack on On 14 February 2019, 40 Indian security forces were

– killed in a cross-border suicide terror attack in
Pulwama Pulwama, Jammu & Kashmir by Pakistan-based and
supported terrorist organization Jaishe-Mohammed (JeM)
224 224

2019 Balakot Airstrikes On 26th February 2019, India carried out an intelligence
led anti-terror pre-emptive air strike against JeM training
camp in Balakot, Pakistan. (The Balakot Air Strikes)

2019 MFN Status After the Pulwama terror attack, India withdrew the
Withdrawn Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status previously
accorded to Pakistan.

2019 Article 370 On 5th August 2019, Article 370 of India’s Constitution,
abrogated was scrapped off, which gave a special status to Jammu
and Kashmir. Following this decision, the bilateral
relations faced another severe blow.

2019 Kartarpur Sahib The Kartarpur Sahib Corridor was formally

Corridor inaugurated by the Prime Minister on 9 November 2019.

INDIA – BANGLADESH
1971 India recognizes India was the first country to recognize Bangladesh as an
Bangladesh independent state and established diplomatic relations
immediately after its independence in December 1971.

1974 Land Boundary Bangladesh signs the Land Boundary Agreement (LBA)
Agreement (LBA) with India in 1974. (Shift 1 and 2 2021)
signed
1996 Ganga Waters The Ganga Waters Treaty was signed in 1996 as a 30-year
Treaty water sharing arrangement at Farakka Barrage.

2015 Land Boundary The India-Bangladesh LBA comes into force in 2015.
Agreement (LBA) Under the Agreement – India transferred 111 enclaves to
comes into force Bangladesh and Bangladesh transferred 51 enclaves to
India. Also, the 100th Amendment Act of 2015 of the
Indian Constitution gave effect to this agreement.
INDIA – AFGHANISTAN
2011 Strategic The guiding spirit of the India – Afghanistan relationship
Partnership is its Strategic Partnership Agreement (SPA) in 2011.
Agreement (SPA) (Shift 1 2021)
2016 Development India completes the Construction of Afghan Parliament
Partnership and the Salma Dam in 2016.

2021 Taliban Takeover On 15th August 2021, Taliban overthrew Ashraf Ghani’s
govt and seized power in Afghanistan. The new leader of
Afghanistan is Mullah Abdul Ghani Baradar.
The new Taliban govt has changed the official name and
flag of Afghanistan to “Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan”
Previously, the Taliban had ruled Afghanistan from
1996-2001.
225 225

2021 Operation Devi Operation Devi Shakti was carried out by the
Shakti Indian Armed Forces, the Indian Air Force, and the MEA–
to evacuate hundreds of Indians stranded in Afghanistan
after the fall of Kabul government and the takeover by
Taliban.
INDIA – NEPAL
1950 Treaty of Peace and The India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of
Friendship 1950 forms the bedrock of the Special Relations that exist
between India and Nepal.

1996 Mahakali Treaty In 1996, the Mahakali Treaty is signed. The river is a
boundary river passing between the two countries.

1997 BIMSTEC BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectoral

Technical and Economic Cooperation) was formed in
1997. Nepal and Bhutan joined BIMSTEC in 2004. (Shift
2 2021) (Shift 1 and 2 2022)
BBIN BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN)
2015 Initiative) was formed in 2015.

India and Nepal share multiple multilateral forums such as

BBIN, BIMSTEC and SAARC etc.

2015 Operation Maitri After the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, Government of India
(Shift 2 2022) was the first-responder to the crisis and India carried out
its largest disaster relief operation abroad. India extended
US$ 1 billion to Nepal as part of its long-term assistance
for post-earthquake reconstruction in housing, education,
health and culture heritage sectors.

2020 India-Nepal border Nepal in 2020 released a new political map that claims
dispute Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh of Uttarakhand
(Kalapani Dispute) as part of Nepal’s territory.
(Shift 1 and 2 2021)
Nepal also claimed the area of Susta (located in the
West Champaran district, Bihar) on their new map.
Kalapani boundary dispute remains an unresolved issue.

INDIA – BHUTAN
1949 Treaty of Perpetual The Treaty of Perpetual Friendship and Cooperation
Friendship and of 1949 is the basic framework of India- Bhutan bilateral
Cooperation relations. This treaty was renewed in the year 2007.
Formal Diplomatic relations were established in 1968.

Multilateral India and Bhutan share multiple multilateral forums such

Engagements as BBIN, BIMSTEC, SAARC etc.
The major area of Indo-Bhutan Development Partnership
is Hydropower cooperation.
226 226

2021 Bhutan adopts the Bhutan becomes the first country, in India’s immediate
BHIM app neighbourhood, to use the BHIM app for mobile-based
payments deepening the financial linkages between our
two countries.
INDIA – MYANMAR

Multilateral Myanmar is a key component of India’s ‘Act East’ and

Engagements ‘India’s Neighbourhood First Policy.’ (Shift 1 2022)
BIMSTEC, ASEAN, Mekong-Ganga Cooperation are
the various platforms for their multilateral engagements.
(Shift 2 2022)

Kaladan Multi- India is building the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit

Modal Transit Transport - to link Kolkata to Sittwe in Myanmar and
Transport Project then from Myanmar’s Kaladan river to India’s north-east.

India-Myanmar- It is a highway under construction under India’s ‘Look

Thailand-Trilateral East Policy’ that will connect Moreh in India to Mae Sot
Highway in Thailand via Myanmar. The trilateral highways project
is aimed at opening the gate to ASEAN through the land.

INDIA – SRI LANKA

1956- Discrimination The Sri Lankan government passed many laws like the
1970 against Tamil Sinhala Only Official Languages Act in 1956 which
minority discriminated against the minority community-the Tamils.

1975 LTTE formation Prabhakan established the LTTE - Liberation Tigers of

Tamil Eelam.

1983- Start of Sri Lankan The Sri Lankan Civil War officially begins between the
2009 Civil War Sinhalese majority government and militant group LTTE.

1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan PM

Peace Accord J.R. Jayewardene signed the Indo-Sri Lanka Peace
Accord in 1987 in hopes to bring an end to the conflict.

1987 Indian For the first time India was going to take an
Peacekeeping Interventionist approach. Rajiv Gandhi approved to
Forces sent to send the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri
Sri Lanka Lanka to end the hostilities to fight against the LTTE.
(2020)
(March 2023 Shift
1)
1987 Operation Pawan Operation Pawan was the name of Indian military
operation conducted by the IPKF forces to take control
of the Jaffna peninsula from LTTE forces.
227 227

1990 Withdrawal of Facing a brutal conflict, with no end result PM V. P. Singh

IPKF decided to withdraw the IPKF forces from Sri Lanka.
1991 Assassination of LTTE member Kalaivani Rajaratnam in a suicide
Rajiv Gandhi bombing attempt assassinated PM Rajiv Gandhi.

2009 End of Civil War The Sri Lanka government reclaims territory from the
and defeat of LTTE LTTE, ending the Sri Lankan Civil War.
Fishermen Due to the close proximity of territorial waters between
Detention Issue two countries, at the Palk Straits, Gulf of Mannar - many
(Ongoing Issue) incidents of illegal crossing of International Maritime
Boundary Line of fishermen and their long detention have
become a common problem in Indo-Sri Lankan relations.

2017 Hambantota Port Hambantota port was suffering from losses due to high
(Shift 1 2021) and unsustainable expenses. In 2017 Sri Lanka leased the
port to China for 99-years. This is an example of China’s
Debt Trap Diplomacy.

2022 Sri Lankan Due to rise in external debts, high inflation rates, rising
Economic Crisis food prices and collapse of the Tourism sector hit by
Covid-19 pandemic and Tea industry affected by
agricultural reforms – Sri Lanka was on the verge of
collapse.
India placed Sri Lanka at the centre of its
‘Neighbourhood First Policy’ and extended its line of
credit to Sri Lanka to over $3 billion to help it through the
crisis.
INDIA – MALDIVES
‘India First’ has been a stated policy of the Government
of Maldives.

1976 Maritime Boundary One‐time claim of Maldives to Minicoy Island was

Treaty resolved by the Maritime Boundary Treaty of 1976.

1988 Operation Cactus A military operation by the Indian Army to restore

President Gayoom’s from a coup attempt led to long-
term trust in India-Maldives ties.
228 228

– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH MAJOR POWERS –

INDIA – CHINA
1949 India-China ▪ India gains independence in 1947 and China gains
establish diplomatic independence in 1949.
relations ▪ India was one the first few non-communist nations in the
world to recognize - the communist PRC government.

1950 China invades ▪ India recognizes in 1950 the Chinese suzerainty over
Tibet Tibet. India begins to refer as “Tibet region of China.”
▪ On Oct 1950 - Chinese Troops cross the Sino-Tibetan
boundary and move towards Lhasa.

1954 Panchsheel India’s PM Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou En-Lai

Agreement signed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence in
(2020) Colombo, also known as – Panchsheel Agreement in 1954.
(March 2023 Shift (Shift 2 2021)
1)
The five principles of Panchsheel are :-
❖ Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty
❖ Non-aggression
❖ Non-interference in internal affairs
❖ Equality
❖ Peaceful co-existence.

1955 Bandung ▪ Premier Zhou En-Lai and Prime Minister Nehru attended
Conference the inaugural Afro-Asian Bandung Conference on
(March 2023 Shift 18-24 April 1955.
1) ▪ A Total 29 countries participated in the Bandung
Conference of NAM.
1959 India grants asylum ▪ India grants asylum to the Dalai Lama.
to Dalai Lama ▪ India China relations see a downfall.

1959 China refuses to ▪ September 1959 – After downfall in relations China

accept McMahon refuses to accept McMahon Line (Boundary Line
Line between India and China). (Shift 1 2021)
▪ China argues that since it was not signatory to 1842
Peace Treaty between British India and England it will
not accept the boundaries along McMahon Line.

1961 Nehru’s Forward ▪ PM Nehru’s initiates the FORWARD POLICY of 1961

Policy ▪ The Aim of Nehru’s Forward Policy Was To Establish
New Outposts by the Indian Army on North of the Line
229 229

of Actual Control (LAC) to reclaim territory that had

been occupied by China.

1962 Sino-India Border ▪ 1962 – SINO-INDIA BOUNDARY WAR –

War ▪ Chinese troops launch an offensive attack on Indian
positions at Aksai Chin (WESTERN SECTOR) and
Tawang, Walong (EASTER SECTOR).
▪ The Conflict ended when China declared a unilateral
ceasefire and announces withdrawal of troops 20km
behind the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
▪ India suffered heavy losses during this war.

1963 The Henderson The Henderson Brooks-Bhagat report (or the Henderson
Brooks-Bhagat Brooks report) is the report of an investigative
report (June 2023 commission, which conducted an Operations Review of
Shift 1) the Indian Army's operation during the Sino-Indian War
of 1962.
1964 China Nuclear ▪ Project 596 – was the first nuclear weapons test
Tests conducted by the People's Republic of China.
▪ It was detonated on 16 October 1964, at the Lop Nur
test site.

1976 India-China restore ▪ PM Indira Gandhi re-established ambassadorial relations

relations between India and China in 1976.
1979 EAM Vajpayee ▪ High-level political contacts with China were revived in
visits China the next government – in 1979 when then Foreign
Minister A.B. Vajpayee under the Janata Government of
Morarji Desai would made an official visit to China.

1986 Sumdorong Chu ▪ In 1986, a military standoff took place between Chinese
Valley stand-off PLA and Indian army in the Sumdorong Chu Valley in
Arunachal Pradesh region.

▪ In same year, the Indian Parliament had also decided

to grant full Statehood to Arunachal Pradesh.

1988 PM Rajiv Gandhi ▪ The historic event of PM Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China.
visits China ▪ He became the first Prime Minister in 34 years to make
a state visit to China, since PM Nehru.

▪ PM Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit marked the beginning of

improvement in bilateral relations.

1998 India Nuclear Tests ▪ India conducted three underground nuclear tests on
11 and 13 May 1998 at the Pokhran range in Rajasthan
Desert. After this test, India declared herself as a Nuclear
Weapons State. China criticized India’s tests.
230 230

2002 Premier Zhu Ronji Chinese Premier Zhu Rongji led a state-visit to India in
visits India 2002.
2003 PM Vajpayee visits PM Vajpayee led a state-visit to China in 2003. These
China state-visits improved India-China bilateral relations.
2003 Sikkim recognition The same year saw, with the easing of relations between
the two nations, Indian sovereignty over Sikkim was
finally recognised by China in 2003.
2006 Nathu La Pass ▪ On 6th July 2006, China and India re-opened the Nathu
re-opened La pass after a closure of 44 years.
▪ The Nathu La pass is an important strategic route
connecting India’s North-eastern state of Sikkim with
Tibet in China.
2007 India joins QUAD India’s joining of the QUAD Initiative in
May 2007, provoked criticism from China as it
looked at the new grouping with suspicion.

2009 India joins BRICS India joined the BRICS in the first summit held at
Yekaterinburg, Russia in 2009.

2017 Doklam Crisis ▪ The Military standoff between India and China lasted
for 73 days.
▪ Chinese troops were trying to construct a road in the
area, and Indian troops, in aid of their Bhutanese
counterparts, objected to it, resulting in the stand-off.

2018 Wuhan Summit The 1st Informal Summit held between PM Modi and
President Xi Jinping to build India-China relations upon
Mutual Respect and Mutual Sensitivity.
2019 Mamallapuram The 2nd Informal Summit held between PM Modi and
Summit President Xi Jinping.

2020 Galwan Valley ▪ On April-May 2020, the Chinese side undertook several
clash attempts to unilaterally alter the status quo along the Line
(Shift 2 2021) of Actual Control (LAC).
▪ This included Kongka La, Gogra and North Bank of
Pangong Tso Lake.
▪ India and China engaged in a violent face off on 15 June
2020 at Galwan valley.

2022 Tawang stand-off On December 9, 2022 - Around 200 Chinese soldiers tried
to transgress the Line of Actual Control (LAC), but the
Indian troops contested the PLA attempts in Yangtse area
of Tawang Sector.

INDIA – U.S.A.
1949 PM Nehru visits ▪ PM Nehru met US Pres. Harry Truman in his
USA multi-week tour to United States in 1949.
▪ This trip precedes India’s formal declaration of taking an
independent stance in the Cold War.
231 231

▪ This stance sets the tone for future India-USA relations.

1962 Pak signs SEATO ▪ Pakistan was an ally of the West at the time.
and CENTO ▪ Pakistan signed the SEATO pact in 1954, and Baghdad
with USA Pact (later named CENTO) in 1955 with USA. These
military agreements further the gap between India-USA.

1962 USA supports India ▪ PM Nehru sought support from US Pres. Kennedy during
in Sino-India War Sino-India 1962 war. US pledged to help in reply, but
China had already declared a ceasefire before and the war
came to an end.

1963 U.S. Agronomist ▪ USA’s Norman Borlaug travelled to India in 1963. His
collaboration collaboration with Indian scientist Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
brings Green resulted the “Green Revolution” in India.
Revolution ▪ As a result of this, India goes from food scarcity to
self-sufficiency within a decade.

1971 USA supports ▪ Despite evidence of Pakistan Army’s violence against its
Pakistan in own citizens in East Pakistan, USA sides with Pak in the
India-Pak War 1971 war as Richard Nixon seeks good relations in 1971
with China via Pakistan’s help. The international context
made USA side with Pakistan in this war.

1974 India Pokhran I ▪ India conducts its first nuclear test at Pokhran in 1974.
tests ▪ This is called a Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE).
(Shift 1 2022)
▪ It was codenamed Operation Smiling Buddha.
▪ USA imposes sanctions against India due to nuclear tests

1978 Pres. Jimmy Carter US Pres Jimmy Carter visits India on a three-day official
visits India state visit. He met PM Morarji Desai and Pres. Neelam
Sanjiva Reddy. PM Desai also visits the USA same year.

1982 PM Indira Gandhi PM Indira Gandhi met US Pres. Ronald Raegan in order
visits USA to improve relations. The leaders agree to increase
cooperation and resolve a dispute over nuclear power.

1984 Bhopal Gas A toxic gas and chemical leak at the American-owned
Tragedy Union Carbide Plant in Bhopal kills thousands of residents
and leaves a devastating impact with death and disability
of the local population.
This incident harms US-India relations for years.

1998 India Pokhran II ▪ India conducted three underground nuclear tests on

tests (June 2024 11 and 13 May 1998 at the Pokhran range in Rajasthan
Shift 1) Desert. After this test, India declared herself as a Nuclear
Weapons State. USA imposes sanctions against India.
232 232

2000 Pres. Clinton visits Pres. Bill Clinton makes state-visit to India. He becomes
India the first US President to visit India since 1978.
This visit ends the estrangement between India-US ties.

2001 USA lifts Sanctions Pres. George W. Bush administration lifts all remaining
US Sanction on India. This helps in improving future
India-US relations.

2005 Civil Nuclear Deal On 18th July, 2005, PM Singh and Pres. Bush,
Drafted issued a joint statement and announced their
agreement to enter into a Civil Nuclear Deal. (Shift 1
2021) (Shift 1 2022)
2005 Open Skies • The "Open Skies" agreement between India and
Agreement (June the United States was signed in 2005, and allows
2023 Shift 1) airlines from both countries to fly freely
between them.
• The agreement provides rights for airlines to offer
international passenger and cargo services, and
expands international passenger and cargo flights.
2006 Civil Nuclear Deal On 2nd March 2006, Pres. Bush and PM Singh
Signed signed the Civil Nuclear Deal (CND) in New Delhi.

2006 United States-India • United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy

Peaceful Atomic Cooperation Act of 2006, also known as the Hyde
Energy Act, is a domestic law that allows the United
Cooperation Act States to cooperate with India on nuclear issues.
(March 2023 Shift • The act was passed by the US House of
1) Representatives on July 26, 2006. It modifies the
requirements of Section 123 of the U.S. Atomic
Energy Act, which typically requires the
conclusion of a peaceful nuclear cooperation
agreement before significant transfers of nuclear
material or equipment can take place.
• The Hyde Act also exempts India from signing the
Non-Proliferation Treaty.
2008 123 Agreement On 10th October 2008 – The 123 Agreement
between India and US is finally operationalized
between the two countries.

2017 LEMOA India and USA sign LEMOA in 2017.

LEMOA – is a facilitating agreement that establishes basic
terms and conditions - for Logistic Support and Services
between the armed forces of India and the United States.

2018 COMCASA India and USA sign COMCASA in 2018.

COMCASA-Communications Compatibility and Security
Agreement helps to enhance interaction between
U.S. Naval Forces Central Command and the Indian Navy.
233 233

2018 First 2+2 Dialogue In this 2+2 Dialogue format – four important personnel
meet – the Foreign and Defence Ministers of two nations.

2020 BECA Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement between

India and USA was signed on 26 November 2020. (Shift
1 2021) (Shift 1 2022)

INDIA – Russia
1950s – USSR support to Being a permanent member on UN Security Council,
Present India at the UN USSR has the veto power. USSR (and then, Russia) has
Day regularly supported the Indian position on Kashmir at UN.

1971 Treaty of Peace, This treaty was a landmark event in overall India’s foreign
Friendship and policy departure in context of Non-alignment.
Cooperation This agreement was signed on the basis that USSR
(2020) (Shift 1 would guarantee military supplies to India and act
2021) (Shift 1 2022) pre-emptively in case of Chinese attack on India.
(June 2024 Shift 1)
1991 Russia takes de- After disintegration of Soviet Union in 1991 – Russia
ideologized and under President Boris Yeltsin decided for “Pragmatic
Pragmatic Renewal” of ties with both India and Pakistan.
approach
2000 President Putin India sign with Russia Strategic Partnership agreement in
visits India October 2000 during Pres Putin’s visit to India.

2001 PM Vajpayee visits India sign the ‘Moscow Declaration on International

Russia Terrorism’ with Russia.
Defence India has longstanding cooperation with Russia in the field
Cooperation of defence.
From India purchasing Russian weapons systems like
MiG-21, Sukhoi-30MK fighter aircrafts to T-72 battle-
tanks, India-Russia has initiated a joint defence project
‘Anti-Ship Cruise Missile System – BrahMos’. (June
2019)

Thus, India-Russia military technical cooperation has

evolved from a buyer-seller framework to one involving
joint research & development (R&D).

2003 India-Russia ▪ India-Russia holds a bilateral military exercise named

Military Exercise ‘INDRA’.
‘INDRA’ ▪ The first edition took place in 2003 as a single service
2017 exercise. This was upgraded to a tri-services exercise in
2017.
▪ The latest edition is set to take place in Kaliningrad in
2023.
234 234

2016 S-400 Missiles During the BRICS Summit, India and Russia sign a
defence agreement for the purchase of S-400 missiles
systems. This step was criticized by the United States.

2021 2+2 Dialogue First India – Russia 2+2 Dialogue held in New Delhi on
6th December 2021. Raksha Mantri Rajnath Singh and
EAM Dr. S. Jaishankar represented the Indian side;
while the Russian Side was represented by Defence
Minister Sergei Shoigu and Russian Foreign Minister
Sergey Lavrov.

2022 Russia-Ukraine India’s position on the Russia-Ukraine war has been

War consistent. India has called for “immediate cessation” of
violence and end to all hostilities in this war.

Despite economic sanctions against Russia from the West,

India continued to ‘maintain and stabilize trade
relations with Russia’.

Indian EAM S. Jaishankar stated India is keeping all the

options open in order to diversify her energy needs from
different sources – and this step has been well received
from Moscow.

– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH IMPORTANT POWERS –

INDIA – JAPAN
YEAR EVENT KEY POINTS
1952 Diplomatic India and Japan establish Diplomatic Relations on 28th
Relations April 1952.
established
1980s Maruti-Suzuki In 1982, Maruti Udyog Ltd. of India and Suzuki of Japan
Motor Partnership signed joint venture agreement in automobile partnership.
1991 BoP crisis Japan was among the few countries that bailed India out
of the balance of payment crisis.
2000 Global Partnership Japan PM Yoshiro Mori visits India. ‘Global Partnership’
Level agreement signed and brings a qualitative shift in relations

2006 Strategic and India and Japan under PM Singh and PM Abe elevate
Global Partnership their ties to ‘Strategic and Global Partnership’ level.
Level
2007 Abe visit to Indian PM Shinzo Abe visits India and gives the ‘Confluence of
Parliament the Two Seas’ speech in Indian Parliament. He defines the
concept of ‘Free and Open Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP).
235 235

2007 QUAD 1.0 Japan, Australia, United States and India form the QUAD.
2011 CEPA India signs Comprehensive Economic Partnership
Agreement with Japan in 2011. (June 2019) (Shift 2
2022)
2014 Special Strategic India – Japan further elevate their ties under PM Modi.
and Global Japan gives US$ 35 billion to India through public and
Partnership Level private funding for development projects – for Smart
Cities and clean-up of River Ganga.

INDIA – ISRAEL
1950 Recognition of India recognised the State of Israel on September 17, 1950
Israel
1992 Diplomatic Under PM Narasimha Rao, India established full
Relations diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992.
established
2017 PM Modi’s visit to In 2017 PM Modi became the first Indian PM to visit
Israel Israel, and he made the trip to only Israel, and not Palestine
This Signalled a de-hyphenation in India’s ties with
Israel and Palestine.

2017 De-hyphenation of India’s traditionally had hyphenated its ties with Israel –
ties with that is, it used to link them to ties with the Palestinian
Israel and Palestine Authority. This essentially prevented India from pursuing
a pragmatic policy towards the issue.
After de-hyphenation of ties, India’s relationship with
Israel would stand on its own merits, which is independent
and separate from India’s relationship with Palestine.
INDIA – UAE
1972 Diplomatic India and UAE establish Diplomatic Relations in 1972.
Relations
2015 Strategic PM Modi visits UAE. Start of New Strategic Partnership.
Partnership
2016 Comprehensive Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan (MBZ) Crown
Strategic Prince of Abu Dhabi was the chief guest at India’s
Partnership Republic Day celebrations. India-UAE ties upgraded to
‘Comprehensive Strategic Partnership’.
2019 PM Modi receives PM Modi visits UAE in August 2019 – and receives the
UAE’s highest highest civilian award of UAE – ‘the Order of Zayed’.
civilian award
2019 RuPay Card in Launch of RuPay Card in UAE – UAE adopts the Indian
UAE card system.
2019 EAM Sushma EAM Sushma Swaraj representing India was invited as the
Swaraj at OIC ‘Guest of Honor’ at the 46th session of Council of Foreign
Ministers of Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
2021 I2U2 I2U2 is a new alliance created by four countries: India,
Israel, (I2) and UAE, United States (U2) created in 2021.
236 236

I2U2 has identifies 6 areas of cooperation and investment–

Water, Energy, Transportation, Space, Health,
and Food Security. This group is also dubbed as the
‘West Asian Quad’.

INDIA – UK
1947 Commonwealth of India became a member of 'Commonwealth of Nations'
Nations on 1947. The organisation comprises of 54 member
nations. The head of this organisation is Great Britain.
2004 Strategic India and UK upgraded their ties to Strategic Partnership
Partnership in 2004 during PM Singh and PM Tony Blair in London.
2017 UK-India Year of The year 2017 was held as the UK-India Year of Culture.
Culture The Queen hosted a grand reception at Buckingham
Palace. Arun Jaitley represented India at the event.
Impact of Brexit on Brexit – or Britain’s exit from European Union took place
India-EU and with the Referendum in 2016.
India-UK relations UK left the EU on 31st January 2020.

In January 2022, India and UK concluded the first round

of talks for the future UK-India Free Trade Agreement.

Current British PM Rishi Sunak of the Conservative

Party (Tory Party) had said that his government seeks to
change the UK-India relationship into a more “two-way
exchange”. UK aims to open up easy access of UK
students and companies to India. With India’s rise in the
global order Britain looks to directly engage India for new
opportunities as it is freed from EU.

– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH ORGANISATIONS –

INDIA – UNITED NATIONS
YEAR EVENT KEY POINTS
1945 United Nations : UN Charter was signed by 51 countries on 26th June
The Formation Years 1945 at San Francisco. It came into effect – 24 Oct
1945.
The United Nations was established on 24th Oct. 1945.
The term United Nations was coined by former
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although India was yet to gain Independence, still India
belonged as one of the founding members of UN in
1945.
Major India related UNSC Resolutions No. = 38, 39, 47, 51, 123, 126, 1172.
UNSC Resolutions

1947 UNSC Resolution 38 On Jan 1947, UNSC called upon India and Pakistan to
refrain from escalating the situation in Kashmir.
1948 UNSC Resolution 39
237 237

On Jan 1948, UNSC proposal to form a Commission to

1948 UNSC Resolution 47 resolve the India-Pakistan question on Kashmir.
On April 1948, UNSC forms a 5 member UN
1948 UNSC Resolution 51 Commission UNCIP with the task overseeing plebiscite
in Kashmir.
1957 UNSC Resolution 123 On June 1948, UNSC directs the UN Commission for
UNSC Resolution India-Pak to proceed without delay to the areas of
1957 126 dispute.
UNSC Resolution On Feb 1957, UNSC sends President of UNSC to Indian
1998 1172 Subcontinent to prepare report for resolution of dispute.
On Dec 1957, UNSC asks both India and Pak to refrain
from escalating the situation on Kashmir.
On June 1998, UNSC condemns the Pokhran-II
nuclear tests conducted by India on 11 and 13 May 1998
and Chagai I and II tests by Pakistan on 28 and 30 May
1998 and UNSC demanded that both India and Pakistan
refrain from any further nuclear test.

India and India is the 2nd largest contributor of troops to

UN Peacekeeping UNPKO.
Operations (UNPKO) Dag Hammarskjold coined the term peacekeeping.

List of India’s contribution in UN Peacekeeping

Missions
Past Peacekeeping Missions :
Korea (1950-54)
Indo-China (1954-70)
Middle East (1956-67)
Congo (1960-64)
Cambodia (1992-93)
Mozambique (1992-94)
Somalia (1993-94)
Rwanda (1994-96)
Angola (1989-99)
Sierra Leone (1999-2001)
Ethiopia – Eritrea (2006 - 2008)

Current Ongoing Peacekeeping Missions :

Lebanon (Since Dec 1998)
Congo (Since 2005)
Sudan and South Sudan (Since 2005)
Golan Heights (Since 2006)
Ivory Coast (Since 2004)
Haiti (Since 1997)
Liberia (Since 2007)
India and Chapter V - of UN Charter states the composition,
UNSC Presidency powers and voting procedure of UNSC.
UNSC consists of 15 members –
Vote : 9 out 15 votes are required to pass a resolution.
238 238

Composition : 5 are permanent members – the P5.

And 10 non-permanent members are elected on a two-
year term by a vote from the UNGA.

The P5 members are (USA, UK, France, Russia,

China).
Only these P5 members have the right to veto.

India has held the non-permanent membership of

UN Security Council for a total 8 times till date.
The most recent tenure when India was elected in 2021-
22

India and India seeks Reforms at the UN Security Council.

UNSC Reforms India’s campaign for expansion of permanent
membership at UNSC is collaboration with
the G4 – India, Japan, Germany, Brazil.

INDIA – ASEAN

ASEAN ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

(June 2019)
Formed in – 1967.
Secretariat – Jakarta, Indonesia.
Members – Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore,
Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Brunei, Myanmar, Laos,
Cambodia.
Timeline of
India-ASEAN India – ASEAN Relations Timeline –
Relations 1992 – India becomes ASEAN Sectoral Dialogue
Partner (June 2024 Shift 1)
1994 – P.V. Narasimha Rao unveils ‘Look East’ Policy
in his lecture at Singapore. (December 2018) (2020)
(Shift 2 2021) (Shift 2 2022)
1996 – India becomes ASEAN Regional Forum Member
2002 – India becomes ASEAN Summit Level Partner
2003 – India signs Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
with ASEAN
2005 – India joins East Asia Summit (EAS) for the first
time
2014 – Narendra Modi launches ‘Act East Policy’ at the
12th India-ASEAN Summit in Myanmar. (2020) (Shift 2
2022) (March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)

India – ASEAN Free Trade Agreements –

2003 – Signing of the India-ASEAN CECA - Trade in
Goods, Services and Investment Agreement (with
Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
239 239

Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and

Vietnam).
2005 – India joins the East Asia Summit (EAS) for the
first time.
2006 – India signed with Thailand the Early Harvest
Scheme (EHS).
2010 – India sign with Singapore Comprehensive
Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA).
2011 – India sign with Malaysia Comprehensive
Economic Cooperation Agreement (MICECA).

India – ASEAN Engagements –

At Foreign Ministers’ Level
•India – ASEAN Summit – held annually.
•The Delhi Dialogue Mechanism (DD) – held annually.
•The Delhi – Dialogue is a Track 1.5 Diplomacy
platform.

India – ASEAN Engagements –

At Trade Level
•ASEAN Economic Ministers-India Consultations
(AEM+India)
•ASEAN India Framework Agreement on
Comprehensive Economic Cooperation (2003)
•ASEAN – India Business Council (2003).

India also participates at East Asia Summit (EAS).

Members of East Asia Summit –
10 ASEAN members + China, South Korea, Japan,
Australia, New Zealand, India, USA, Russia.

INDIA – SAARC

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.

(Shift 1 2021) (June 2024 Shift 1) (Dec. 2024)
1985 Formed in – 1985.
Charter – Dhaka Charter 1985.
Secretariat – Kathmandu, Nepal. (Shift 1 2022)
Members-states – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri-Lanka, Afghanistan.

2007 Afghanistan joins Last member to join SAARC – Afghanistan in 2007.

Observer-states – Australia, China, EU, Iran, Japan,

S.Korea, Mauritius, Myanmar, USA.

SAARC Specialized Bodies –

1. South Asian University (SAU) – New Delhi, India .
240 240

SAARC Specialized 2. South Asian Regional Standards Organization

Bodies (SARSO) – Dhaka.
3. SAARC Development Fund (SDF) – Bhutan.
4. SAARC Arbitration Council (SARCO) – Pakistan.

Out of 18 SAARC summits so far,

1986 India has hosted 3 summits – (2nd SAARC Summit 1986,
1995 India hosted 3 8th SAARC Summit 1995, 14th SAARC Summit 2007).
2007 SAARC Summits
India’s initiative of National Knowledge Network
(NKN) is extended to Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and
National Knowledge Bhutan.
Network (NKN)
2017 India launched a South Asian Satellite (SAS) in May
South Asian Satellite 2017 from Sriharikota.
(SAS)
2008 The South Asian University (SAU) was established in
South Asian New Delhi in 2008 to provide world-class educational
University (SAU) facilities & professional faculty to students and
researchers from across all the SAARC countries.

India created a COVID-19 Emergency Fund and the

COINEX ‘SAARC COVID19 Information Exchange Platform
(Covid-19) (COINEX)’ – to facilitate exchange of specialized
information and tools on COVID-19 among designated
health professionals.

INDIA – SCO

SCO SCO – is a permanent inter-governmental international

organization. It is a Eurasian political, economic and
military organisation with purpose to maintain peace,
security and stability in the region.

2001 SCO was created in 2001.

2002 SCO Charter SCO Charter was signed in 2002.
2003 SCO Charter came into force in 2003.
Official Languages are – Russian and Chinese.
The Group was previously known as Shanghai Five.
It has 8 members – Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and Pakistan.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
2017 India and Pak become
members of SCO India and Pakistan became members of SCO in 2017 –
at the Astana Summit in Kazakhstan.
India will chair
2023 SCO 2023 Iran is set to become the 9th member of SCO in 2023.
India will take over as chair of the SCO in 2023.
241 241

Iran has signed the commitment document for official

member-state status.

INDIA – AFRICA Relations

Africa Union (AU) The African Union (AU) consists of 55 African states.
AU was first announced in Sirte Declaration in 1999.
AU was founded in 2001 at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
AU was launched in 2002 at the Durban Summit.
2008 India-AU The first India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) took place
in 2008.
The 2008 summit adopted the Delhi Declaration and
Africa-India Framework for Cooperation – marks the
blueprint of India-Africa relations going in the 21st
century
The IAFS takes place every 3 years.
2017 Asia-Africa Growth India and Japan collaborated in establishing the Asia-
Corridor Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) in 2017 during the
52nd Annual meeting of the African Development Bank
at Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

AAGC is focusing on the following four pillars :

1. Enhancing capacity and skills.
2. Quality Infrastructure and Institutional Capacity.
3. Development and Cooperation Projects.
4. People-to-people partnership.

Common goals and interests of India and Japan are :-

1. Freedom of navigation in sea lines
2. Combating terrorism
3. Countering Chinese rise and hegemony in Africa.

INDIA – GCC

GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council. (Shift 2 2022)

Formed in – 1981.
Headquarters – Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Members – Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi
Arabia, and UAE.

India and Gulf Relations are important for two reasons :-

(i) Energy security through oil & gas, and trade.
(ii) The huge number of Indians who work in the Gulf
countries, and the remittance they send back home.

India-UAE signed the Comprehensive Economic

Partnership Agreement (CEPA) in Feb 2022.
242 242

This CEPA will enter into force on 1st May 2022.

(Shift 2 2022)

In 2021-22, UAE was India’s 3rd largest trading partner,

Saudi Arabia 4th largest trading partner, and Iraq 5th
largest trading partner.

INDIA – BRICS

BRICS BRICS – India joined the BRICS in 2009. This acronym

stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.

Initially, 4 countries initiated the grouping BRIC – and

South Africa joined in 2010, making it BRICS.

Timeline of BRICS –
2001 2001 – The term BRIC was coined by Jim O’Neil.

2006 2006 – Leaders of BRIC countries formalised BRIC.

2009 First Summit 2009 – First BRIC Summit took place in

Yekaterinburg, Russia.

2010 South Africa Joins 2010 – South Africa joins, making it BRICS.

2011 3rd BRICS Summit 2011 – South Africa is included in BRICS summit at
Sanya, China Sanya, China.

2012 India hosts 4th BRICS 2012 – New Delhi hosts 4th BRICS summit.
Summit
2012 2012 – BRICS Cable with optical fibre
communications system announced.
2013 Durban 2013 - Durban, South Africa – Durban, South Africa -
March 26-27, 2013 (Summit) (March 2023 Shift 1)

2014 Fortaleza Declaration 2014 – Fortaleza Declaration,

BRICS New Development Bank (NDB) formed
and BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed.

Ufa, Russia Ufa, Russia – July 8-9, 2015 (Summit) (March 2023
2015 Shift 1)
Johannesburg, South
2018 Africa Johannesburg, South Africa – July 25-27, 2018
(Summit) (March 2023 Shift 1)
2020 Beijing Virtual
Summit Beijing Virtual Summit – November 17 (video
conference), 2020 (Summit) (March 2023 Shift 1)
243 243

INDIA – QUAD

QUAD QUAD –
The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is an informal
strategic forum – a group of 4 democracies – India,
Japan, United States and Australia focusing on the
Indo-Pacific region.

Timeline of QUAD –

2004 Tsunami Core Group 2004 – For the first time these four nations cooperate on
the Tsunami Core Group – a relief and rescue operation
organised for the victims of the Dec 2004 Tsunami.

2007 Confluence of Two 2007 – Japanese PM Shinzo Abe delivers the

Seas ‘Confluence of the Two Seas Speech’ at the Indian
‘Free-and-Open Parliament. He defines the concept of ‘Free and Open
Indo-Pacific (FOIP)’ Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP). This is the vision that will
compete against China’s vision in the Indo-Pacific
region.
2007 QUAD 1.0
2007 – Beginning of QUAD 1.0.
2008 Australia withdraws
2008 – Australia backs out from QUAD due to economic
pressures from China.
2012 ‘Democratic Security
Diamond’ 2012 – Shinzo Abe begins the “Democratic Security-
Diamond” concept comprising of the 4 nations – India,
Japan, United States and Australia.
2017 QUAD 2.0
2017 – QUAD 2.0 is revived at the East Asia Summit in
Manila.
2019 Ministerial Meeting
2019 – The first ministerial level meeting of QUAD
takes place.
2021 QUAD Leaders’
Summit 1 2021 – The first in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit
takes place in Washington.
2022 QUAD Leaders’
Summit 2 2022 – The second in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit
takes place in Tokyo.

QUAD focuses on the following areas :-

▪ Vaccine Partnership.
▪ Critical and Emerging Technologies.
▪ Semiconductor and Supply Chain Resistance.
▪ Cybersecurity, Space, Maritime Cooperation.

IPEF
244 244

23rd IPEF – Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

May India and 12 nations joined the USA-led Indo-Pacific
2022 Economic Framework on 23rd May 2022 to provide an
economic alternate solution to China’s Geostrategic
footprint in the Indo-Pacific area.

The IPEF has four main pillars :-

▪ Supply-chain Resilience.
▪ Clean energy and De-carbonisation.
▪ Taxation & Anti-Corruption.
▪ Fair & Resilient Trade.

INDIA – IOR

IOR • India started to focus on its maritime neighbours in the

Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

2015 SAGAR
• PM Modi in 2015 announced India’s vision of SAGAR
(Security and Growth for All in The Region).
• India has been proactively working as the
“first responder” in her maritime neighbourhood to
become a net security provider in the IOR.

2019 Indo-Pacific Oceans

Initiative (IPOI) • The spirit of SAGAR was further enhanced in the
Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) announced by
PM Modi at the 14th East Asia Summit in 2019.

IPOI is aimed at forging partnerships to create a safe,

secure, stable, prosperous and sustainable maritime
domain with focus on - maritime security, capacity
building and resource sharing, disaster risk reduction
and management, science & technology and academic
cooperation as its key pillars.

2020 SAGAR • This concept is a suggestion that was first made

PANCHAYAT by C Uday Bhaskar – who is the director of
(June 2023 Shift 1) Society for Policy Studies, New Delhi in an Op-
Ed to The Hindustan Times on 05th July, 2020.
The Op-Ed was titled “Shift focus to the
maritime domain”.
• The four-nation Quad (United States, Japan,
Australia and India) is a work in progress and
India could sherpa a cluster of Indo-Pacific
nations into a Sagar Panchayat and uphold the
rule of law at sea.
245 245

• Enhancing interoperability at sea, intelligence-

sharing and capacity-building would be the
early building blocks.”
• Given India’s geostrategic location, it could
sherpa a cluster of Indo-Pacific nations into
a “Sagar panchayat” and uphold the rule of
law at sea.
2004 INDIA’S • The Indian government was affirming “the
EXTENDED concept” of an extended Neighbourhood for
NEIGHBOURHOOD India in 2004.
(March 2023 Shift 1) • It stretches from the Suez Canal to the South
China Sea
• It includes within its purview -West Asia, the
Gulf, Central Asia, South East Asia, East Asia,
the Asia Pacific and the Indian Ocean Region.

INDIA-NAM
1814-15 Concept of non-aligning The concept of not aligning a country’s
policy with others can be traced to the
Congress of Vienna when the neutrality
of Switzerland, by which that country
would keep out of others’ conflicts, was
recognized
1953 Coinage of the term “non- The term “non-Alignment” was
Alignment” coined by V.K. Krishna Menon
at United States in his speech.
1955 Shaping of NAM as an It took concrete shape at the Asia-Africa
organisation Bandung Conference held in 1955 in
Indonesia.
1961 First NAM conference (March First conference of NAM took place at
2023 Shift 2) Belgrade in 1961.
1961 Belgrade Summit was 29 Afro-Asian Countries
Attended by
(March 2023 Shift 1)
1979 Havana Declaration The purpose of the organization was
enumerated in the Havana Declaration
of 1979 to ensure “the national
independence, sovereignty, territorial
integrity and security of non-aligned
countries” in their struggle against
imperialism, colonialism, neo-
colonialism, racism, and all forms of
foreign subjugation.
Founding members The founding members of NAM and
their leaders are:
246 246

• Nehru (India),
• Nasser (Egypt),
• Nkrumah (Ghana),
• Tito (Yugoslavia), and
• Sukarno (Indonesia).
Membership Criteria (June ● The Country should have adopted
2023 Shift 2) an independent policy based on
the coexistence of States with
different political and social
systems and on non-alignment, or
it should have shown a tendency
to Favor such a policy.
● The Country in question should
support national independence
movements in a consistent
manner.
● The Country should not be a
member of a multilateral
military alliance concluded in
the context of great power
conflicts.
● If the Country has a bilateral
military agreement with a great
power or it is a member of a
regional defence pact, the
agreement or pact should have
not been concluded deliberately
in the context of great power
conflicts.
● If the Country has granted
military bases to a foreign
power, the concession should
have not been made in the
context of great power conflicts.
2019 18th NAM Summit In 2019, at Baku, Azerbaijan
2024 19th NAM Summit ● In January 2024
● At Kampala, Uganda
2024 Chair of 19th NAM Summit ● Uganda will be the chair of the
and Theme NAM grouping from 2024-2027
● It will be held under the theme of
“Deepening cooperation for
Shared Global Affluence”
2024 Total Members ● As of 2024, the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) has 121
members and 27 observers.
247 247

Nehruvianism (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Stephen Cohen (India: Emerging Power, 2002) constructed the evolution of Indian
foreign policy within these three strands of Nehruvianism.
• 'Militant Nehruvianism,' refers to the early years of Nehru's prime ministership.
During this time, Nehru held an assertive stance on international issues, resisting pressure
from major powers, advocating for decolonization, and pushing for the recognition and
representation of newly independent nations on global platforms.
• 'Classical Nehruvianism,' dominated the middle phase of Nehru's prime ministership.
This phase was marked by the adoption of soft power strategies, emphasizing peace and
cooperation, goodwill, and diplomatic solutions for prevailing international disputes. Non-
Alignment Movement (NAM) is a prime example of policy from this era.
• 'Post-Cold War Nehruvianism,' represents the period after Nehru. India adapted her
foreign policy according to shifts in global power paradigms, economic liberalization, and
evolving national interests.

Alternative Perspectives on IFP (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Stephen Cohen's book "India – Emerging Power" explores India's strategic thought.
• Cohen observes a rise in alternative perspectives on India's security and foreign policy
after the breakdown of Nehruvian consensus.
• Two major branches of alternative perspectives emerge:
(a) Conservative-Realists, originating from the Swatantra party.
(b) Ideologically-Revitalist perspective, associated with the RSS and supporters of Hindutva
ideology.
• The Swatantra party in the mid-1960s attempted to provide a classical conservative
viewpoint on domestic and foreign policy.
• Led by Congress veteran C. Rajagopalachari, Swatantra drew support from former
government bureaucrats, princely families, and the business community.
• These factions were united by a dislike for Nehru's Fabian economics and
nonalignment, showing sympathy towards the market, private enterprise, and strong
anticommunism.
• This center-right realist perspective, led by figures like Jaswant Singh and K. C. Pant,
advocate for a shift towards pragmatic policies acknowledging economic power dynamics.
They criticize Nehruvian approaches, emphasizing the need for a strategic economy-driven
foreign policy.
• Revivalist proponents, represented by organizations like RSS, assert a culture-centric
worldview, viewing India as the pinnacle of civilization under threat from external forces.
The revivalists subscribe to a culture-driven view of the world in which India represents one
of humankind’s supreme civilizational accomplishments.
248 248

• Atal Behari Vajpayee epitomizes a synthesis of realist and Hindutva ideologies,

promoting strategic alliances while upholding cultural identity.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), was established in Dhaka on
December 8, 1985. (SAARC DAY: December 8)

There were initially seven Member States that are mainly located in South Asia, i.e. Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

In April 2007, at the 14th summit (New Delhi), Afghanistan became its eighth member.

Basic Details:

Feature Details

Establishment Year 1985

Founding Members Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

Related Treaty SAARC Charter (Signed on 8 December 1985 in Dhaka, Bangladesh)

Total Members 8 (Afghanistan joined in 2007)

Observer States 9 (Australia, China, EU, Iran, Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea, USA)

SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) and SAFTA

Agreement Year Key Details

SAPTA (SAARC Preferential 1993
Signed in 1993, came into effect in 1995 to
Trading Arrangement) promote intraregional trade.

SAFTA (South Asian Free 2004

Replaced SAPTA; aimed at reducing customs
Trade Area) duties on

Major SAARC Centres:

Centre Location Focus

Administration &
SAARC Secretariat Kathmandu, Nepal
Coordination

Agricultural Research &

SAARC Agriculture Centre Dhaka, Bangladesh
Development
249 249

SAARC Energy Centre Islamabad, Pakistan Energy Cooperation

SAARC Cultural Centre Colombo, Sri Lanka Cultural Exchange & Heritage

Project Financing & Economic

SAARC Development Fund Thimphu, Bhutan
Cooperation

SAARC Tuberculosis Centre Kathmandu, Nepal Health & Disease Control

Designated SAARC Decades

• 1991-2000: SAARC Decade of the Girl Child
• 2001-2010: SAARC Decade of the Rights of the Child
• 2006-2015: SAARC Decade of Poverty Alleviation
• 2010-2020: SAARC Decade of Intra-regional Connectivity

Designated SAARC Years

• 1989: SAARC Year of Combating Drug Abuse and Drug Trafficking

• 1990: SAARC Year of Girl Child
• 1991: SAARC Year of Shelter
• 1992: SAARC Year of Environment
• 1993: SAARC Year of Disabled Persons
• 1994: SAARC Year of the Youth
• 1995: SAARC Year of Poverty Eradication
• 1996: SAARC Year of Literacy
• 1997: SAARC Year of Participatory Governance
• 1999: SAARC Year of Biodiversity
• 2002-2003: SAARC Year of Contribution of Youth to Environment
• 2004: SAARC Awareness Year for TB and HIV/AIDS
• 2005: South Asia Tourism Year
• 2007: Green South Asia Year

Chronology of SAARC Secretary Generals

Name Country Tenure

Abul Ahsan Bangladesh 1987–1989
Kant Kishore Bhargava India 1989–1991
Ibrahim Hussain Zaki Maldives 1991–1993
Yadav Kant Silwal Nepal 1993–1996
Naeem U. Hasan Pakistan 1996–1998
Nihal Rodrigo Sri Lanka 1998–2002
Q.A.M.A. Rahim Bangladesh 2002–2005
Lyonpo C. Dorji Bhutan 2005–2008
Sheel Kant Sharma India 2008–2011
250 250

Fathimath Dhiyana Saeed Maldives 2011–2012

Ahmed Saleem Maldives 2012–2014
Arjun Bahadur Thapa Nepal 2014–2017
Amjad Hussain B. Sial Pakistan 2017–2020
Esala Weerakoon Sri Lanka 2020–2023
Md. Golam Sarwar Bangladesh 2023- present

*Although it was Afghanistan’s turn alphabetically to nominate for the position of Secretary
general in 2023, the Taliban regime has not been recognized by members of SAARC. Hence,
Bangladesh got chance.
251 251

List of SAARC Summits

Host
Year Host City Key Highlights
Country
1985 Bangladesh Dhaka SAARC formally launched; SAARC Charter signed.
Emphasis on regional cooperation in trade and economic
1987 India Bangalore
sectors.
Agreement on reducing trade barriers and promoting
1988 Nepal Kathmandu
economic integration.
1990 Pakistan Islamabad Focus on combating terrorism and enhancing trade.
1991 Maldives Malé SAARC Food Security Reserve established.

1993 Sri Lanka Colombo

SAPTA (SAARC Preferential Trading
Arrangement) signed.
Commitment to poverty alleviation and regional trade
1995 Bangladesh Dhaka
enhancement.
Agreement on establishing a South Asian Free Trade
1997 India New Delhi
Area (SAFTA).
1997 Maldives Malé Focus on economic cooperation and social development.
1998 Sri Lanka Colombo Discussion on nuclear testing by India and Pakistan.

2002 Nepal Kathmandu

First time India and Pakistan leaders met
after Kargil War (1999).
2004 Pakistan Islamabad
SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade
Agreement) signed.
2005 Bangladesh Dhaka Afghanistan invited as a new member.
2007 India New Delhi Afghanistan formally joined SAARC.
2008 Sri Lanka Colombo Climate change and food security discussed.
First-ever SAARC Summit in Bhutan; focus on climate
2010 Bhutan Thimphu
change.
Agreement on SAARC Development Fund and
2011 Maldives Addu City
connectivity.
Focus on regional integration, connectivity, and
2014 Nepal Kathmandu
cooperation.
Cancelled due to India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and
2016 Pakistan Islamabad
Bhutan boycotting it after the Uri attack.
252 252

UNIT 7 – Political Institutions in India

Major Pre-Independence India Acts –

• India was under rule of East India Company (1765-1858) and under British Crown Raj
(1858-1947).
• Regulating Act 1733 –
o Beginning of British Parliament control over East India Company.
o Governor General of Bengal Established. First Gov. General of Bengal name –
Warren Hastings.
• Act of Settlement or Amending Act, 1781 –
• This act was passed to amend the Regulation Act, 1773. Regulating Act of 1773: Key
conflict between Supreme Court and Governor General in Council.
• Safeguarded the Governor-General and its council from the jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court.
• Exempted matters related to the Company's revenue from the Supreme Court's
jurisdiction. Required the Supreme Court to administer the personal law of the
defendant.
• Exemptions: Company servants, revenue collectors, judicial officers from Supreme
Court jurisdiction.
• Empowered the Governor-General and its Council to frame regulations regarding
Provincial Courts and Councils.
• Geographic and appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court limited to Calcutta.
• Appeals redirected to Governor-General in Council from provincial courts.
• Establishment of Governor General and Council as final court of appeal.
• Application of religious laws in relevant cases.
• Requirement for registration of rules issued by Governor General in Council in
Supreme Court.
• Pitts India Act 1784 –
o Separated Commercial and Political functions of East India Company.
o Court of Directors (COD) - for Commercial function, Board of Control (BOC) -
for Political Affairs.
• Charter Act 1813 –
o Trade Monopoly of East India Company abolished.
• Charter Act 1833 –
o Governor General of Bengal became Governor General of India. First Gov.
General of India name – Lord William Bentinck.
o 1833 Act ended All Commercial Activity of East India Company.
• Charter Act 1853 –
o The Last of Charter Acts.
253 253

o 1853 Act introduced for First time Open Competition as basis of recruitment
of Civil Servants.
• GOI Act 1858 – (Government of India Act 1858)
o Administration of India now transferred from East India Company to the
British Crown.
o Secretary of State and Viceroy system introduced.
o Governor General of India was replaced by Viceroy. First Viceroy Name – Lord
Canning.
• ICA 1861 – (Indian Councils Act 1861)
o 3 Indians added to the Legislative Council for First time.
• ICA 1892 – (Indian Councils Act 1892)
o Indirect Elections were introduced for First time.
o Enlarged the size of Legislative Councils.
o Members could now debate the budget without having the ability to vote on
it also barred from asking follow-up questions.
o Made a limited franchise and indirect provision for the use of election in
filling up non-official seats both in central and provincial councils (June 2023
Shift 2)
• ICA 1909 – (Indian Councils Act 1909) – (Morley – Minto Reforms)
o Separate Electorate for Muslims introduced. (Dec. 2024)
• GOI 1919 – (Government of India Act 1919) – (Montague – Chelmsford Reforms)
o Extended Communal Representation to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-
Indians, Europeans. (December 2018)
o Division of Subjects into 2 – Central subjects and Provincial subjects.
o Provincial Subjects divided into two :- (i) Reserved & (ii) Transferred subjects
(Dyarchy system).
o Introduction of Dyarchy system.
• GOI 1935 – (Government of India Act 1935) (March 2023 Shift 2)
o Extended Communal Representation to Depressed Classes (Scheduled
Castes), Women and Labour (workers).
o Establishment of a ‘Federation of India’ – consisting of Provinces and Princely
States.
o Dyarchy system abolished in 1935 Act.
o Introduction of Provincial Autonomy.
o Introduction of 3 Lists – Federal List, Provincial List, Concurrent List.
o However, the ‘Federal part’ of the GoI Act 1935 was never implemented.
• Indian Independence Act, 1947 –
o Sovereignty and Responsibility of British Parliament over India abolished.
Crown Rule Ends.
o Governor-General and Provincial Governors became Constitutional Heads of
India.
254 254

o Lord Mountbatten became first Governor General of Independent India.

o C Rajagopalachari became the first Indian Governor General of Independent
India.
• Regulating Act 1733→ Pitts India Act 1784→ Charter Act 1813→ Charter Act 1833→
Charter Act 1853→ GOI Act 1858→ICA 1861→ICA 1892→ICA 1909→GOI 1919→
GOI 1935→Indian Independence Act 1947
Schedules of Indian Constitution –
Schedule No. Details –
Schedule 1 Territories of 28 States and 8 Union Territories.
Schedule 2 Salaries & Allowances of President, VP, Speaker, Judges of Supreme
Court, High Courts etc.
Schedule 3 Oath and Affirmation to take before assuming a public office. (Shift 2
2022)
Schedule 4 Seats allocation of Rajya Sabha. (March 2023 Shift 1)
Schedule 5 Administration of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes. (Shift 2 2022)
Schedule 6 Administration of Tribal Areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram. (March
2023 Shift 1)
Schedule 7 Three Lists – Union List, Subject List, Concurrent List. (Shift 2 2022)
(March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)
Schedule 8 Official Languages of India – 22 languages. (Shift 2 2022)
Schedule 9 Land Reforms. These acts are protected from Judicial scrutiny. Presently
there are 284 Acts
Schedule 10 Disqualification on grounds of Defection. (Anti-Defection). (March 2023
Shift 1)
Schedule 11 Panchayats – 29 Subjects.
Schedule 12 Municipalities – 18 subjects.
Parts of Indian Constitution –
• Indian Constitution has 25 Parts, 12 Schedules and 395 Articles.
• Three parts – 9A Municipalities, 9B Co-operative societies and 14A tribunals – are
added to the original constitution via Amendments.
Part No. Subject Matter Articles
Part I The Union and its Territories 1–4
Part II Citizenship 5 – 11
Part III Fundamental Rights 12 – 35
Part IV Directive Principles of State Policy 36 – 51
Part IV A Fundamental Duties 51 (A)
Part V The Union 52 – 151
Part VI The States 152 – 237
255 255

Part VII The States in Part B of First Schedule 238 (Repealed)

Part VIII The Union Territories 239 – 242
Part IX The Panchayats 243 – 243 O
Part IX A The Municipalities 243 P – 243 ZG
Part IX B The Co-operative Societies 243ZH – 243 ZT
Part X The Scheduled and Tribal Areas 244 – 244 A
Part XI Relation between the Union and the States 245 – 263
Part XII Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits 264 – 300 A
Part XIII Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within 301 – 307
India
Part XIV Services Under the Union and the States 308 – 323
Part XIVA Tribunals 323A – 323B
Part XV Elections 324 – 329A
Part XVI Special provisions relating to certain classes 330 – 342
Part XVII Official language 343 – 351
Part XVIII Emergency Provisions 352 – 360
Part XIX Miscellaneous 361 – 367
Part XX Amendments 368
Part XXI Temporary, Transitional and Special 369 – 392
Provisions
Part XXII Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative 393 – 395
Text in Hindi and Repeals
Constituent Assembly Debates –
• M.N. Roy first proposed the idea of Constituent Assembly in 1934.
• Demand taken up by Congress Party in 1935.
• British Accepted this in August offer in 1940.
• Acc. to Cabinet Mission Plan 1946, Constituent Assembly of India was formed
through Election. (Shift 2 2021)
• Total Members = 389. Princely States – 93. British India – 296.
• Dr. Sachidanand Sinha – interim President of Constituent Assembly.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad – elected first President of Constituent Assembly.
• H.C. Mukherjee – elected Vice-President of Constituent Assembly.
• B.N Rao – Chief Constitutional and Legal Advisor to the Constituent Assembly. (June
2024 Shift 2)
• Nandalal Bose and Prem Behari Narain Raizada and their team of artists took up the
task of handcrafting and illustrated the Constitution of India.
• Total Time Taken to Complete India’s Constitution = 2 years 11 months 18 days.
• Total No. of Sessions = 11 Sessions.
• 6th Dec 1946 – Formation of Constituent Assembly.
256 256

• 9th Dec 1946 – First Meeting of Constituent Assembly.

• 11th Dec 1946 – President = Rajendra Prasad appointed, VP = HC Mukherjee, Legal
Advisor = B.N. Rao.
• 13th Dec 1946 – Objective Resolution PASSED by Jawaharlal Nehru (Later on became
Preamble). (2020)
• 22nd Jan 1947 – Objective Resolution ADOPTED. (December 2019) (March 2023 Shift
2)
• 22nd July 1947 – National Flag Adopted.
• 15th Aug 1947 – Independence & Partition (India & Pakistan).
• 29th Aug 1947 – Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. BR Ambedkar as Chairman
with 6 members – KM Munshi, Muhammed Saadulah, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer,
Gopala Swami Ayyangar, N. Rao (replaced by BL Mitter) and TT Krishnamachari
(replaced by DP Khaitan).
• 26th Nov 1949 – Constitution of India ADOPTED AND ENACTED.
• 26th Jan 1950 – Constitution of India ENFORCED.
• First Speaker of Lok Sabha = Ganesh Vasudev Mavlankar.
o Main Committees & Their Chairperson –
• Drafting Committee – Dr. BR Ambedkar
• Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
• Union Powers Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
• States Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
• Steering Committee – Rajendra Prasad
• Rules of Procedure Committee – Rajendra Prasad
• Provincial Constitution Committee – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Major Amendments of Indian Constitution –
•1st Amendment Act, 1951 –
o To remove certain difficulties in land reforms, freedom of speech etc.
o Added 9th Schedule to protect land reforms related law and other law from
judicial review.
o Inserted Art 31A and Art 31B for saving laws providing for acquisition of
estates etc.
• 7 Amendment Act, 1956 –
th

o Abolition of Class A, B, C and D states – 14 States and 6 Union Territories

were formed.
o The provision of having a common High Court for two or more states was
introduced. (December 2018)
• Important State and Union Territory Related Amendments –
10th Amendment (1961) Dadra and Nagar Haveli incorporated into Indian Union
12th Amendment (1962) Goa, Daman and Diu incorporated into Indian Union
13th Amendment (1962) Nagaland was formed with special status under Article 371A
257 257

14th Amendment (1962) Puducherry incorporated into Indian Union

22nd Amendment (1969) Meghalaya as autonomous state within Assam
36th Amendment (1975) Sikkim as a full fledge state

• 24th Amendment Act, 1971 –

o It was brought in response to Golaknath Case (1967), in which SC held that
Parliament can’t amend Fundamental Rights.
o Affirmed the power of Parliament to amend any part of the Constitution
including fundamental rights. Thus, Added Art 13 (4)
• th
38 Amendment Act, 1975 –
o Made the declaration of emergency by the President non-justiciable. (Shift 2
2021)
• th
39 Amendment Act, 1975 –
o In Raj Narain Case (1975), Indira Gandhi was found guilty of election
malpractices. This amendment was brought to stop courts in interfering in
elections.
• nd
42 Amendment Act, 1976 –
o It brought so many changes to Indian Constitution that’s why it is known as
Mini Constitution. (Shift 2 2021) (June 2024 Shift 2)
o It was brought during the Internal emergency (1975-1977) of the Indira
Gandhi government.
o It Added three new words (i.e., Socialist, Secular and Integrity) in the
Preamble. (Shift 1 2021)
o Added 10 Fundamental Duties by the citizens (new Part IV A).
(December 2018)
o Made the constitutional amendments beyond judicial scrutiny.
o Raised Lok Sabha Tenure from 5 to 6 yrs.
o Facilitated the proclamation of national emergency in a part of territory of
India
o Extended the one-time duration of the President’s rule in a state from 6
months to one year.
o Added four new Directive Principles:
▪ Healthy development of children (Art 39),
▪ Free legal aid for poor (Art 39-A),
▪ Participation of workers in the management of industries (Art 43-A)
▪ Protection of environment, forests and wild life (Art 48-A)
(December 2018)
o Shifted five subjects from the state list to the concurrent list
▪ education,
▪ forests,
▪ protection of wild animals and birds,
258 258

▪ weights and measures

▪ administration of justice

• 44th Amendment Act, 1978 –

o It was enacted by Janata government after emergency to nullify some wrong
provisions of 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. (Shift 2 2021)
o Restored the SC and High Courts power of writs and judicial review
o Restored Lok Sabha Tenure to 5 years
o Replaced the term ‘internal disturbance’ by ‘armed rebellion’ in respect of
national emergency.
o Made the President to declare a national emergency only on the written
recommendation of the cabinet.
o For national emergency special majority of Parliament is required
o Deleted Right to Property as Fundamental Right and made it legal right
o Art 20 and 21 can’t be suspended during emergency.

• 52nd Amendment Act, 1985 – (Dec. 2024)

o It is popularly known as Anti-Defection Law. (March 2023 Shift 1)
o Added a new Tenth Schedule containing the details in this regard.

• 61st Amendment Act, 1989 –

o Reduced the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and state
legislative assembly elections.

• 69th Amendment Act, 1991 – (Dec. 2024)

o Union Territory of Delhi was given the special status of ‘National Capital
Territory of Delhi.’

• 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 –

o Granted constitutional status and protection to the panchayati raj
institutions.
o For this purpose, the Amendment has added a new Part-IX entitled as ‘the
panchayats’ and
o a new Eleventh Schedule containing 29 functional items of the panchayats

• 74th Amendment Act, 1992 – (Dec. 2024)

o Granted constitutional status and protection to the urban local bodies.
o For this purpose, the Amendment has added a new Part-IX-A entitled as ‘the
municipalities’ and
o a new Twelfth Schedule containing 18 functional items of the municipalities
259 259

• 86th Amendment Act, 2002 –

o Made elementary education a fundamental right.
o It added Art 21-A: State shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of 6 to 14
o Changed Art 45 of DPSP: State shall provide early childhood care and education
for all until age 6
o Added 51-A in Fundamental Duties: Duty of every citizen to provide education
to his child between 6-14 (March 2023 Shift 1)

• 91st Amendment Act, 2003 – (Dec. 2024)

o Made the total number of ministers in council of ministers shall not exceed
15% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha. Art 75 (1A) were added for this.

• 99th Amendment Act, 2014 –

o Replaced the collegium system to appoint judges of SC and HC with a new
body called National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)
o However, in 2015, the SC declared it unconstitutional

• 101st Amendment Act, 2016 –

o Good and Service Tax was introduced

• 102nd Amendment Act, 2018 –

o Constitutional Status was granted to National Commission for Backward
Classes (NCBC)

• 103rd Amendment Act, 2019 –

o A maximum of 10% Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections of citizens
of classes.

• 104th Amendment Act, 2020 –

o Removed the reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha
and state assemblies.
• 105 Amendment Act, 2021 –
th

o Restored the power of State governments to recognize Socially and

Educationally backward classes (SEBCs).
• 106th Amendment Act, 2023 (June 2024 Shift 2)
o The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023, reserves one-third of all seats
for women in Lok Sabha, State legislative assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly
of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, including those reserved for SCs and STs.
o Articles Inserted:
260 260

▪ Article 330A - Reservation for Women in LS

▪ Article 332A - Reservation for Women in State LAs
▪ Article 239AA - Reservation for Women in NCT of Delhi
▪ Article 334A - Reservations to become effective after delimitation is
undertaken and Census is conducted
o Time Period: Reservation to be provided for 15 years (can be extended)
o Rotation of Seats Reserved: After each delimitation

Major Articles of Indian Constitution –

• Article 1 – Name and Territory of the Union. “Bharat shall be a Union of States.”
(December 2018) (2020)
• Article 2 – Admission and Establishment of a New State.
• Article 3 – Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries, and name of
existing states.
• Citizenship Articles: Article 5 to 11
• Article 5 – Citizenship at the commencement of the constitution.
• Article 6 – Rights of citizenship of a certain person who has migrated to India from
Pakistan.
• Article 10 – Continuance of Rights of Citizenship.
• Article 11 – Parliament has the Power to Regulate the Right of Citizenship by Law.
• Fundamental Rights: Article 12 to 35 (December 2018) (June
2023 Shift 1)
• Article 12 – Definition of the State.
• Article 13 – Laws inconsistent with fundamental rights shall be declared null & void.
(Judicial Review)
• Right to Equality: Article 14 to 18 (Shift 2 2021)
• Article 14 – Equality before the Law.
• Article 15 – Prohibition of Discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex,
or place of birth. (June 2024 Shift 2)
• Article 16 – Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. (Dec. 2024)
• Article 17 – Abolition of Untouchability.
• Article 18 – Abolition of Titles.
• Right to Freedom: Article 19 to 22
• Article 19 – Guarantees to all the citizens the Six Rights and they are :
o a – Freedom of speech and expression.
o b – Freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms.
o c – Freedom to form associations or unions.
o d – Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India.
o e – Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India.
261 261

o f – Omitted
o g – Freedom to practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade
or business. (2020)
• Article 20 – Protection in respect of conviction for offences
• Article 21 – Protection of life and personal liberty (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Article 22 – Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
• Right Against Exploitation : Article 23 and 24
• Article 23 – Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour
• Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of children (Under the age of 14) in factories
and mines
• Right to Freedom of Religion : Article 25 to 28
• Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion
• Article 26 – Freedom to manage religious affairs (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 27 – Freedom as to pay taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
• Article 28 – Freedom from attending religious instruction (Shift 1 2022)
• Cultural and Educational Rights: Article 29 and Article 30
• Article 29 – Protection of interest of minorities. (Dec. 2024)
• Article 30 – Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
• Right to Constitutional Remedies: Article 32
• Article 32 – Remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights.
o What are the 5 Writs ? – (June 2019)
o Habeas Corpus – To ‘produce the body’ of the detained person within 24hrs.
o Mandamus – It is a ‘command’ issued to public official asking him to perform
his official duties.
o Prohibition – Issued by a higher court to a lower court to prevent latter to
exceed ‘jurisdiction’.
o Certiorari – Issued by a higher court to a lower court to transfer a case or to
squash the order.
o Quo Warranto – By ‘what authority’. It enquires the qualifications of a person
to a public post.

• DPSPs : Article 36 – 51 (December 2018)

• Article 39A – Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 40 – Organization of Village Panchayat. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 41 – Right to Work, Education and Public Assistance in certain cases. (June
2023 Shift 1)
• Article 44 – Uniform Civil Code. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 45 – Free and Compulsory Education for Children.
• Article 48 – Organization of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry.
262 262

• Article 49 – Protection of Monuments and Places and Objects of National

Importance.
• Article 50 – Separation of Judiciary from Executive. (SOP) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 51 – Promotion of International Peace and Security. (Only Article Dedicated to
Foreign Affairs)
• Article 51 (A) – Eleven Fundamental Duties.
• Article 52 – President of India. (June 2019)
• Article 54 – Election of President.
• Article 61 – Impeachment process of President.
• Article 63 – Vice President of India. (Shift 1 2022)
• Article 64 – Vice-President to be Ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha.
• Article 66 – Election of Vice President.
• Article 72 – Pardoning Power of President.
• Article 74 – Council of Ministers (CoM) to aid and advise the President. (Shift 2 2021)
(March 2023 Shift 2)
• Article 76 – Attorney General of India.
• Article 79 – Composition of Parliament – The President, Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha.
• Article 80 – Composition of Rajya Sabha. (December 2019)
• Article 81 – Composition of Lok Sabha. (Shift 1 and 2 2021)
• Article 83 – Duration of Parliament.
• Article 93 – Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• Article 110 – Definition of Money Bills. (Shift 1 2022)
• Article 112 – Annual Financial Budget.
• Article 114 – Appropriation Bills.
• Article 123 – President’s Power to issue Ordinance. (December 2019)
• Article 124 – Establishment of Supreme Court of India. (June 2019)
• Article 126 – Appointment of Chief Justice of India. (CJI).
• Article 129 – Supreme Court to be court of Record.
• Article 141 – Decision of Supreme Court to be Binding on All Courts.
• Article 148 – Comptroller and Auditor General of India. (CAG).
(December 2018) (Shift 2 2022)
• Article 153 – Governors of State. (December 2018)
• Article 161 – Pardoning Power of Governor. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 165 – Advocate General of State.
• Article 213 – Governor’s Power to issue Ordinance.
• Article 214 – High Courts for States. (December 2019)
• Article 215 – High Courts to be a Court of Record.
• Article 226 – Power of Hight Courts to issue Writs. (Writ Jurisdiction of HCs is greater
than SC).
263 263

• Article 263 – Inter-State Council (formed in 1990, appointed by President, headed by

Prime Minister).
• Article 266 – Consolidated Fund of India.
• Article 267 – Contingency Fund of India.
• Article 280 – Finance Commission. (Shift 1 2021)
• Article 300A –Right to Property (As a result of 44th Amendment, 1978- is a Legal Right)
• Article 312 – All India Service. (Here, Rajya Sabha enjoys more power than Lok Sabha).
(2020)
• Article 315 – Public service commissions for the union and for the states.
• Article 324 – Election Commission (Shift 1 2021) (Shift 2 2022)
• Article 338 – National Commission for SC (June 2019)
• Article 338A – National Commission for ST (June 2019)
• Article 338B – National Commission for OBC
• Article 343 – Official Languages of the Union. (22 Recognized Languages. 8th Schedule.)
• Article 352 – National Emergency.
• Article 356 – State Emergency (President’s Rule).
• Article 360 – Financial Emergency.
• Article 368 – Amendment to Constitution Procedure.

Union Executive: President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

The Union executive consists of the President, the Vice President, the Prime Minister, the
council of ministers and the attorney general of India.

President

• Articles 52 to 78 in Part V of the Constitution deal with the Union executive. He/she
is the constitutional head of the executive, legislature, and judiciary.
• The President is the head of the Indian State. He is the first citizen of India.

• The office of the President is based on the parliamentary system of governance,

where the President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers. (Nominal Head)
• The President is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.

Constitutional Provisions

• Part V, Chapter I (Articles 52-78) of the Indian Constitution deals with the Presi-
dent.
• Article 52 – There shall be a President of India.
• Article 53 – The executive power of the Union shall be vested in the President.
• Article 54 – Election of President.
• Article 55 – Manner of election of President.
• Article 56 – Term of office.
• Article 57 – Eligibility for re-election.
• Article 58 – Qualifications for election.
264 264

• Article 59 – Conditions of the office.

• Article 60 – Oath or affirmation.
• Article 61 – Procedure for impeachment.

Election of the President

The President is not directly elected by the people but by an electoral college through pro-
portional representation by a single transferable vote system.

The electoral college (Article 54) consists of:

1. Elected Members of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha)
2. Elected Members of Legislative Assemblies of States
3. Elected Members of Legislative Assemblies of Union Territories of Delhi,
Puducherry, and Jammu & Kashmir

*Nominated members are not eligible for voting for the election of president.

The value of a vote of an MLA is calculated as:

The value of an MP's vote is: Total Value of Votes of All MLAs ÷ Total Elected MPs

Election Process:

• The election is conducted by secret ballot using proportional representation and

single transferable vote.
• A candidate must secure a quota of votes to win:
• If no candidate secures the required majority, the candidate with the lowest votes is
eliminated, and his votes are transferred based on preferences.

Qualification & Tenure

• Eligibility (Article 58): Must be an Indian citizen, 35+ years old, qualified for Lok
Sabha election, and must not hold an office of profit.
• Conditions (Article 59): Cannot be an MP/MLA, entitled to official residence &
salary, and must act per constitutional provisions.
• Oath (Article 60): Administered by the Chief Justice of India or, in absence, the
senior-most SC judge.
• The President of India takes an oath to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitu-
tion and the law.
• Term & Re-election (Articles 56 & 57): 5-year term, can be re-elected multiple
times, continues until a new President takes office.
265 265

Impeachment (Article 61)

• Can be removed for violating the Constitution.

• Process: Motion initiated in either House, needs 1/4th members’ support, investi-
gated by the other House, requires 2/3rd majority in both Houses for removal.

Powers & Functions

1. Executive: Appoints PM, Governors, Judges, CAG, CEC, and heads of key institu-
tions.
2. Legislative: Summons/dissolves Lok Sabha, assents to bills, nominates Rajya Sa-
bha (12) & Lok Sabha (2 Anglo-Indians, now removed by 104th Amendment
Act).
3. Financial: Recommends Money Bills, presents the Union Budget, appoints the Fi-
nance Commission.
4. Judicial: Appoints Judges, grants pardons (Article 72) – Pardon, Commutation, Re-
mission, Respite, Reprieve.
5. Diplomatic & Military: Represents India, appoints ambassadors, declares war &
peace (with Parliament's approval).
6. Emergency Powers:
o National Emergency (Article 352) – War/external aggression/armed rebel-
lion.
o President’s Rule (Article 356) – State government failure.
o Financial Emergency (Article 360) – Threat to financial stability.

7. The President of India has three types of veto powers:

1. Absolute Veto – The President rejects a bill entirely; it does not become law. (Used
for private member bills and lapsed bills.)
2. Suspensive Veto – The President returns a bill for reconsideration, but if the Parlia-
ment passes it again, the President must give assent.
3. Pocket Veto – The President neither signs nor rejects the bill, keeping it pending in-
definitely (no time limit).

8. The President of India appoints the following officials by warrant under his sign and
seal:

• Chief Justice of India (CJI) and Judges of the Supreme Court

• Chief Justices and Judges of High Courts
• Governors of States
• Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG)
• Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners
• Chairperson and Members of UPSC (Union Public Service Commission)
• Attorney General of India

9. The President, under Article 341, has the power to specify the castes, races, or tribes as
Scheduled Castes.

List of presidents (In chronological order):

266 266

President Tenure Interesting fact

Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1950–1962 First President, Only President to serve two
terms; longest-serving President.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radha- 1962–1967 His birthday, September 5th, is celebrated as
krishnan Teacher's Day;
Dr. Zakir Husain 1967–1969 First Muslim President; shortest tenure due to
passing away in office.
Varahagiri Venkata 1969–1974 First person to have served as both Acting
Giri President and President. Associated with
Trade Unions.
Fakhruddin Ali Ah- 1974–1977 Second President to die in office; Emergency
med declared during his tenure.
Neelam Sanjiva 1977–1982 Youngest President (at 64); only one elected
Reddy unopposed; first Chief Minister of Andhra
Pradesh.
Giani Zail Singh 1982–1987 First Sikh President; tenure marked by Opera-
tion Bluestar and assassination of Indira Gan-
dhi. Used Pocket Veto.
R. Venkataraman 1987–1992 Worked with four Prime Ministers and ap-
pointed three during his tenure.
Dr. Shankar Dayal 1992–1997 Also worked with four PMs; appointed three
Sharma in his last year
K. R. Narayanan 1997–2002 First Dalit President; described himself as a
"working President"
Dr. A. P. J. Abdul 2002–2007 Known as the "Missile Man of India";
Kalam
Pratibha Patil 2007–2012 First female President of India.
Pranab Mukherjee 2012–2017 First Bengali to hold the post; awarded Bharat
Ratna in 2019.
Ram Nath Kovind 2017–2022 Second Dalit President; former Governor of
Bihar.
Droupadi Murmu 2022–present First tribal President; youngest to assume of-
fice; first born after Independence; first
woman to serve as Governor of Jharkhand.

Vice President of India

• The Vice President (VP) of India is the second-highest constitutional authority

and acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
267 267

• Steps in as Acting President in case of vacancy in the President’s office.

Constitutional Provisions

• Article 63: Provides for the office of the Vice President.

• Article 64: VP is the Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
• Article 65: VP acts as President in case of vacancy, until a new President is elected.

Election & Oath of Office

• Elected by an electoral college comprising MPs of both Houses (Elected + Nomi-

nated) (Article 66).
• Takes oath before the President (Article 69).
• Term: 5 years but can be re-elected.

Qualification & Tenure

• Must be a citizen of India, at least 35 years old, and eligible for Rajya Sabha
membership.
• No upper limit on re-election.
• He serves for a five year term but can continue to be in office, irrespective of the ex-
piry of the term, until the successor assumes office.

Powers & Functions

• Presides over Rajya Sabha but votes only in case of a tie.

• Acts as President when there is a vacancy in the office.
• Represents India at official functions and diplomatic events.

Removal of Vice President:

• Can be removed by Rajya Sabha with an absolute majority and agreed to by Lok Sa-
bha.
• Can give Resignation to President

• The constitution is silent on who performs the duties of the Vice-President, when a
vacancy occurs in the office before expiry of his term.
268 268

Vice Presidents Who Later Became President:

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan

1. Dr. Zakir Husain

2. V.V. Giri
3. R. Venkataraman
4. Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma
5. K.R. Narayanan

List of Vice Presidents of India

Vice President Term Interesting Fact

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1952-1962 Later became India’s 2nd President.
Dr. Zakir Husain 1962-1967 First Muslim President of India later.
V.V. Giri 1967-1969 First VP to become Acting President.
Gopal Swarup Pathak 1969-1974 First VP not to become President.
B.D. Jatti 1974-1979 Served as Acting President after Fakhruddin Ali
Ahmed’s death.
M. Hidayatullah 1979-1984 Also served as Chief Justice of India.
R. Venkataraman 1984-1987 Later became President of India.
Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1987-1992 Became President in 1992.
K.R. Narayanan 1992-1997 First Dalit President of India.
Krishan Kant 1997-2002 First VP to die in office.
Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002-2007 First VP to contest Presidential elections and lose.
Mohammad Hamid Ansari 2007-2017 Only VP after Radhakrishnan to serve two terms.
M. Venkaiah Naidu 2017-2022
Jagdeep Dhankhar 2022-present Former Governor of West Bengal.
269 269

Prime Minister

The Prime Minister of India (PM) is the head of government and holds the real executive
power.

The President is the constitutional head, but the Prime Minister leads the Council of Minis-
ters, formulates policies, and represents India on national and international platforms. (Real
Head)

Constitutional Provisions

• Article 74: The Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, aids and advises
the President.
• Article 75: The President appoints the Prime Minister, who must be a member of Par-
liament and enjoy the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
• Article 78: The PM acts as a link between the President and the Cabinet.
• Article 85: The PM advises the President on summoning and dissolving Parliament.

Appointment & Oath of Office

• Appointed by the President (Article 75), usually the leader of the majority party in
Lok Sabha.
• Takes oath administered by the President, pledging to uphold the Constitution and
serve the nation.

Qualification & Tenure

• Must be a citizen of India, an MP (or get elected within 6 months), and at least 25
years old (Lok Sabha) or 30 years old (Rajya Sabha).
• No fixed tenure: remains in office as long as they enjoy Lok Sabha’s confidence.

Powers & Functions of the Prime Minister

• Executive: Head of government, assigns portfolios, advises the President.

• Legislative: Leader of Lok Sabha, influences law-making, calls parliamentary ses-
sions.
• Financial: Guides budget-making, controls economic policies.
• Foreign Policy: Represents India globally, signs treaties.
• Emergency: Recommends imposition of emergency provisions.

Removal of Prime Minister

• Can resign voluntarily by writing to Vice President or be removed if losing Lok

Sabha’s majority (No-Confidence Motion).
• If the PM dies, the ruling party elects a new leader.
270 270

Deputy Prime Ministers of India:

Vallabhbhai Patel (1947–1950), Morarji Desai (1967–1969), Charan Singh (1979) , Jagjivan
Ram (1979), Yashwantrao Chavan (1979–1980), Devi Lal (1989–1991), L. K. Advani (2002–
2004)
List of Prime Ministers of India

Prime Minister Term Interesting Fact

Jawaharlal Nehru 1947-1964 Longest-serving PM (17 years), architect of modern
India.
Gulzarilal Nanda 1964 (interim) Served as acting PM twice, for 13 days each.
Lal Bahadur Shastri 1964-1966 Gave the slogan "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan".
Indira Gandhi 1966-1977 First female PM, imposed Emergency (1975-77).
Morarji Desai 1977-1979 First non-Congress PM, longest-lived PM (99 years).
Charan Singh 1979-1980 Never faced Parliament for a trust vote.
Indira Gandhi 1980-1984 Operation Blue Star (1984)
Rajiv Gandhi 1984-1989 Youngest PM (40 years old), introduced computer
revolution.
Vishwanath Pratap Singh 1989-1990 Implemented Mandal Commission for OBC reserva-
tions.
Chandra Shekhar 1990-1991 His government lasted only 7 months.
P. V. Narasimha Rao 1991-1996 Initiated economic liberalization (1991 reforms).
Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1996 (for 13 Led Pokhran-II nuclear tests (1998).
days)
H.D. Deve Gowda 1996–1997 Known for his focus on agricultural issues.
Inder Kumar Gujral 1997–1998 Known for the "Gujral Doctrine" in foreign policy.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1998-2004 Nuclear Tests (1998), Kargil War (1999)
Manmohan Singh 2004-2014 First Sikh PM, led major economic growth.
Narendra Modi 2014-present First PM born after Independence, initiated Digital
India, Make in India.

Important Facts:

• Prime Ministers who were not members of any House at the time of assuming office
– P.V. Narasimha Rao and H.D. Deve Gowda
• Prime Ministers who were members of the Rajya Sabha at the time of assuming of-
fice – Smt. Indira Gandhi, Inder Kumar Gujral, Dr. Manmohan Singh
• Prime Ministers who passed away during their tenure – Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Ba-
hadur Shastri, Smt. Indira Gandhi
271 271

Important committees/commissions headed by the Prime Minister of India:

1. NITI Aayog (Governing Council & Full-Time Members)

2. Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA)
3. Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA)
4. National Integration Council (NIC)
5. Inter-State Council (ISC)
6. Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF)
7. National Ganga Council (NGC)
8. National Security Council (NSC)
9. National Development Council (NDC) [Defunct]
10. Planning Commission [Defunct]

Council of Ministers
• The Council of Ministers (CoM) is the real executive body in India, headed by the
Prime Minister.
• Functions under Article 74: “There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime
Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of his
functions, act in accordance with such advice.”
• As per 91st Amendment (2003): Council of Ministers, including PM, cannot exceed
15% of Lok Sabha members.

Composition

Divided into three categories:

1. Cabinet Ministers – Senior ministers handling key ministries (e.g., Home, Finance,
Defence).
2. Ministers of State (Independent Charge) – Handle specific portfolios without a
Cabinet Minister above them.
3. Ministers of State – Assist Cabinet Ministers in governance.

Appointment & Oath

• Appointed by the President on the PM’s recommendation.

• Ministers of the Union take an oath of secrecy of office. (Article 75).

Tenure & Responsibility

• Holds office during the pleasure of the President.

• Collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Article 75(3)).
• Individual ministers are individually responsible for their departments.

Removal

• Ministers resign or can be dismissed by the President on the PM’s advice.

• Government collapses if the Lok Sabha passes a No-Confidence Motion.
272 272

Attorney General of India

• First law officer of India serves as the chief legal advisor to the Government of In-
dia.
• Appointed by the President under Article 76.

Qualifications

• Must be qualified to be a Supreme Court judge.

• Must be an Indian citizen with five years as a High Court judge or ten years as an
advocate.

Powers & Functions

• Advises the government on legal matters.

• Represents the government in the Supreme Court and High Courts.
• Attends Parliament sessions but cannot vote (Article 88).

Term & Removal

• No fixed tenure; serves at the pleasure of the President.

• Can be removed or resign at any time.

Restrictions

• Cannot hold private legal practice against the government.

• No restrictions on private practice otherwise.

Related Articles

• Article 76 – Appointment and duties of the Attorney General.

• Article 88 – Right to speak in Parliament but no voting rights.

Emergency Provisions –
• National Emergency –
o Article 352 –
o Grounds – National Emergency is declared – when the Security of India or a
part of it - is threatened by War or External aggression or Armed Rebellion.
o Duration – If approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the emergency
continues for six months, and can be extended to an indefinite period with an
approval of the Parliament for every six months.
273 273

o All articles except Article 20 and 21 can be suspended during National

Emergency.

• State Emergency – President’s Rule –

o Article 356 –
o Grounds – State Emergency is declared – in a situation has arisen in which the
government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions
of the Constitution.
o Duration – If approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the President’s Rule
continues for six months. It can be extended for a maximum period of three
years with the approval of the Parliament, every six months.
o After declaration of President’s Rule – She/He can declare that the powers of
the state legislature are to be exercised by the Parliament.
• Financial Emergency –
o Article 360 –
o Grounds – Financial Emergency is declared – if he is satisfied that a situation
has arisen due to which the financial stability or credit of India or any part of
its territory is threatened.
o Duration – Once approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the Financial
Emergency continues indefinitely till it is revoked.
o Once approved, repeated parliamentary approval is not required for its
continuation.

Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Court

Supreme Court of India

• Supreme Court is considered as “Protector of the constitution”.
• India follows an integrated judicial system with the Supreme Court at the top and
High Courts below it. This single system of courts, adopted from the Government
of India Act of 1935, enforces both Central laws as well as the state laws.

• The Supreme Court of India was inaugurated on January 28, 1950.

• Article: 124-147 of the Indian Constitution (Part V)

• Composition: Chief Justice of India (CJI) + 33 other judges (Originally, the strength
fixed at eight)
• Appointment: By the President on the recommendation of the Collegium system.
• The Three Judges Cases are a series of landmark Supreme Court judgments that
shaped the collegium system for the appointment of judges in India.
274 274

1. First Judges Case (1982) – Held that the President is not bound by the ad-
vice of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) in judicial appointments.
2. Second Judges Case (1993) – Established the primacy of the CJI in judicial
appointments, introducing the collegium system.
3. Third Judges Case (1998) – Clarified that the collegium consists of the CJI
and four senior-most Supreme Court judges, making collective decisions
on judicial appointments.
• The 99th Constitutional Amendment Act (2014) and NJAC Act (2014) replaced
the collegium system, but the Supreme Court struck them down in the Fourth
Judges Case (2015), restoring the collegium to protect judicial independence.
• A Supreme Court judge must take an oath before the President or an appointed offi-
cial before assuming office.
• Tenure: A Supreme Court judge serves until 65 years of age, can resign by writing to
the President.
• The salaries and pensions of the Supreme Court judges are determined by the Parlia-
ment.
• Removal: A Supreme Court judge can be removed by the President after Parliament
passes an address with a special majority on grounds of proved misbehaviour or inca-
pacity under Article 124(4).
• The first impeachment motion was brought against Justice V. Ramaswami.

• K.N. Singh had the shortest tenure (only 17 days) as the Chief Justice of India, while
Y.V. Chandrachud had the longest tenure (7 years and 10 days).
• Seat of Supreme Court (Article 130): The Supreme Court is based in New Delhi,
but the Chief Justice of India (CJI) can, with the President’s approval, establish sit-
tings at other places.
• So far, such sittings have been held in Hyderabad (1950) and Srinagar (1954).

Acting, Ad hoc, and Retired Judges

1. Acting Judge (Article 126) – The President can appoint a Supreme Court judge as
the Acting Chief Justice if the office is vacant or the Chief Justice is unable to perform
duties.
2. Ad hoc Judge (Article 127) – The Chief Justice of India (CJI) may appoint a High
Court judge as an ad hoc judge in the Supreme Court with the President’s approval if
there is a lack of quorum of SC judges.
3. Retired Judge (Article 128) – The CJI, with the President’s consent, can request a
retired SC or HC judge to sit and act as a judge in the Supreme Court.

Jurisdiction:

1. Original Jurisdiction (Article 131): Disputes between the Union and States or be-
tween States.
2. Appellate Jurisdiction (Article 132-134): Hears appeals against High Court deci-
sions.
3. Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143): The President can seek advice on legal matters.
4. Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32): Protection of Fundamental Rights.
5. Judicial Review (Article 13): Declares laws unconstitutional if they violate the Con-
stitution.
275 275

6. Court of Record (Article 129) – Supreme Court’s judgments are binding precedents,
and it can punish for contempt.

7. Constitutional Interpretation – Has the authority to interpret the Constitution as the

final authority.

Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32):

The Supreme Court's writ jurisdiction, under Article 32 of the Indian Constitution, allows it
to issue writs (orders) to enforce Fundamental Rights. These writs are:

1. Habeas Corpus: To produce a detained person before the court to determine legality
of detention.
2. Mandamus: To compel a public authority to perform its legal duty.
3. Certiorari: To quash an order already passed by an inferior court or tribunal.
4. Prohibition: To forbid an inferior court or tribunal from exceeding its jurisdiction.
5. Quo Warranto: To inquire into the legality of a person's claim to a public office.

• Article 32 allows the Supreme Court to issue writs for Fundamental Rights, while Ar-
ticle 226 allows High Courts to do so for both Fundamental Rights and other legal
rights. (Hence, High court writ Jurisdiction is broader than Supreme court writ Jurisdic-
tion)
• In the Vineet Narain Vs. Union of India case (also known as the "Hawala Scandal"
case), the Supreme Court of India used the principle of "continuing mandamus".
• Continuing Mandamus: This is a special type of mandamus (a judicial writ ordering
someone to perform a public legal duty) where the court not only issues the order but also
continues to monitor its implementation over time.

Supreme Court Advocates

1. Senior Advocates – Designated by the Supreme Court based on experience and ex-
pertise; cannot file cases directly.
2. Advocates-on-Record (AORs) – Only these advocates can file cases in the Supreme
Court after qualifying the AOR exam.
3. Other Advocates – Advocates enrolled in any State Bar Council under the Advocates
Act, 1961, can argue in the Supreme Court but cannot file documents or matters un-
less instructed by an AOR.
4. Attorney General of India (Article 76) – The highest law officer representing the
government in the Supreme Court.

Important Articles related to the Supreme Court of India:

• Article 214: High Courts for States

• Article 215: High Courts to be courts of record
• Article 216: Constitution of High Courts
• Article 217: Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court
• Article 219: Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts
• Article 220: Restriction on practice after being a permanent Judge
• Article 221: Salaries, etc., of Judges.
• Article 222: Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another
276 276

• Article 223: Appointment of acting Chief Justice

• Article 225: Jurisdiction of existing High
• Article 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain writs
• Article 227: Power of superintendence over all courts by the High Court
• Article 228: Transfer of certain cases to High Court
• Article 229: deals with administrative expenses of High Courts.
• Article 230: Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories
• Article 231: Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States
• Article 233 : Deals with the Appointment of District Judges

Judicial Review, Judicial Activism, Public Interest Litigation

1. Judicial Review

• Meaning: The power of the judiciary to examine the constitutionality of laws and ex-
ecutive actions.
• First Case (World): Marbury v. Madison (1803, USA) – Chief Justice John Marshall.
• Cases in India: The Supreme Court exercised its power of judicial review in several
landmark cases, including:
o Golak Nath Case (1967) – Limited the power of Parliament to amend Funda-
mental Rights.
o Bank Nationalisation Case (1970) – Struck down the nationalization of
banks as unconstitutional.
o Privy Purses Abolition Case (1971) – Declared the abolition of privy purses
unconstitutional.
o Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) – Established the Basic Structure Doc-
trine of the Constitution.
o Minerva Mills Case (1980) – Reaffirmed the Basic Structure Doctrine and
limited Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution.
• Important Article: Articles 13, 32, 131-136, 226, 227 of the Indian Constitution.

2. Judicial Activism

• Meaning: When the judiciary takes an active role in enforcing rights and policies, of-
ten interpreting the Constitution in an expansive manner.
• This term was first coined in 1947 by Arthur Schlesinger Jr.
• First Case (World): Lochner v. New York (1905, USA).
• In India, the doctrine of judicial activism was introduced in mid-
1970s.
• Associated People: Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer, Justice P.N. Bhagwati.
• Important Article: Articles 32, 226 (Fundamental Rights and Writ Jurisdiction).

3. Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

• Meaning: A legal mechanism allowing individuals or groups to file cases for public
welfare, even if they are not directly affected.
• The court fee for a PIL petition is Rs. 50 for each respondent (or opposing party).
• First Case (World): Brown v. Board of Education (1954, USA) – Civil rights case.
277 277

• First Case (India): Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979).

• Associated People: Justice P.N. Bhagwati, Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer.
• Important Article: Articles 32, 226 (Right to Constitutional Remedies).
278 278

High Courts in India

• Article: 214-231 of the Indian Constitution. (Part VI)

• The institution of High Courts in India originated in 1862 with the establishment of
High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. In 1866, High Court was estab-
lished at Allahabad.
• The Indian Constitution provides for a High Court for each state, but the Seventh
Amendment Act (1956) allows Parliament to establish a common High Court for
multiple states or states and a Union Territory.
• Currently, the number of High Courts is 25. There are 7 High Courts whose jurisdic-
tion extends over more than one state or union territory. Only Delhi and Jammu
& Kashmir are the two Union Territories that have their own High Courts.
• Out of them, only three high courts (Guwahati, Bombay and Punjab and Haryana
High Court) have jurisdiction over more than one state.
• Composition: Chief Justice + other judges (number varies)
• Appointment: By the President in consultation with CJI and Governor.
• Oath: A High Court judge takes an oath or affirmation before the state's Governor (or
their appointee) before assuming office.
• Tenure: A High Court judge holds office until age 62, can resign by writing to the
President, be removed by the President on Parliament's recommendation, or vacate
office upon appointment to the Supreme Court or transfer to another High Court.
• Removal of Judges: A judge of a high court can be removed from his office by an
order of the President. Judge of a high court can be removed in the same manner and
on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court.
• Transfer of Judges: The President can transfer a judge from one high court to an-
other after consulting the Chief Justice of India.
• Jurisdiction:
1. Original Jurisdiction: Cases involving fundamental rights, election petitions,
and disputes related to subordinate courts.
2. Appellate Jurisdiction: Appeals against lower court decisions.
3. Supervisory Jurisdiction (Article 227): Power to supervise lower courts.
4. Writ Jurisdiction (Article 226): Issues writs for fundamental rights and legal
matters.

High court having their benches at other places:

• Allahabad High Court: Has a bench in Lucknow.

• Bombay High Court: Has benches in Nagpur, Panaji (Goa), and Aurangabad.
• Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh High Court): Has benches in Indore and Gwalior.
• Guwahati High Court: Benches at Kohima (Nagaland), Aizawl (Mizoram), and
Itanagar (Arunachal Pradesh)
279 279

Important Articles related to the High Courts of India:

• Article 214: High Courts for States.

• Article 215: High Courts to be courts of record.
• Article 216: Constitution of High Courts.
• Article 217: Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court.
• Article 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.
• Article 227: Power of superintendence over all courts by the High Court.
• Article 231: Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States.

Important Terms Related To Judiciary –

• Judicial Review – Article 13 , and , Judicial Activism – Article 21. (2020)
• Writs Power of Supreme Court – Article 32 , and , High Court – Article 226.
• Judicial Activism was initiated by P.N. Bhagwati & Krishna Iyer in India. (March
2023 Shift 1)
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL) – Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is litigation that can be
filed by any member of the public In which the public interest is a subject. PIL is the
Last Resort of Citizens.
The concept of PIL started with the aim of bringing Justice within the reach of the poor,
vulnerable masses, and helpless victims of injustice. PIL cases are granted exception
from Locus Standi. (Shift 2 2021)
• Famous cases involving PIL are :-
o Bondhua Mukti Morcha case v. Union of India.
o Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Government of India.
o Ayodhya Disputes.
o MC Mehta v. Union of India.
o Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan.

Union Parliament: Structure, Role and Functioning, Parliamentary Com-

mittees

• The Union Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. (Articles 79 to 122)
• It consists of three components:

1. President of India
2. Rajya Sabha (Council of States – Upper House)
3. Lok Sabha (House of the People – Lower House)

Structure of Parliament
280 280

(a) Lok Sabha (House of the People)

• Lok Sabha was first constituted on 17 April 1952. (First Sitting: 13th May, 1952)
• Directly elected by the people of India. (first past the post Voting system)
• The election is based on the principle of universal adult franchise.
• Minimum age: 25 years for Lok Sabha.
• Maximum strength: 552 members (530 from States, 20 from UTs, 2 nominated from
Anglo-Indian community – nomination removed by 104th Amendment, 2019).
• Current strength: 543 members. (530 members from states, 13 members from un-
ion territories)
• Seats and boundaries changes after every census, through Delimitation Commission.
• Parliament has enacted the Delimitation Commission Acts in 1952, 1962, 1972 and
2002 for this purpose.
• The 42nd Amendment Act (1976) froze Lok Sabha seat allocation and state con-
stituency division at the 1971 level until 2000. The 84th Amendment Act (2001) ex-
tended this freeze until 2026.
• The 87th Amendment Act (2003) mandated delimitation of constituencies based on
the 2001 Census instead of the 1991 Census.
• Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha & State Assemblies is provided
under Article 330 & 332, with 84 seats for SCs and 47 seats for STs.
• Term: 5 years (can be dissolved earlier by the President).
• During a National Emergency, Parliament can extend the Lok Sabha’s term by
one year at a time, but not beyond six months after the emergency ends.

(b) Rajya Sabha (Council of States)

• Rajya Sabha was first constituted on 3 April 1952.

• Indirectly elected by State Legislative Assemblies. (Proportional representation
by means of the single transferable vote.)
• Minimum age: 30 years for Rajya Sabha
• Maximum strength: 250 members (238 elected + 12 nominated by the President).
• Current strength: 245 members.
• Term: Permanent House (1/3rd of members retires every two years, each member
have term of 6 years).
• The Constitution does not fix the Rajya Sabha members term, Hence Parliament
set it as 6 years under the Representation of the People Act (1951).
• The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the allocation of seats in the Ra-
jya Sabha.
• Rajya Sabha seats are allocated based on state population, leading to varying repre-
sentation (e.g., UP has 31 seats and Tripura has 1).
• Out of the 8 union territories, only three (Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu & Kash-
mir) have representation in Rajya Sabha.
• The president nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from people who have spe-
cial knowledge or practical experience in art, literature, science and social service.

General Provisions for both the houses:

• Resignation: A member can resign by writing to the Rajya Sabha Chairman or Lok
Sabha Speaker.
281 281

• Seat Vacancy: If absent for 60 days without permission, the seat may be declared va-
cant.
• Salary & Allowances: Constitution has no pension provision, but Parliament pro-
vides it.

Presiding Officers of Parliament

• Each House of Parliament has its own presiding officer.

• There is a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker for the Lok Sabha and a Chairman and a
Deputy Chairman for the Rajya Sabha.
• A panel of chairperson for the Lok Sabha and a panel of vice-chairpersons for the Ra-
jya Sabha is also appointed.

Presiding Officers of Lok Sabha

• The Speaker and Deputy Speaker positions originated in 1921 under the Govern-
ment of India Act, 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms).
• G.V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker, and Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the
first Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.

(a) Speaker of Lok Sabha

• Article 93: Lok Sabha elects a speaker from among its members.
• The date of election of the Speaker is fixed by the President.
• Tenure: 5 years (but continues until a new Speaker is elected.)
• The Speaker vacates office if:

1. He ceases to be a Lok Sabha member.

2. He resigns by writing to the Deputy Speaker.
3. He is removed by a resolution passed by a majority of Lok Sabha members
with 14 days' notice.

Powers & Functions:

The Speaker's powers and duties come from: The Constitution, Lok Sabha Rules of Proce-
dure and Parliamentary Conventions.

1. Conducts Lok Sabha proceedings and maintains order.

2. Decides on disqualification under the Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule).
3. Casts a deciding vote in case of a tie. (Article 100)
4. Certifies Money Bills (Article 110).
5. Represents Lok Sabha to the President and other authorities.
6. He presides over a joint setting of the two Houses of Parliament (Article 108). Such a
sitting is summoned by the President.
7. The Speaker is the final interpreter of the Constitution, Lok Sabha Rules, and
parliamentary precedents within the House.
8. The Speaker adjourns/suspends the House if quorum (1/10th of total strength) is
not met.
282 282

9. The Speaker appoints and supervises Lok Sabha committees and chairs the Busi-
ness Advisory, Rules, and General-Purpose Committees.

Speakers of the Lok Sabha

Speaker Term Interesting Facts
First Speaker of Lok Sabha; earlier Speaker of Constituent
G.V. Mavalankar 1952–1956
Assembly.
M.A. Ayyangar 1956–1962 First Deputy Speaker to become Speaker.
Headed the Committee that recommended Punjab Reor-
Hukam Singh 1962–1967
ganization.
1967–1969,
N. Sanjiva Reddy Only Speaker to become President of India.
1977–1980
1969–1971,
G.S. Dhillon First Speaker to resign and become a minister.
1971–1975
Bali Ram Bhagat 1976–1977 Later became the Governor of Rajasthan.
K.S. Hegde 1977–1980 Former Supreme Court judge.
Balram Jakhar 1980–1989 Longest-serving Speaker (two full terms).
Rabi Ray 1989–1991 First Speaker from Odisha.
Shivraj Patil 1991–1996 Later became Union Home Minister.
P.A. Sangma 1996–1998 First tribal Speaker of Lok Sabha.
G.M.C. Balayogi 1998–2002 First Dalit Speaker, died in a helicopter crash.
Manohar Joshi 2002–2004 First Shiv Sena leader to become Speaker.
Somnath Chatterjee 2004–2009 Expelled from CPI(M) for defying party orders.
Meira Kumar 2009–2014 First woman Speaker of Lok Sabha.
Sumitra Mahajan 2014–2019 Second woman Speaker and longest-serving female MP.
Om Birla 2019–Present

(b) Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha

• Article 93: Elected by Lok Sabha members.

• Acts as Speaker in their absence or vacancy.
• Can be removed by a resolution of Lok Sabha.
• Can resign by writing to the Speaker.
• He also presides over the joint sitting of both the Houses of Parliament, if the
Speaker is absent from such a sitting.
• The Deputy Speaker automatically becomes chairman of any parliamentary com-
mittee he is appointed to.
• When the Speaker presides, the Deputy Speaker functions as a regular member,
speaking, participating, and voting in the House.
• The consensus that the post of Deputy Speaker should go to the opposition party in
India emerged in 1996. (During 11th Lok Sabha)
• The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker, while assuming their offices, do not make and
subscribe any separate oath or affirmation.
283 283

(c) Panel of Chairpersons

• A few members nominated by the Speaker. (Not more than 10 members)

• Preside over Lok Sabha in the absence of both the Speaker & Deputy Speaker.
• A panel chairperson cannot preside if the Speaker or Deputy Speaker's office is va-
cant.
• In such cases, the President appoints a Lok Sabha member to perform the Speaker's
duties.

Speaker Pro Tem

• The outgoing Speaker vacates office before the first meeting of the new Lok Sabha.
• The President appoints a Speaker Pro Tem, usually the senior-most Lok Sabha
member.
• The President administers oath to the Speaker Pro Tem.
• He has all powers of the Speaker and presides over the first sitting.
• His main duty is to administer oath to new members and conduct the Speaker's
election.
• The office ceases once the new Speaker is elected, making it a temporary post for a
few day
• Pro tem speakers for the last 3 Lok Sabhas:

o 18th Lok Sabha (2024): Bhartruhari Mahtab (BJP)

o 17th Lok Sabha (2019): Virendra Kumar Khatik (BJP)
o 16th Lok Sabha (2014): Kamal Nath (Congress)
284 284

Presiding Officers of Rajya Sabha

(a) Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Vice President of India)

• Article 64: The Vice President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
• Presides over Rajya Sabha but is not its member.
• Only votes in case of a tie.
• The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha can be removed from his office only if he is re-
moved from the office of the Vice-President
• Cannot preside when a resolution for his removal is under discussion.
• When the Vice President acts as President, he does not perform his duties as
Rajya Sabha Chairman.

(b) Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha

• Article 89: Elected by Rajya Sabha members.

• Presides over the House in the absence of the Chairman.
• Can be removed by a resolution of Rajya Sabha.

(c) Panel of Vice-Chairpersons

• Nominated by the Chairman.

• Presides over Rajya Sabha in the absence of both the Chairman & Deputy
Chairman.

Leaders in Parliament

1. Leader of the House – A minister, usually the Prime Minister, responsible for man-
aging government business in Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha.
2. Leader of the Opposition – Heads the largest opposition party with at least 10%
seats in the House, providing constructive criticism of the government.
3. Whip – Appointed by political parties to maintain discipline, ensure members vote
as per the party line, and manage parliamentary strategy.

Sessions of Parliament

1. Budget Session (Feb-May) – The longest session, focusing on the Union Budget
and financial bills.
2. Monsoon Session (July-Sept) – Discusses pending bills and government policies.
3. Winter Session (Nov-Dec) – A short session for legislative work and discussions.

• The President summons each session.

• Minimum gap between two sessions: 6 months (Parliament must meet at least twice
a year).
285 285

Parliamentary Terms

• Recess – The gap between two sessions of Parliament.

• Adjournment – A temporary suspension of a sitting for a few hours/days by the
presiding officer.
• Adjournment Sine Die – Suspension without a fixed date for resumption.
• Prorogation – The President ends a parliamentary session on the government's ad-
vice.
• Dissolution – The Lok Sabha is terminated, either automatically after 5 years or
earlier by the President. (Rajya Sabha, being a permanent House, is not subject to
dissolution.)
• A Lame-duck Session is the last session of an outgoing Lok Sabha, held after new
elections but before dissolution.

Devices of Parliamentary Proceedings

1. Question Hour – First hour of a sitting, where MPs ask questions to minister.

• Starred Question– Requires an oral answer, allowing supplementary ques-

tions.
• Unstarred Question – Requires a written answer, with no supplementary
questions.
• Short Notice Question – Asked with less than 10 days' notice, answered
orally.

2. Zero Hour – Unscheduled time after Question Hour for raising urgent matters.
3. Motions – Formal proposals for discussion (e.g., Adjournment Motion, No-Confi-
dence Motion).
4. Resolutions – Formal expressions of opinion or decision of the House.
5. Calling Attention Motion – Used to bring urgent public issues to ministerial notice.
6. Half-an-Hour Discussion – Raised for clarifications on ministerial replies.
7. Short Duration Discussion – Also called ‘Two-Hour Discussion’, for discussing im-
portant matters without voting.
8. No-Confidence Motion – Moved by the opposition, if passed, the government must
resign. (The motion needs the support at least of 50 members to be admitted.)
9. Confidence Motion – Moved by the government to prove its majority in the House.
10. Motion of Thanks – Moved to thank the President for their address to Parliament.

Position of Rajya Sabha

Equal Status with Lok Sabha:

1. Ordinary Bills – Can originate, amend, or reject (Article 107).

2. Constitution Amendment Bills – Equal participation (Article 368).
3. Approval of Emergency Provisions – Requires Rajya Sabha’s approval (Articles
352, 356, 360).
286 286

4. Impeachment of President & Removal of VP, Judges – Equal role in proceedings.

5. Approval of Ordinances – Must approve ordinances issued by the President (Article
123).

Unequal Status with Lok Sabha:

1. Money Bills – Rajya Sabha can only suggest changes; Lok Sabha has the final say
(Article 110).
2. Financial Bills – Cannot introduce or amend, only recommend changes.
3. Confidence & No-Confidence Motions – Rajya Sabha does not participate.
4. Joint Sitting – In case of deadlock, a joint sitting is called, where Lok Sabha domi-
nates due to numbers (Article 108).
5. Control Over Council of Ministers – Rajya Sabha cannot remove the government.

Role & Functioning of Parliament

(a) Legislative Functions

• Makes laws on subjects in the Union & Concurrent List.

• Can legislate on State List during Emergency (Article 249, 250, 252).
• Article 249 empowers Parliament to legislate on a matter in the State List if Rajya
Sabha passes a resolution by a two-thirds majority stating that it is necessary in
the national interest.
• Bills must pass both Houses and receive Presidential assent to become laws.

Types of Bills in Parliament

1. Ordinary Bills – Covers non-financial matters (Article 107).

2. Money Bills – Deals with taxation, public expenditure, etc. (Article 110).
3. Financial Bills – Related to financial matters, but not Money Bills (Article 117).
4. Constitution Amendment Bills – Amends provisions of the Constitution (Article
368).

Difference Between Ordinary Bill and Money Bill

Feature Ordinary Bill Money Bill

Article 107 110

Introduced Either Lok Sabha or

Only in Lok Sabha
in Rajya Sabha

Introduced Any Member of

Only a Minister on President’s recommendation
by Parliament (MP)
287 287

Rajya Can reject, amend,

Can recommend changes, but Lok Sabha may reject
Sabha’s or delay up to six
them
Role months

President’s Can be sent back for

Must be given assent by the President
Assent reconsideration

Bills on education,
Examples Bills on taxation, borrowing, expenditure, etc.
health, trade, etc.

Joint Sitting of Two Houses

• Article 108: Provides for a joint sitting of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to resolve
deadlocks on Ordinary Bills (not for Money Bills or Constitutional Amendment
Bills).
• Presided by: Speaker of Lok Sabha (or Deputy Speaker, or in their absence, Deputy
Chairman of Rajya Sabha). (BUT Never Presided by Chairman of Rajya Sabha!)
• Called by: President of India.
• Occurs when: Rajya Sabha rejects a bill passed by Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha de-
lays a bill for more than six months, Lok Sabha disagrees with Rajya Sabha’s
amendments.
• Notable Joint Sittings: 3 Times: 1960: Dowry Prohibition Bill, 1977: Banking Ser-
vice Commission (Repeal) Bill, 2002: POTA Bill (Prevention of Terrorism Act).

Budget in Parliament

• Article 112: The Annual Financial Statement (Budget) is presented by the finance
minister in Lok Sabha.
• Types:
1. Annual Budget – Main budget for the financial year.
2. Interim Budget – Temporary budget before general elections.
3. Vote on Account – Grants funds for govt. expenses until the full budget is
passed.
• Stages of Budget Process:
1. Presentation – By Finance Minister (usually on February 1).
2. General Discussion – No voting, only debate.
3. Scrutiny by Departmental Committees – Detailed examination.
4. Voting on Demands for Grants – Lok Sabha votes (Rajya Sabha has no
role).
5. Passing of Appropriation & Finance Bills – Final approval for expenditure
& taxes.
• Till 2017, the Government of India had two budgets, namely, the Railway Budget and
the General Budget. Later Government merged both into one. Hence, there is now
only one budget for the Government of India i.e., Union Budget.
288 288

• Rule of Lapse: The Rule of Lapse means that unspent funds from the budget ex-
pire at the end of the financial year and return to the Consolidated Fund of India,
requiring fresh approval in the next budget.

Various Type of Grants:

• Demands for Grants: Detailed requests for funds made by various ministries, voted
upon in Lok Sabha.
• Supplementary Grant: Additional funds required during the financial year due to
unforeseen expenses.
• Additional Grant: Funds granted for a new service or activity not included in the
budget.
• Excess Grant: Approval sought for expenditure already incurred beyond the budg-
eted amount.
• Vote of Credit: Granted for unexpected and urgent expenditure without detailed
discussion.
• Token Grant: A nominal amount granted to approve reallocation of funds within a
ministry.

Funds of India
The Constitution of India provides for the following three kinds of funds for the Central gov-
ernment:

1. Consolidated Fund of India (Article 266 (1)): The main fund of the government, which
includes all revenues, loans, and repayments. No money can be withdrawn without Parlia-
ment’s approval.

2. Public Account of India (Article 266 (2)): Handles public money like provident funds,
small savings, etc. Withdrawals do not require Parliament’s approval.
3. Contingency Fund of India (Article 267): An emergency fund at the President’s disposal
for unforeseen expenses, replenished by the Parliament.

(b) Financial Functions

• Lok Sabha controls finances – Money Bills can only be introduced here.
• Approves the Annual Budget (Article 112 – Annual Financial Statement).
• Parliament approves taxation and expenditure.

(c) Executive Control

• The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

• Parliament can remove the government by a No-Confidence Motion.
• Ministers can be questioned and held accountable through debates and committees.
289 289

(d) Electoral Functions

• Participates in the election of the President and Vice President.

• Elects the Speaker, Deputy Speaker, and Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha.

(e) Judicial Functions

• Can impeach the President (Article 61).

• Removes Supreme Court & High Court judges (Article 124 & 217).

(f) Constitutional Amendment Powers

• Can amend the Constitution (Article 368).

• Some amendments require ratification by half the States.

Allocation of Seats in Parliament (in states and UTs):

Northeast India
East India
• Assam: 14 (LS), 7 (RS)
• Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura: 2 each • West Bengal: 42 (LS), 16 (RS)
(LS), 1 each (RS) • Odisha: 21 (LS), 10 (RS)
• Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizo- • Bihar: 40 (LS), 16 (RS)
ram, Sikkim: 1 each (LS & RS) • Jharkhand: 14 (LS), 6 (RS)
290 290

North India West India

• Uttar Pradesh: 80 (LS), 31 (RS) • Maharashtra: 48 (LS), 19 (RS)

• Punjab: 13 (LS), 7 (RS) • Rajasthan: 25 (LS), 10 (RS)
• Haryana: 10 (LS), 5 (RS) • Gujarat: 26 (LS), 11 (RS)
• Himachal Pradesh: 4 (LS), 3 (RS) • Goa: 2 (LS), 1 (RS)
• Uttarakhand: 5 (LS), 3 (RS)
• Jammu & Kashmir: 5 (LS), 4 (RS)

South India Union Territories Representation:

• Tamil Nadu: 39 (LS), 18 (RS) • Delhi: 7 (LS), 3 (RS)

• Karnataka: 28 (LS), 12 (RS) • Puducherry: 1 (LS), 1 (RS)
• Andhra Pradesh: 25 (LS), 11 (RS)
• Kerala: 20 (LS), 9 (RS) Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Chandi-
• Telangana: 17 (LS), 7 (RS) garh, Ladakh: 1 each (LS)
291 291

Seats Reserved for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (highest to lowest)

1. Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) in
the Lok Sabha, with 17 seats, followed by West Bengal with 10 seats.
2. Bihar have 9 seats, and Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh with 7 seats each reserved
for SCs.
3. Rajasthan and Maharashtra have 6 seats each, while Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
have 5 seats each. Several states, including Haryana, Punjab, Odisha, and Telangana,
have 4 seats each reserved for SCs.
4. For Scheduled Tribes (STs), Madhya Pradesh has the highest reservation with 6 seats,
followed by Gujarat and Odisha with 5 seats each.
5. Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh have 4 seats each, while Jharkhand and As-
sam have 3 seats each For Scheduled Tribes.
6. Many northeastern states, including Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Naga-
land, and Sikkim, have 1 seat each reserved for STs.

Parliamentary Committees
Parliamentary Committees play a crucial role in scrutinizing legislation, overseeing the exec-
utive, and ensuring accountability.

They derive their authority from Article 105 (Privileges of MPs) and Article 118 (Rules for
Parliamentary Proceedings) of the Constitution.

Types of Parliamentary Committees

Parliamentary Committees are broadly classified into Standing Committees and Ad Hoc
Committees.

1. Standing Committees: These are permanent committees that function continuously and
are reconstituted annually. They are further categorized into:

A. Financial Committees

1. Public Accounts Committee (PAC) – Article 151

o This committee was set up first in 1921.
o Comprises 22 members (15 from Lok Sabha + 7 from Rajya Sabha).
o Examines government expenditure and audits CAG reports.
o The Speaker appoints the Chairman, traditionally from the Opposition. (con-
vention since 1967)
2. Estimates Committee
o The first Estimates Committee in the post-independence era was constituted in
1950 on the recommendation of John Mathai.
o The term of office is one year.
o Has 30 Lok Sabha members, no Rajya Sabha representation.
o Examines whether funds are being used efficiently.
o The function of the committee is to examine the estimates included in the
budget and suggest ‘economies’ in public expenditure.
292 292

The Chairman is from the ruling party.

o
3. Committee on Public Undertakings
o This committee was created in 1964 on the recommendation of the Krishna
Menon Committee.
o Committee members are elected annually by Parliament through proportional
representation using a single transferable vote.
o Comprises 22 members (15 Lok Sabha + 7 Rajya Sabha).
o Examines the performance of Public Sector Enterprises (PSUs).

B. Department-Related Standing Committees (DRSCs) – Introduced in 1993

• There are 24 DRSCs (8 work under the Rajya Sabha and 16 under the Lok Sabha.)
• The rules regarding Department-Related Parliamentary Standing Committees
(DRSCs) were made in 1989, and these committees were formally established in
1993.
• Comprise 31 members (21 from Lok Sabha + 10 from Rajya Sabha).
• Lok Sabha members are nominated by the Speaker, and Rajya Sabha members by the
Chairman.
• A minister is not eligible to be nominated as a member of any of the standing com-
mittees.
• The term of office of each standing committee is one year.
• Examine bills, budgets, and policies related to respective ministries.

2. Ad Hoc Committees: These committees are temporary and formed for specific pur-
poses.

1. Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) – Formed to examine important bills or fi-

nancial irregularities.
2. Select Committees – Formed to scrutinize specific bills in detail.
3. Inquiry Committees – Investigate specific allegations or issues.

Committees to Inquire

These committees investigate specific issues related to government functioning, corruption,

or administrative lapses.

1. Committee on Petitions – Examines petitions submitted by the public and recom-

mends action. The Lok Sabha committee consists of 15 members, while the Rajya Sa-
bha committee consists of 10 members.
2. Committee of Privileges – Investigates breaches of parliamentary privileges and sug-
gests remedies. The Lok Sabha committee has 15 members, while the Rajya Sabha
committee has 10 members.
3. Ethics Committee – Examines ethical conduct of MPs and recommends disciplinary
action. This committee was constituted in Rajya Sabha in 1997 and in Lok Sabha in
2000.
293 293

Parliamentary Committees –
Committee Name Year Composition Work
Public Accounts 1921 15 LS + 7 RS = Examines Public Expenditure.
Committee (PAC) (oldest) TOTAL 22 members Submits Reports to the CAG.
(December 2018)
(2020)
Estimates Committee 1921 30 Members Examines Estimates in the
(December 2018) from LS only Budget and Checks Economic
(2020) Policies.
Public Undertaking 1964 15 LS + 7 RS = To Check Governmental
Committee (PUC) TOTAL 22 members Undertakings
(2020)
Committee on 1953 15 LS + 10 RS = To check Promises & Assurances
Government TOTAL 22 members of Ministers
Assurances
(December 2018)
Committee on - 15 LS (separately) To study about Bills and General
Petition 10 RS (separately) Matters
Committee on - 15 LS (separately) To examine Breaches of
Privileges 10 RS (separately) Privileges
Committee on Private - 15 LS (separately) -
Members’ Bill
Rules Committee - 15 LS (separately) To check Rules of the Houses
16 RS (separately)
Business Advisory 1952 15 (separately) To check Business of the Houses
Committee 11 (separately)
(December 2018)

Landmark Judgements of India –

Year Landmark Case – Case Theme –
1951 Shankari Prasad v. ● Theme : Amenability of Fundamental Rights.
Union of India ● - Supreme Court said that the Parliament’s
power to amend under Article 368 also includes
the power to amend the Fundamental Rights
guaranteed in Part III of the Constitution.
1960 Berubari Union Case ● Theme : Article 3 – Berubari Union related.
(March 2023 Shift 1)
294 294

● - Supreme Court examined Article 3 in detail

and held that the Parliament cannot
make laws under this article in order to execute
the Nehru-Noon agreement.
● - The Parliament does NOT have power to give
away any territory of India without amending
the Constitution first.
1967 Golak Nath v. ● Theme : Right to Property – is it a
State of Punjab Fundamental Right?
(June 2023 Shift 1) ● - Supreme Court ruled that Parliament
doesn’t have the power to restrict any of the
Fundamental Rights enshrined in the
Constitution. Right to Property was deemed to
be a fundamental right.
1973 Kesavananda Bharati ● Theme : Basic Structure of Indian
v. State of Kerala Constitution.
(March 2023 Shift 1) ● - The record 13 judge bench ruled in 7:6 ratio
(June 2023 Shift 1) in the final judgement.
● - Kesavananda Bharati introduced the Basic
Structure doctrine.
● - This doctrine of Basis Structure - becomes
the basis from 1973 onwards in Indian law – by
which the judiciary can strike down any
amendment passed by Parliament that violates
the Basic structure of the Constitution.
1975 State of Uttar Pradesh ● Theme : Election Malpractices.
v. Raj Narain ● Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi
guilty of electoral malpractices. HC declared the
election verdict in the Rae Bareilly constituency
"null and void", and barred I.Gandhi from
holding elected office for 6 years.
● The Representation of People (RoP) Act of
1951 lists out the grounds on which the election
of a candidate can be called into question.
1975 Indira Gandhi v. Raj ● Theme : Basic Structure Norms and Election.
Narain ● This was the first case where Basic Structure
doctrine was applied and it struck down an
amendment in verdict.
● When the 39th Amendment was passed by
the Indira Gandhi Government, most of the
members of the Parliament were absent and
295 295

arrested under Preventive detention. It was

seen that this amendment destroyed separation
of powers and judicial review which also are an
integral part of the basic structure of the
Constitution.
● After this verdict, 39th Amendment act, 1975
was struck down as it was unconstitutional and
violative of the basic structure of the
Constitution.
1978 Maneka Gandhi ● Theme : ‘Personal Liberty’ under Article 21.
v. Union of India ● - SC gave its verdict that the term ‘Personal
(June 2023 Shift 1) Liberty’ has a wide implication and constitutes a
variety of rights which constitute the personal
liberty of a man.
● - ‘Procedure Established by Law’ was
highlighted in this case.
1980 Minerva Mills ● Theme : Balance btwn DPSPs and
v. Union of India Fundamental Rights.
(Shift 1 2022) ● - Case related to Judicial Review.
(June 2023 Shift 1) ● - Harmony and Balance between DPSP and
Fundamental Rights was highlighted.
1981 Waman Rao v. Union of ● Theme : Date of Basic Structure Application.
India ● Waman Rao case verdict made :- April 24th,
1973 i.e., the date of the Kesavananda Bharati
judgement, as the date from which The Courts
will examine the cases and apply Doctrine of
Basic Structure to it. Earlier cases than April 24th
– will not be looked at retrospectively.
1985 Shah Bano Begum Case ● Theme : Right to Alimony.
● The SC upheld the Right to Alimony for a
Muslim woman and said that the Code of
Criminal Procedure, 1973 is applicable to All
Citizens - Irrespective of their religion.
1986 MC Mehta v. Union of ● Theme : Environmental Protection.
India ● A PIL (Public Interest Litigation) by MC Mehta
in 1986 enlarged the scope of Articles 21 and 32
to include – Right to Healthy and Pollution-free
Environment.
1992 Indra Sawhney v. Union ● Theme : On Reservations.
of India ● Rule of Law.
● Reservation shall not exceed 50%
296 296

● SC said that Caste could be a factor for

identifying Backward Classes.
1993 Kihoto Hollohan v. ● Theme : Role of Speaker & Anti-Defection
Zachilhu Laws.
● Free and Fair Elections
● Sovereign, Democratic, Republican structure
1994 S.R. Bommai v. Union of ● Theme : Centre-State Relations and
India Federalism.
● Article 356 – This verdict puts an end to the
practice of arbitrary dismissal of State
governments under Article 356 by giving out
Restrictions on President’s Rule.
● Power of the President to dismiss a State
government is not absolute.
● Floor-test is required in Vidhan Sabha.
1997 Vishaka v. State of ● Theme : Sexual Harassment at Workplace.
Rajasthan ● Vishaka and other women groups filed a PIL
against State of Rajasthan to enforce
Fundamental Rights for working women under
Articles 14, 19, 21.
● This case resulted in the Vishaka Guidelines
against Sexual Harassment at Workplace in
India.
2006 Kuldip Nayar v. Union of ● Theme : Domicile & Secrecy factor in
India Elections.
● Democracy
● Free and Fair Elections
2007 I.R. Coelho v. State of ● Theme : Ninth Schedule case.
Tamil Nadu ● The court gave the verdict that the Indian
judiciary has the right to review any law, which
destroy or damage the basic structure as
indicated in fundamental rights, even if they
have been put in 9th schedule.
● Separation of Powers
● Essence of Fundamental Rights
● Principle of Equality
2013 NOTA Judgement ● Theme : Right to Reject a Candidate in
Elections.
● - In 2013, SC introduced the concept of
Negative Voting – for the country’s electorate.
297 297

● - After this verdict, Voters have the option of

not voting for any of the candidates (NOTA) if
they don’t find any of the candidates’ worthy in
the ballot.
2014 Nirbhaya Case ● Theme : Reforms in Anti-Rape Laws.
● Introduction of the Criminal Law
(Amendment) Act, 2013 and definition of rape
under the Protection of Children from Sexual
Offences Act, 2012.
● Under this change, new offences such as
stalking, acid attacks, and voyeurism were
added into the definition of rape. Even the
threat of rape is now a crime and the person will
be punished for the same.
● The Criminal Amendment Act, 2013 is also
popularly referred to as the Anti-rape Act. The
minimum sentence was changed from 7 years to
10 years considering the increase in the number
of rape cases.
2014 Madras Bar Association v. ● Powers of the High Court under Articles 226
Union of India and 227.
2017 Shayara Bano v. Union of ● Theme : Triple Talaq Judgement.
India ● Supreme Court in a landmark 3-2 verdict, had
struck down instant triple talaq.
2017 Puttaswamy v. Union of ● Theme : Right to Privacy.
India ● In November 2012, Justice K.S. Puttaswamy
(Retired) filed a petition in the Supreme Court
(Shift 1 2021) challenging the constitutionality of Aadhaar on
the grounds that it violates the right to privacy.
● The SC declared the right to privacy as a
Fundamental Right protected under the Indian
Constitution.
● Right to Privacy now comes under Article
21(A) of the Constitution.
2018 Navtej Singh Johar ● Theme : Repealing Section 377.
v. Union of India ● Supreme Court of India decriminalized all
consensual sex among adults, including
homosexual sex.
● The verdict was hailed as a landmark
decision for LGBTQ+ rights in India
298 298

2019 M Siddiq v. Mahant ● Theme : Ayodhya Dispute case.

Suresh Das ● Supreme Court ordered the disputed land
(2.77 acres) to be handed over to a trust (to be
created by the Govt. of India) to build the Ram
Janmabhoomi temple.
● The court also ordered the Govt. to give an
alternative
5 acres of land in another place to the Uttar
Pradesh - Sunni Central Waqf Board for the
purpose of building a mosque as a replacement
for the demolished Babri Masjid.
2022 Janhit Abhiyan ● Theme : 10% Reservation EWS.
v. Union of India ● SC gave verdict – Upholding validity of the
103rd Constitutional Amendment.
● With a 3:2 ratio, the Supreme Court held that
the 103rd Amendment and EWS Reservations
are constitutionally valid.

Panchayati Raj (PRIs) –

Year Name Details
1957 Balwant Rai Mehta ● Appointed by? → Govt of India appointed
Committee Balwant Rai Mehta Committee.
● Purpose - To examine working of :–
1). Community Development Programme and
2). National Extension Services
● Recommendations = 3 TIER STUCTURE OF
GOVT.

1977 Ashok Mehta Committee ● Appointed by? → Janata Govt in appointed

(March 2023 Shift 2) (June 1977 Ashok Mehta Committee
2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024) ● Recommendations = 2 TIER STRUCTURE OF
GOVT.
1). District Level Zilla Parishad, and
2). Mandal Panchayat
3). Total 132 Recommendations to revive and
strengthen the Declining Panchayati Raj System.
● Ashok Mehta Recommended =>
Mandal Panchayats.
299 299

1978 Dantwala Committee ● Dantwala = Block Level Planning.

1982 Hanumantha Rao ● Appointed by? → Planning Commission.

Committee
● Hanumantha Rao = District Level Planning.

1985 GVK Rao Committee (June ● Appointed by? → Planning Commission.

2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024) ● Purpose - for
1). Rural Development and
2). Poverty Alleviation Programmes.
● Recommendations = Zilla – as the most
important point in Democratic Decentralization.
1986 LM Singhvi Committee ● Appointed by? → Rajiv Gandhi govt
(June 2023 Shift 2) (Dec. appointed LM Singhvi Committee.
2024) ● Purpose-For Revitalisation of Panchayati Raj
Institutions.
1988 Thungon Committee (June ● P.K. Thungon to examine the political and
2023 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024) administrative structure in the District for the
purpose of District Planning.
1988 Gadgil Committee ● Appointed by? → Congress Party.

● Recommendations = 3 TIER STRUCTURE

1). 3 Tiers at - (Village, Block, District Level)
2). The term of PRIs should be fixed at 5 years
1992 73rd Constitutional ● Main Outcomes of the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act Amendment –
(December 2023)
1. Organization of GRAM SABHA.

2. Creation of 3 TIER Structure at

✓ District (Zilla) Level
✓ Block Level
✓ Village Level
3. DIRECT ELECTIONS for Almost All Posts in
Panchayats -
But Exception – 1. Post of Chairman at District
Level and
2. Chairman at Block Level should be Indirect
Election.

4. Reservation :-
300 300

Mandatory Reservation :-
1. Reservation of seats for SCs & STs (on
Population-wise)
2. Reservation of seats for Women (1/3rd seats)
Not Mandatory, It is Voluntary Reservation :-
3. Reservation of OBCs

5. State Election Commission to conduct

Elections of PRIs.
6. State Finance Commission to be setup for 5
years

7. Tenure of Panchayats - 5 years

if dissolved earlier, Fresh Elections - within 6
months.
1994 Bhuria Committee Bhuria Committee was constituted in 1994 to
formulate law for extending the provisions of
the Part IX to the Scheduled areas and to
suggest modifications in other acts relevant to
the Fifth (V) schedule in order to further
strengthen the local self-governing areas.
1996 PESA Act • The recommendation of Bhuria
(June 2023 Shift 2) committee culminated in the enactment
of the Panchayats (Extension to the
Scheduled Areas) (PESA) Act 1996,
which came into effect on 24th
December 1996.
• The PESA Act has led to the extension of
the panchayats act to the tribal areas of
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
• This enables the tribal society to
effectively take control of their
traditional rights over natural resources.

• Articles of Panchayats ↓ (June 2019)

301 301

• Articles of Municipalities ↓
302 302

● Mayo's resolution of 1870:

o Its resolution pertained to financial decentralization that was a legislative devolution
inaugurated by the Indian Council Act of 1861.
o Lord Mayo's Resolution in 1870 made the first systematic attempt to make Provincial
Governments responsible for the development of Local Self Government with the policy of
decentralization for the management of their own local finances and functions. (June 2023
Shift 2)
o Mayo’s resolution of 1870 started the process of decentralization of finances. He
authorized provincial governments to resort to local taxation to balance their budgets.
o This was done in the context of the transfer of certain departments of administration
such as medical services, education, and roads to the control of provincial governments.
o This was the beginning of local finance in India. Mayo is called as the father of local
government in India.

● Parliamentary Proceedings (June 2023 Shift 2)

o Question Hour: The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. During
this time, the members ask questions and the ministers usually give answers. The questions
are of three kinds, namely, starred, unstarred and short notice:
1. A starred question (distinguished by an asterisk) requires an oral answer and hence
supplementary questions can follow.
2. An unstarred question, on the other hand, requires a written answer and hence,
supplementary questions cannot follow.
3. A short notice question is one that is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is
answered orally.
o Closure Motion: It is a motion moved by a member to cut short the debate on a matter
before the House. If the motion is approved by the House, debate is stopped forthwith and
the matter is put to vote. There are four kinds of closure motions:
(a) Simple Closure: It is one when a member moves that the ‘matter having been sufficiently
discussed be now put to vote’.
(b) Closure by Compartments: In this case, the clauses of a bill or a lengthy resolution are
grouped into parts before the commencement of the debate. The debate covers the part as
a whole and the entire part is put to vote.
(c) Kangaroo Closure: Under this type, only important clauses are taken up for debate and
voting and the intervening clauses are skipped over and taken as passed.
303 303

(d) Guillotine Closure: It is one when the undiscussed clauses of a bill or a resolution are also
put to vote along with the discussed ones due to want of time (as the time allotted for the
discussion is over).
o No-Confidence Motion: Article 75 of the Constitution says that the council of
ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It means that the ministry stays
in office so long as it enjoys confidence of the majority of the members of the Lok Sabha. In
other words, the Lok Sabha can remove the ministry from office by passing a no-confidence
motion. The motion needs the support of 50 members to be admitted.
o Privilege Motion: It is concerned with the breach of parliamentary privileges by a
minister. It is moved by a member when he feels that a minister has committed a breach of
privilege of the House or one or more of its members by withholding facts of a case or by
giving wrong or distorted facts. Its purpose is to censure the concerned minister.
o Motion of Thanks: The first session after each general election and the first session of
every fiscal year is addressed by the president. This motion must be passed in the House.
Otherwise, it amounts to the defeat of the government.
o Calling Attention Motion: It is introduced in the Parliament by a member to call the
attention of a minister to a matter of urgent public importance, and to seek an authoritative
statement from him on that matter. Like the zero hour, it is also an Indian innovation in the
parliamentary procedure and has been in existence since 1954. However, unlike the zero
hour, it is mentioned in the Rules of Procedure.
o In the Indian parliamentary proceedings, the Zero Hour starts immediately after the
Question Hour and lasts until the agenda for the day is taken up.
o No-Day-Yet-Named-Motion: It is a motion that has been admitted by the Speaker but
no date has been fixed for its discussion. The Speaker, after considering the state of business
in the House and in consultation with the leader of the House or on the recommendation of
the Business Advisory Committee, allots a day or days or part of a day for the discussion of
such a motion.
o Censure Motion: It should state the reasons for its adoption in the Lok Sabha. It can
be moved against an individual minister or a group of ministers or the entire council of
ministers. It is moved for censuring the council of ministers for specific policies and actions. If
it is passed in the Lok Sabha, the council of ministers need not resign from the office.
o Half-an-Hour Discussion: It is meant for discussing a matter of sufficient public
importance, which has been subjected to a lot of debate and the answer to which needs
elucidation on a matter of fact. The Speaker can allot three days in a week for such
discussions. There is no formal motion or voting before the House.
o Short Discussion: It is also known as two-hour discussion as the time allotted for such
a discussion should not exceed two hours. The members of the Parliament can raise such
discussions on a matter of urgent public importance. The Speaker can allot two days in a week
304 304

for such discussions. There is neither a formal motion before the house nor voting. This device
has been in existence since 1953.
o Point of Order: A Member can raise a point of order when the proceedings of the
House do not follow the normal rules of procedure. A point of order should relate to the
interpretation or enforcement of the Rules of the House or such articles of the Constitution
that regulate the business of the House and should raise a question that is within the
cognizance of the Speaker. It is usually raised by an opposition member in order to control
the government. It is an extraordinary device as it suspends the proceedings before the
House. No debate is allowed on a point of order.
o Special Mention: A matter which is not a point of order or which cannot be raised
during question hour, half-an hour discussion, short duration discussion or under
adjournment motion, calling attention notice or under any rule of the House can be raised
under the special mention in the Rajya Sabha. Its equivalent procedural device in the Lok
Sabha is known as ‘Notice (Mention) Under Rule 377’.
o Adjournment Motion: When there is an urgent matter of public importance then a
member may propose that the business of the house be adjourned for discussing that matter.
This motion can be moved only with the consent of the Speaker. Generally, such motions are
discussed in the afternoon at 4.00 p.m.
o Lame Duck Session: It refers to the last session of the existing Lok Sabha, after a new
Lok Sabha has been elected. Those members of the existing Lok Sabha who could not get re-
elected to the new Lok Sabha are called lame-ducks.
o Budget Motions: Three types:
1. Policy Cut: Reduces demand to one rupee to discuss policy in detail and propose alternative
suggestions.
2. Economy Cut: Substantial reduction in demand amount aimed at achieving expenditure
economy.
3. Token Cut: Reduces demand by Rs. 100 to address specific grievances within the
government's responsibility.

Supreme Court (June 2023 Shift 2)

● Justice Chandrachud is the 50th CJI and has taken over the post from Justice U.U Lalit.
(Article 145 of the Constitution gives the right to the Chief Justice of India to allocate the
respective matters of relevance to the bench of judges.)
● Composition: Including the CJI, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court. The judges
sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a
Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be
decided.
305 305

● Appointment: Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President
by warrant under his/her hand and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the
Supreme Court and of the High Court in the States as President may deem necessary for the
purpose and shall hold office until he attains the age of 65 years.
● Removal: ▪A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his Office by an order
of the President. The President can issue the removal order only after an address by
Parliament. The Judges Enquiry Act (1968) regulates the procedure relating to the removal
of a judge of the Supreme Court by the process of impeachment –A removal motion signed
by 100 members (in the case of Lok Sabha) or 50 members (in the case of Rajya Sabha) is to
be given to the Speaker/ Chairman. (June 2023 Shift 1)
● Original Jurisdiction: (March 2023 Shift 2)
o The Supreme Court of India does not have original jurisdiction over all courts and
tribunals.
o Its original jurisdiction is limited to specific types of cases as mentioned in the
Constitution of India.
o Like cases between the Government of India and one or more States, cases involving
the violation of fundamental rights, and disputes between the States themselves.
o In addition, it has the power to hear appeals from lower courts and tribunals in both
civil and criminal cases, as well as to issue advisory opinions on questions of law and
constitutionality referred to it by the President of India.
● Appellate Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in the
country. It hears appeals from judgments of High Courts and other lower courts in civil,
criminal, and constitutional cases. However, there are certain types of cases where the appeal
does not lie to the Supreme Court.
● Advisory Jurisdiction: The President of India can seek the opinion of the Supreme
Court on any question of law or fact of public importance. Although the opinion of the
Supreme Court is advisory and not binding, it holds significant weight.
● Writ Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has the power to issue writs for the enforcement
of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution. These writs include habeas corpus,
mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, and quo warranto.
o Habeas Corpus: This writ is issued to ensure the release of a person who has been
unlawfully detained or imprisoned. It commands the detaining authority to produce the
detained individual before the court and justify the legality of their detention.
o Mandamus: Mandamus is issued to compel a public official, corporation, or lower
court to perform a duty that they are legally obligated to perform. It ensures that public
authorities fulfil their statutory duties and prevents them from acting beyond their
jurisdiction.
306 306

o Prohibition: This writ is issued to prohibit lower courts, tribunals, or administrative

bodies from exceeding their jurisdiction or acting in an unlawful manner. It prevents them
from proceeding with a case or taking a particular action.
o Certiorari: Certiorari is issued to quash the decision of a lower court, tribunal, or quasi-
judicial body if it is found to be in excess of jurisdiction, erroneous on the face of the record,
or violative of the principles of natural justice. It is essentially a remedy for judicial review.
o Quo Warranto: Quo warranto is issued to inquire into the legality of a person holding
a public office and to challenge their authority to continue holding that office. It ensures that
public offices are not occupied by ineligible individuals.
● Guardian of the Constitution: The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the
Constitution and has the power of judicial review. It ensures that the laws passed by the
legislature and actions of the executive do not violate the provisions of the Constitution.
● Interpretative Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court interprets the Constitution and laws
of the country to ensure uniformity and consistency in their application throughout the
nation.

Executive and Legislature in the States: Governor, Chief Minister, State Legislature

State Executive

• Part – 6 (Articles - 153 to 167)

• The State Executive includes the Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, and
Advocate General of the State.

Governor
• The Governor is the nominal (constitutional) head of the state executive.
• Governor's Dual Role: He is both the constitutional head of the state and a repre-
sentative of the central government. Therefore, the Governor plays a dual role.
• There is a Governor for each state.
• As per the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1956, one person can be appointed as
the Governor of two or more states.

• The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of 5 years and holds office
during the pleasure of the President, acting on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

• Eligibility: To be a Governor, a person must be an Indian citizen and have completed

35 years of age.
• As per Article 159, the Governor takes an oath of office and secrecy in the presence
of the Chief Justice of the High Court of the concerned state, or in their absence, the
senior-most judge of that court.
307 307

Governor’s Powers and Functions

Executive Powers

• All executive actions of the state are taken in the name of the Governor.
• Appoints the Chief Minister and other ministers.
• Appoints the Advocate General of the State.
• Can nominate one member from the Anglo-Indian community to the State Legislative
Assembly if deemed necessary.
• Can act as a representative of the President during the President's Rule in the state.
• Acts as the Chancellor of state universities and appoints Vice-Chancellors.

Legislative Powers

• Addresses the first session of the state legislature after each general election and the
first session of every year.
• Can nominate 1/6th of the members to the State Legislative Council.
• Can reserve a bill passed by the state legislature for the consideration of the President.

Financial Powers

• Ensures that the annual financial statement (state budget) is presented before the state
legislature.
• Money bills can only be introduced in the state legislature with the Governor's prior
recommendation.

Judicial Powers

• Has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment, or to

suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offense
against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the state ex-
tends.
• Cannot pardon sentences of death.
• Can consult with the High Court regarding the appointment of persons to the State Ju-
dicial Service (other than District Judges).
• Under Article 201, when a bill is reserved by the Governor for the President's consid-
eration, the President can direct the Governor to return the bill (or parts of it) to the
state legislature for reconsideration.
• If a state legislature passes a bill again with or without amendments, and the President
withholds assent, the bill lapses.
• As per Article 213, when the state legislature is not in session, the Governor can
promulgate ordinances if immediate action is required.

• If the state legislature does not approve an ordinance promulgated by the Governor
within 6 weeks of its reassembly, the ordinance ceases to operate.

Governor's Discretionary Powers and Situational Powers

• Can reserve a bill for the President's consideration. (Article 200)

• Can recommend President's Rule in the state. (Article 356)
308 308

• seek information from the Chief Minister regarding administrative and legislative
matters. (Article 167)
• Can require a minister to submit a matter for the consideration of the CoM. (Article
167c)
• Can determine the amount of remuneration payable to the Chairman and members of
the State Public Service Commission. (Article 320 (3) (a) & (b))
• Can appoint a Chief Minister when no party has a clear majority. (Situational Discre-
tion)
• Can dismiss a government that has lost its majority. (Situational Discretion)

Union Territories and Administrators:

• Lieutenant Governors: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir,
Puducherry, Ladakh.
• Chief Commissioner: Chandigarh.

Key Articles Related to the Governor:

• Article 154: Executive power of the state.

• Article 155: Appointment of Governor.
• Article 157: Eligibility for Governor.
• Article 159: Oath by Governor.
• Article 161: Power of Governor to grant pardons.
• Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor.
• Article 165: Advocate General of the State.
• Article 167: Chief Minister's duty to furnish information to Governor.
• Article 200: Governor's power to return a bill for reconsideration.
• Article 213: Governor's power to promulgate ordinances.
309 309

Chief Minister (CM)

• The Chief Minister is the real executive head of the state government.
• The Chief Minister plays a crucial role in the state's legislative assembly.

• Article 164: The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other ministers, and they
hold office during the Governor's pleasure. The Chief Minister advises the Governor
on the appointment of other ministers.
• If a member of the Legislative Assembly is not elected within 6 months, they cease to
be a minister.
• The salaries and allowances of the Chief Minister and ministers are determined by the
state legislature.
• In case of a hung assembly, the Governor has the discretion to choose a Chief Minis-
ter.
• In the National Capital Territory of Delhi, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Pres-
ident. Other ministers are also appointed by the President on the advice of the Chief
Minister.
• The Chief Minister allocates portfolios to the ministers.
• The Chief Minister presides over the cabinet meetings.

Functions and Powers of the Chief Minister

• The Chief Minister is the head of the council of ministers and is responsible for coor-
dinating their activities.
• The Chief Minister can recommend the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly to the
Governor.
• The Chief Minister can formulate and implement policies.
• The Chief Minister can take decisions regarding the "Chief Minister's Relief Fund".

• The Chief Minister is the link between the Governor and the Council of Ministers.
• As per the 91st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003, the total number of ministers in
a state, including the Chief Minister, should not exceed 15% of the total number of
members of the Legislative Assembly.

• The maximum number of ministers in Delhi, including the Chief Minister, is 10% of
the total members of the Legislative Assembly.
• The longest-serving Chief Minister in India was Pawan Kumar Chamling of Sikkim.
• The "Paschim Banga Divas" (West Bengal Day) was celebrated for the first time on
June 20th.

Important Articles Related to Ministers

Article Subject
164 Salaries and allowances of ministers
166 Conduct of government business
167 Duties of ministers
177 Rights of ministers regarding the Houses
310 310

State Legislature (Articles 168 to 212)

• The state legislature consists of the Governor and the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan
Sabha). In some states, it also includes the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad).
• There are currently 6 states with Legislative Councils: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

• The Legislative Assembly is also known as the Lower House.

• As per Article 169, Parliament can create or abolish a Legislative Council if the con-
cerned state legislature passes a resolution to that effect by a special majority (2/3rd
majority).

Legislative Council

• As per Article 169, Parliament has the power to create or abolish a Legislative Coun-
cil in a state.

• The maximum strength of a Legislative Council is 1/3rd of the total number of mem-
bers in the Legislative Assembly of that state, and the minimum strength is 40.
• The minimum age for membership in the Legislative Council is 30 years.
• The term of the Legislative Council is permanent, with 1/3rd of its members retiring
every two years.

Composition of the Legislative Council

• Maximum Strength: One-third of the State Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha),

but not less than 40 members.

• 1/3rd members are elected by local bodies (municipalities, district boards, etc.).
• 1/3rd members are elected Local MLA.

• 1/12th Members: Elected by graduates of three years' standing and teachers of three
years' standing. (For teachers, higher secondary schools or equivalent educational in-
stitutions are included, not primary schools.)
• 1/6th Members: Nominated by the Governor from individuals distinguished in litera-
ture, science, art, the cooperative movement, and social service.
• The Legislative Council elects its own Chairman and Deputy Chairman.
• The Chairman and Deputy Chairman vacate their offices if they cease to be members
of the Council, resign, or are removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the
then members of the Council.
• The Chairman or, in their absence, the Deputy Chairman, presides over the sittings of
the Legislative Council.
• The Chairman or the person acting as such has a casting vote in the event of an equal-
ity of votes.

Legislative Council Powers

• Money bills can only be introduced in the Legislative Assembly, not the Legislative
Council.
311 311

• The Legislative Council can suggest amendments to a money bill, but the Legislative
Assembly has the power to accept or reject them.
• An ordinary bill originating in the Legislative Council can be detained by the Legisla-
tive Assembly for a maximum period of 4 months (3 months in the first instance and 1
month in the second).
• If both houses disagree on a bill, it lapses.
• A bill passed by the Legislative Council cannot become law unless it is also passed by
the Legislative Assembly.
• In a joint sitting of both houses, the will of the Legislative Assembly prevails due to
its larger membership.

Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)

• The Legislative Assembly is the lower and more powerful house of the state legisla-
ture.
• Members of the Legislative Assembly are directly elected by the people based on uni-
versal adult suffrage.
• The maximum strength of a Legislative Assembly is 500 members, and the minimum
is 60. (Exceptions: Puducherry (30) and Sikkim (32))

• Members elected by: Direct election

• Powers:
o Makes laws on state subjects.
o Controls the state budget and finance.
o Holds the state government accountable.
o Can pass a no-confidence motion to remove the Council of Ministers.

Articles Related to the State Legislature

Article Subject Matter

168 Constitution of Legislatures in States
169 Establishment and Abolition of Legislative Councils
170 Composition of Legislative Assemblies
171 Composition of Legislative Councils
174 Sessions, Prorogation, and Dissolution of the State Legislature
175 Governor's Right to Address and Send Messages to the House(s) of the Leg-
islature
176 Special Address by the Governor
177 Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as Respects the Houses
178 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly
182 The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council
187 Secretariat of State Legislature
190 Vacation of Seats
192 Decision on Questions as to Disqualifications of Members
202 Annual Financial Statement (Budget)
212 Courts not to Inquire into Proceedings of the Legislature
213 Power of Governor to Promulgate Ordinances during Recess of Legislature
312 312

Inter-State Council
The Inter-State Council (ISC) is a key constitutional body in India, designed to address issues
related to the distribution of power and responsibilities between the central and state govern-
ments.

Constitutional Provision:

• The Inter-State Council was established under Article 263 of the Indian Constitu-
tion.
• The President of India is empowered to establish the Council if it appears necessary to
do so for the "coordination of policy and action" between states or between states
and the Union.

Establishment of Inter-State Council

• Sarkaria Commission (1983–88) recommended the establishment of a permanent

Inter-State Council under Article 263 of the Constitution.
• In 1990, the Janata Dal Government under V.P. Singh established the Inter-State
Council in line with the Commission’s recommendations.

Composition:

• The Chairman of the ISC is the Prime Minister of India.

• Members of the Council include:
o Union Ministers (usually Cabinet Ministers).
o Chief Ministers of states and
o Chief Ministers of states Union Territories having legislative assemblies.
o Governors of states (as per the decision of the President).
o Administrators of union territories not having legislative assemblies
o Six Central cabinet ministers, including the home minister, to be nominated
by the Prime Minister

Other Facts:

• Five Ministers of Cabinet rank / Minister of State (independent charge) nominated by

the Chairman of the Council (i.e., Prime Minister) are permanent invitees to the Coun-
cil.
• The council is a recommendatory body on issues relating to interstate, Centre-state
and Centre-union territories relations.
• It aims at promoting coordination between them by examining, discussing and delib-
erating on such issues.
• The Council may meet at least thrice in a year and all questions are decided by con-
sensus.
• The Council is assisted by a secretariat called the Inter-State Council Secretariat.
This secretariat was set-up in 1991 and is headed by a secretary to the Government of
India.
313 313

Constitutional and Statutory Bodies:

National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC)

• Originally, Article 338 of the Constitution provided for the appointment of a Special
Officer for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
• The 65th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1990 provided for the establishment of a
multi-member National Commission for Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes in
place of the Special Officer.
• The 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003 divided this National Commission
into two parts:
o Article 338 - National Commission for Scheduled Castes
o Article 338A - National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
• Established: 2004 (under Article 338 of the Indian Constitution).
• Purpose: To monitor and safeguard the rights of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and address
issues related to their social, economic, and educational development.
• Composition: Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and members (at least 3 members)
appointed by the President of India.
• They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.
• Functions:
o Investigates and monitors safeguards provided to SCs.
o Inquiries into complaints regarding violations of rights.
o Prepares reports and makes recommendations for the welfare of SCs.

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

• Established: 2004 (under Article 338A of the Indian Constitution, following the 89th
Constitutional Amendment).
• Purpose: To protect and promote the welfare of Scheduled Tribes (STs), monitor
their rights, and ensure social justice. The Commission presents its annual report to
the President.
• Composition: Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and 3 members (including 1
woman) appointed by the President of India.
• They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.
• Functions:
o Investigates and monitors constitutional safeguards for STs. Investigates com-
plaints related to STs' rights and welfare.
o Suggests measures for the development and welfare of STs.

National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)

• Established: 1993 (under The National Commission for Backward Classes Act,
1993).
• 102nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2018 gave constitutional status to the NCBC,
placing it under Article 338B.
• Purpose: To safeguard the rights and welfare of Backward Classes (OBCs) and ad-
dress issues related to their social, educational, and economic development.
• Composition: Chairperson Vice-Chairperson and 3 other members appointed by the
President of India.
314 314

• They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.
• Functions:
o Investigates and examines the conditions of Backward Classes (OBCs) in In-
dia.
o Advises the President of India on the inclusion of communities in the Cen-
tral List of Backward Classes.
o Examines complaints related to the social, educational, and economic status of
OBCs.
o Suggests measures for the welfare, advancement, and upliftment of OBCs.
o Monitors and evaluates the implementation of policies and safeguards for
OBCs.

National Commission for Human Rights (NCHR)

• Established: 1993 (under The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993).

• Purpose: To protect and promote human rights in India, focusing on violations of
civil and political rights.
• Appointment: The Chairperson and members of the Commission are appointed by
the President on the recommendation of a six-member committee headed by the
Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha,
Leaders of the Opposition in both Houses of Parliament, Central Home Minister.
• Composition: Chairperson (a former Chief Justice of India or a judge of the Su-
preme Court) and 5 members (including one woman) appointed by the President.
• The term of office of the Chairperson and members of the Commission is 3 years or
until they reach the age of 70, whichever is earlier. They are eligible for reappoint-
ment.

Functions:

• The National Commission for Human Rights is headquartered in Delhi with the op-
tion to establish offices elsewhere in India.
• The Commission has civil court powers, and its proceedings have a judicial charac-
ter.
• It can request information or reports from the Central and State governments or
other subordinate authorities.
• The Commission can only inquire into matters within one year of the alleged human
rights violation.
315 315

National Commission for Minorities (NCM)

• Established: 1992 (under The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992).
• Purpose: To safeguard and promote the interests and rights of religious minorities in
India (Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, and Jains).
• Composition: The Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, and five Members are nomi-
nated by the Central Government.
• Functions:
o Investigates complaints of discrimination and violations of minority rights.
o Promotes welfare measures for minorities and suggests improvements in their
living conditions.
o Advises the government on minority-related issues, including education and
employment.

National Commission for Women (NCW)

• Established: 31 January 1992 (under the National Commission for Women Act,
1990).
• Purpose: To address issues related to the empowerment of women and their rights,
including gender justice.
• Composition: Chairperson and 5 members (including women representatives from
various fields). Members are appointed by the President of India.
• First Chairperson - Jayanti Patnaik
• Functions:
o To ensure speedy justice for women against injustice.
o Investigates issues relating to women’s welfare and legal rights.
o Advises the government on policies and legislation affecting women.
o Works on promoting gender equality and empowering women in society.

Chairpersons of the National Commission for Women (NCW):

1. Jayanti Patnaik (February 1992 - January 1995)

2. Mohini Giri (January 1995 - January 1998)
3. Vibha Parthasarathi (February 1999 - January 2002)
4. Poornima Advani (February 2002 - February 2005)
5. Girija Vyas (March 2005 - March 2011)
6. Mamta Sharma (August 2011 - August 2014)
7. Lalitha Kumaramangalam (September 2014 - August 2017)
8. Rekha Sharma (August 2018 – August 2024 )
9. Vijaya Kishore Rahatkar (Oct 2024- Present)
316 316

Electoral Process and Election Commission of India: Conduct of

Elections, Rules, Electoral Reforms.

Article 324: Grants the ECI the authority to supervise, direct, and control the preparation of
electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Parliament and State legislatures.

• Elections are the foundation of democratic governance.

• The Election Commission of India (ECI) is responsible for conducting free and fair
elections in India.
• The Constitution (Article 324-329) provides for the framework for elections.

Structure of ECI

• Initially a single-member body (Chief Election Commissioner).

• Since 1993: Multi-member body – 1 CEC + 2 Election Commissioners.
• Appointed by the President of India.
• Tenure: 6 years or until age 65.
• Removal:
o CEC: Like a SC judge – by President on grounds of proved misbehavior.
o ECs: Can be removed by the President on CEC’s recommendation.

Functions of the ECI

1. Conducts Elections to: Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, President &
Vice-President.
2. Prepares and updates electoral rolls
3. Allots election symbols to political parties
4. Grants recognition to political parties (National or State)
5. Monitors Model Code of Conduct
6. Advises President and Governors on disqualifications
7. Ensures level playing field for all political parties

Rules Governing Elections

• Representation of People Act, 1950: It includes provisions for election officers such
as chief electoral officers, district election officers, and electoral registration of-
ficers, as well as electoral rolls for Parliamentary, Assembly, and Council constituen-
cies.
o Deals with qualifications of voters
o Preparation and revision of electoral rolls
• Representation of People Act, 1951: Deals with the pre-election process, mainly the
preparation and maintenance of electoral rolls.
o Deals with conduct of elections
o Disqualifications for membership
o Corrupt practices, election offences
o Dispute resolution and election petitions
317 317

• Registration of Electors Rules, 1960: Lays down detailed procedures for the imple-
mentation of electoral roll-related provisions under RPA, 1951. E.g. Guidelines for
the inclusion, correction, or deletion of names in electoral rolls.

• Delimitation Act, 2002: It was enacted to redraw the boundaries of parliamentary

and assembly constituencies based on the latest Census data.

Important committees related to Electoral reforms

Committees/ Commission Purpose

Tarkunde Committee (1974) By Jaya Prakash Narayan (JP) during the "Total Revolu-
tion" movement.
Dinesh Goswami Committee (1990) Electoral Reforms
Vohra Committee (1993) On the Nexus between Crime and Politics
Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998) State Funding of Elections
Second ARC Report (2007) Report on Ethics in Governance (Headed by Veerappa
Moily)
Law Commission (170th Report) Addressed criminalization, audit of party funds.

Notable Chief Election Commissioners:

• Sukumar Sen: First CEC (21 March 1950 to 19 December 1958)

• VS Ramadevi: 9th CEC and First Women CEC.

• T. N. Seshan (1990–1996): Revolutionized the ECI, strict implementation of the

MCC. (Book: Through the Broken Glass: An Autobiography)
• S. Y. Quraishi: First Muslim CEC of India. (Book: India's Experiment With De-
mocracy)
• Shri Gyanesh Kumar: Current CEC. Kumar took charge as the 26th Chief Election
Commissioner of India on 19th February 2025.

Major Electoral Reforms:

Reform Details
Anti-Defection Law (1985) Prevents defection; added Tenth Schedule
61st Amendment Act (1988) Voting age reduced from 21 to 18 years
Supreme Court mandated disclosure of candidate back-
Disclosure of Criminal Records (2002)
ground
EVMs (Electronic Voting Machines) Introduced in 1998 (nationwide in 2004)
NOTA (2013) "None of the Above" option in voting
Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail
Introduced to enhance transparency in voting (2019)
(VVPAT)
Model Code of Conduct (MCC) Non-statutory code to ensure fair campaigning
Ceiling on Election Expenditure ₹95 lakh for LS (big states), ₹40 lakh for assembly
318 318

method of political funding. Supreme Court declares

Electoral Bonds (2018)
electoral bonds scheme unconstitutional in 2024.

Article Related to ECI:

Article Provision
Art. 324 Superintendence, direction, and control of elections vested in ECI
Art. 325 One general electoral roll for every territorial constituency
Elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to be based on adult suf-
Art. 326
frage
Art. 327 Power of Parliament to make provisions regarding elections
Art. 328 Power of State Legislatures
Art. 329 Bar on interference by courts in electoral matters
319 319

Local Government Institutions: Functioning and reforms

• Local government refers to the third tier of governance below the state and central
governments, dealing with the administration and development of specific local areas
(villages, towns, cities).

• Part IX (Panchayats) and Part IXA (Municipalities) of the Indian Constitution,

added by the 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts of 1992, provide constitutional status
and framework for local self-governance.

Panchayati Raj
• Panchayati Raj is the system of local self-government in rural India.

• Aimed at democratic decentralization and empowering people at the grassroots level.

• Constitutionally recognized by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.

• Art 243 to 243(O) deals with Panchayati Raj. (Part IX)

• It Added 11th Schedule (29 subjects for PRIs, Article 243G)

Gram Sabha (Art. 243A)

• Assembly of all registered voters in the village

• Approves plans, audits, social welfare programs
• A key democratic platform at village level

Three-Tier Structure (Art. 243B)

1. Gram Panchayat – Village level

2. Panchayat Samiti – Block/intermediate level
3. Zila Parishad – District level

[States with population < 20 lakh may not have the intermediate level.]

Composition (Art. 243C)

• Directly elected members for all tiers

• Chairperson at each level
• Reservation of:
o SC/ST as per population
o Women: Minimum 33% (some states: 50%)
o OBC: Optional, per state law

Term & Dissolution (Art. 243E)

• 5-year term
• Re-election within 6 months if dissolved early
320 320

Elections (Art. 243K)

• Conducted by State Election Commission

• SEC appointed by Governor

Finances (Art. 243H, 243I)

• Panchayats can impose taxes, fees

• Grants-in-aid from state
• State Finance Commission (SFC):
o Setup every 5 years
o Recommends distribution of funds

Important Articles Related to Panchayati Raj

1. Art. 243: Definitions related to Panchayats

2. Art. 243A: Gram Sabha

3. Art. 243B: Constitution of Panchayats – Three-tier system

4. Art. 243C: Composition of Panchayats

5. Art. 243D: Reservation of seats for SCs, STs, and women

6. Art. 243E: Duration (5 years) of Panchayats and conditions for dissolution

7. Art. 243F: Disqualifications for membership

8. Art. 243G: Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Panchayats

9. Art. 243H: Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of, Panchayats

10. Art. 243-I: State Finance Commission (SFC) every 5 years

11. Art. 243J: Audit of accounts of Panchayats

12. Art. 243K: State Election Commission – Election to the Panchayats

13. Art. 243O: Bar on interference by courts in electoral matters

Committees of Panchayati raj:

1. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957)

2. Ashok Mehta Committee (1977)
3. Hanumantha Rao Committee (1983)
4. G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985)
5. L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986)
6. PK Thungon Committee (1988)
321 321

Committees on Panchayati Raj and Their Main Suggestions (Chronologi-

cally)

Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957)

Objective: Review Community Development Programme (1952) & National Extension Ser-
vice (1953).

• Three-tier system:
o Gram Panchayat (village level, directly elected)
o Panchayat Samiti (block level, indirectly elected) – executive body
o Zila Parishad (district level, indirectly elected) – advisory body
• District Collector to chair Zila Parishad.
• Rajasthan (Nagaur district) first to implement (Oct 2, 1959), followed by Andhra Pra-
desh.

Ashok Mehta Committee (1977-78)

Objective: Revive and strengthen Panchayati Raj.

• Two-tier system:
o Zila Parishad (district level) – executive body
o Mandal Panchayat (group of villages, 15,000-20,000 population)
• Political parties to participate in Panchayat elections.
• Panchayats to have compulsory taxation powers.
• Regular social audits & legislative oversight.
• Panchayat supersession only for 6 months; elections must follow.
• Nyaya Panchayats separate from development panchayats.
• State Panchayati Raj Minister to oversee functioning.
• SC/ST seat reservation based on population.
• Constitutional status for Panchayati Raj.
• Implemented in Karnataka, West Bengal & Andhra Pradesh.

Hanumantha Rao Committee (1983)

• Supported district-level decentralised planning.

• Recommended Collector as district coordinator of planning.
• Differed from earlier committees (Balwant Rai Mehta, Ashok Mehta, ARC) which
wanted Panchayati Raj to lead development administration.

G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985)

This committee was constituted by the Planning Commission.

Major Recommendations:
• According to this committee, Panchayati Raj institutions were described as "rootless
structures". Highlighted the weakening role of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
due to bureaucratic dominance.
322 322

• Recommended Zila Parishad as the key institution for planning and development. In
rural areas, the Block Development Officer (B.D.O.) should be the primary adminis-
trative authority for the development process.
• The committee recommended the establishment of a four-tier system: State Level –
State Planning Council, District Level – Zila Parishad (District Council), Block
Level – Block Panchayat (Mandal Parishad), Village Level – Gram Sabha (Village
Assembly)

L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986)

Objective: Revitalisation of Panchayati Raj Institutions.

• Constitutional recognition for Panchayati Raj (new chapter in the Constitution).

• Regular, free, and fair elections.
• Nyaya Panchayats for a cluster of villages.
• More financial resources for Gram Panchayats.
• Gram Sabha as direct democracy.
• Judicial tribunals in each state for Panchayat-related disputes.

P.K. Thungon Committee (1988)

Objective: Strengthen Panchayati Raj for district planning.

• Three-tier system (village, block, district).

• Zila Parishad as the planning & development agency.
• Fixed five-year tenure for Panchayati Raj bodies.
• Maximum six-month supersession period.
• State Finance Commission for financial devolution.
• Reservation of seats for SCs, STs, and women.
• District Collector as Zila Parishad CEO.

V.N. Gadgil Committee (1988)

Objective: Strengthen Panchayati Raj institutions.

• Constitutional status for Panchayati Raj.

• Three-tier system (village, block, district).
• Fixed five-year tenure.
• Direct elections for all levels.
• Reservation for SCs, STs, and women.
• Panchayati Raj to prepare & implement socio-economic plans.

Attempts for Constitutional Recognition

• Based on the recommendations of the L.M. Singhvi Committee and P.K. Thungon
Committee, the Rajiv Gandhi government introduced the 64th Constitutional
Amendment Bill in July 1989 in the Lok Sabha to grant constitutional status to Pan-
chayats. However, after being passed in the Lok Sabha, the bill failed in the Rajya
323 323

Sabha due to concerns over excessive central interference in the federal system.

• Later, in 1992, the Narasimha Rao government passed the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment, giving constitutional recognition to Panchayati Raj. This amendment
came into effect on April 24, 1993. After this amendment, states were mandated to
establish Panchayati Raj institutions.

On December 22, 1992, the bill was passed in the Lok Sabha, and it was ratified by 17
states. Since Panchayati Raj was a subject under the Seventh Schedule, it required spe-
cial majority approval in Parliament and ratification by at least half of the states before
becoming a constitutional

Municipalities

• The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 granted constitutional status to Ur-
ban Local Bodies (ULBs).
• Inserted Part IXA (Articles 243P to 243ZG) into the Constitution.
• Added the 12th Schedule (18 functional items).
• At the central level, the subject of urban local government is handled by the Ministry
of Housing and Urban Affairs, the Ministry of Defence (for cantonment boards),
and the Ministry of Home Affairs (for Union Territories).

Historical Perspective

1688 – First municipal corporation established in Madras.

1726 – Municipal corporations set up in Bombay and Calcutta.

1870 – Lord Mayo’s Resolution on financial decentralisation promoted local self-govern-

ment.

1882 – Lord Ripon’s Resolution, called the Magna Carta of local self-government; Ripon
known as the Father of Local-Self Government in India.

1907 – Royal Commission on Decentralisation (Chairman: Hobhouse), report submitted in

1909.

1919 – GOI Act, 1919: Local self-government became a transferred subject under provin-
cial ministers.

1924 – Cantonments Act passed by Central Legislature.

1935 – GOI Act, 1935: Local self-government declared a provincial subject.

1989 – 65th Constitutional Amendment Bill introduced by Rajiv Gandhi, passed in Lok
Sabha but defeated in Rajya Sabha.

1990 – V.P. Singh Government reintroduced revised Nagarpalika Bill, but it lapsed.
324 324

1991 – P.V. Narasimha Rao Government introduced Nagarpalika Bill.

1992 – Became the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, enforced from 1 June 1993.

Types of Municipalities (Article 243Q)

• Municipal Corporation (Nagar Nigam): For larger urban areas.

• Municipality (Nagar Palika): For smaller urban areas.
• Nagar Panchayat: For transitional areas (rural to urban).

If an industrial establishment provides municipal services in an urban area, the governor

may declare it an industrial township, and no municipality is required there.

Composition (Article 243R)

• Members are directly elected by the people.

• Chairperson elected either directly or indirectly.
• Seats reserved for SCs, STs, and women (minimum 1/3rd for women).

Duration (Article 243U)

• Fixed tenure of 5 years.

• Fresh elections within 6 months in case of dissolution.

State Election Commission (Article 243ZA)

• Responsible for conducting elections to municipalities.

• Appointed by the Governor.

12th Schedule (Article 243W) Lists 18 functions of municipalities, including:

Urban planning, Regulation of land use, Water supply, sanitation, public health and solid
waste management, Urban poverty alleviation, Slum improvement etc.

Finances (Articles 243X & 243Y)

• Municipalities can levy taxes, fees, and receive grants.

• State Finance Commission (Article 243Y): To recommend financial devolution to
municipalities every 5 years.

Committees (Article 243ZD & 243ZE)

• District Planning Committee (DPC): For rural and urban integration at the district
level.
• Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC): For planning in metropolitan areas.
325 325

Types of Urban Local Governments in India

India has eight types of urban local bodies for the administration of urban areas:

1. Municipal Corporation – For large urban areas and metropolitan cities.

2. Municipality – For smaller urban areas.
3. Notified Area Committee – For fast-growing towns not yet formally classified as
municipalities.
4. Town Area Committee – Semi-municipal bodies for small towns.
5. Cantonment Board – For areas under military control, managed by the Ministry of
Defence.
6. Township – Created by public enterprises to provide civic amenities to their employ-
ees.
7. Port Trust – For administration and development of port areas.
8. Special Purpose Agency – Created for specific functions like water supply, transport,
housing, etc.
326 326

Federalism in India

Federalism is a system of government in which powers are divided between a central (na-
tional) authority and various constituent units (like states or provinces). Each level of govern-
ment is constitutionally protected.

Features of the Federal System of India

1. Dual government polity
2. Division of powers between various levels
3. Constitutional Supremacy
4. Rigidity of constitution
5. Independence judiciary
6. Bicameralism

Constitutional Provisions

• The term “Federation” has not been used anywhere in our Constitution. Article 1 re-
fers to India as a "Union of States."
• India’s federal system is established by the Constitution of India, not by an agree-
ment between states.
• Federal features are primarily laid out in:
o Part XI (Articles 245–263) – Relations between the Union and States.
o Seventh Schedule – Division of powers (Union, State, and Concurrent Lists).
o Part XVIII (Articles 352–360) – Emergency Provisions.

Federal Features of the Indian Constitution

1. Dual Polity – Union Government + State Governments.

2. Written Constitution – Clearly defines structure, power, and functions.
3. Supremacy of the Constitution – Both levels operate within its framework.
4. Division of Powers – Detailed in the Seventh Schedule:
o Union List – 97 subjects (e.g., defence, foreign affairs)
o State List – 66 subjects (e.g., police, public health)
o Concurrent List – 47 subjects (e.g., education, forests)
5. Independent Judiciary – Supreme Court ensures distribution of powers.
6. Bicameralism – Rajya Sabha represents the states at the central level.

Unitary Features of the Indian Constitution

1. Strong Centre – Union List has more subjects and overrides state powers.
2. Single Constitution – No separate constitutions for states.
3. Single Citizenship – All Indians are citizens of India only.
4. Flexibility of Constitution – Easily amended by the centre in many cases.
5. All-India Services – Officers like IAS, IPS serve both Centre and State.
6. Emergency Provisions – During emergencies, India becomes more unitary.
7. Governor's Role – Appointed by the President, can influence state politics.
327 327

8. Parliament’s Power over State List – Can legislate even on State List during na-
tional interest/emergency.

Federal Structure
Legislative Relations (Art 245 to 255)

• Article 245 – Parliament can make laws for all of India; states can legislate for their
own territories; Parliament can make extra-territorial laws.
• Article 246 – Distribution of legislative subjects among Union, State, and Concurrent
Lists; Union law prevails over State law in case of conflict.
• Article 246A – Parliament and states have concurrent powers for GST; only Parlia-
ment can legislate on inter-state GST.
• Article 248 – Parliament has exclusive power to make laws on residuary subjects not
mentioned in any list.
• Article 249 – Parliament can legislate on State List subjects if Rajya Sabha passes a
resolution (2/3 majority) in national interest.
• Article 250 – Parliament can legislate on State List subjects during a National Emer-
gency.
• Article 251 – In case of conflict between Union and State laws on the Concurrent
List, Union law prevails.
• Article 252 – Parliament can legislate for two or more states on State List matters if
states pass resolutions to that effect.
• Article 253 – Parliament can make laws on State List subjects to implement interna-
tional treaties and agreements.
• Article 254 – If there is inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and state
legislature on Concurrent List, the Union law prevails.
• Article 255 – A bill is not invalid just because previous Presidential sanction was not
obtained, as long as final assent is given.

Administrative Relations (Art 256 to 263)

• Article 256 – States must ensure compliance with laws made by Parliament and the
executive power of the Union can be extended for this purpose.
• Article 257 – States must exercise their executive power without impeding the Un-
ion’s executive power; Centre can direct states for national interest.
• Article 258 – Parliament can entrust Union functions to states with their consent.
• Article 258A – A state can entrust its functions to the Centre with the consent of the
Union government.
• Article 259 – If a law made by Parliament applies outside India, the executive power
of the Union extends to the giving of effect to such law.
• Article 260 – The Government of India may undertake functions in relation to any
territory outside India with its consent.
• Article 261 – Full faith and credit shall be given throughout India to public acts, rec-
ords, and judicial proceedings of the Union and states.
• Article 262 – Parliament can adjudicate disputes relating to inter-state rivers and wa-
ter disputes, and may bar the jurisdiction of courts.
• Article 263 – The President may establish an Inter-State Council to investigate and
discuss subjects of common interest between Centre and States.
328 328

Financial Relations (Art 268 to 293)

• Article 268 – Stamp duties and duties on medical and toilet preparations are levied by
the Union but collected and appropriated by the states.
• Article 269 – Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods in the course of inter-state trade
are levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the states.
• Article 269A – GST on inter-state trade or commerce is levied and collected by the
Union and apportioned between Union and States.
• Article 274 – Prior recommendation of the President is required to introduce bills af-
fecting taxation in which states are interested.
• Article 275 – Grants-in-aid to states in need of assistance and for the welfare of
scheduled tribes and scheduled areas.
• Article 279 – Calculation and definition of "net proceeds" of taxes; the GST Council
includes the Union Finance Minister and state ministers.
• Article 279A – Establishes the GST Council, which makes recommendations on
GST-related matters.
• Article 280 – Finance Commission is constituted every five years to recommend dis-
tribution of taxes between Centre and States.
• Article 281 – President places the Finance Commission's recommendations before
Parliament.
• Article 283 – Custody of Consolidated and Contingency Funds of the Union and the
States.
• Article 285 – Union properties are exempt from all state taxation unless Parliament
provides otherwise.
• Article 286 – States cannot tax inter-state or international trade; Parliament defines
principles for such taxation.
• Article 292 – Union can borrow on the security of the Consolidated Fund of India.
• Article 293 – States can borrow with the Centre’s consent if they are indebted to the
Centre.

Nature of Indian Federalism

• Granville Austin called Indian federalism as “Co-operative federalism.”

• K C Wheare called Indian federalism as “Quasi federalism”. He Described India as a

"federation with a strong centralizing tendency."

• Morris Jones called Indian federalism as “bargaining federalism.”

• Ivor Jennings called Indian federalism as “federalism with strong centralizing ten-
dency.”

• Paul Appleby called Indian federalism as “Extremely federal.”

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar described India as a "Union of States", not a federation by

agreement.
329 329

Area of Conflict between Centre and states:

There are many areas of differences between the Union and States that exist, like:

• Mode of appointment and dismissal of Governor,

• Discriminatory and partisan role of Governors,

• Misuse of Article 356 to dismiss state governments,

• Reservation of State bills by the Governors for Presidential Assent,

• Revenue sharing between Centre and States

• Encroachment by the Centre on the State list

330 330

UNIT 8 – POLITICAL PROCESSES IN

INDIA
Civil Society Organisations
• Civil Society Organisations are organisations and associations set up by the citizens of a
country to pursue certain interests. (Shift 1 2022)
• Civil society can be understood as the "Third sector" of society. It is distinct from the State
in the Public Sphere, and from Family in the Private sphere.
Civil Society Organisations in India – Examples –

• Child Relief and You (C.R.Y.)

• National Foundation of India (NFI)
• Rajiv Gandhi Foundation
• Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)
• Bachpan Bachao Andolan (2020)

Interest Groups
• Interest Group is a group of those persons who are bonded with each other by particular
interest or gain motive and remain conscious of these bonds.
Interest Groups in India – Examples –
• Institutional Interest Groups: These groups are formally organised which consist of
professionally employed persons. They are a part of government machinery and try to
exert their influence.
Example: IAS Association, IPS Association, State civil services association, etc.
• Associational Interest Groups : These are organised specialised groups formed for interest
articulation, but to pursue limited goals.
Examples of Associational Interest Groups in India are : Indian Chamber of Commerce, Trade
Unions such as AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress), Teachers Associations, Students
Associations such as National Students Union of India (NSUI), etc. (Shift 1 2022)
• Anomic Interest Groups: By anomic pressure groups we mean more or less a spontaneous
breakthrough into the political system from the society such as Riots, Demonstrations,
Assassinations and the like.
• Non-Associational Interest Groups: These are the Kinship and lineage groups and ethnic,
regional, status and class groups that articulate interests on the basis of individuals, family
and religious heads. These groups have informal structure. These include caste groups,
language groups, etc.
331 331

Pressure Groups
• A pressure group is an organised social group whose members share common attitudes,
beliefs or interests.
• It seeks to influence public policies without ever trying to take over any responsibility for
government actions. (Shift 1 2022)
• In the context of India, pressure groups also emerged in the form of social movements on
issues like protection of environment, corruption, human rights, education, health,
livelihood etc.
• For instance, groups like Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) or India Against Corruption (IAC)
have propagated public awareness on issues of environment protection and corruption
respectively while pressuring the government for a better policy outcome. (2020)
Pressure Groups in India – Examples –
Different types of pressure groups in India are :
(i) Business Groups : The Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry (BNCCI) – 1834;
Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) – 1920;
Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) – 1927.
(ii) Trade Unions : All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) – 1920; Indian National
Trade Union Congress (INTUC) – 1947; Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) – 1948; Bhartiya
Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) – 1955. (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 2)
(iii) Student Organisations : All India Students Federation (AISF) – 1936; Akhil Bhartiya
Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) – 1949; National Students’ Union of India (NSUI) – 1971.
(iv) Agrarian Groups : All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) – 1939; Bhartiya Kisan Union (BKU)
– 1987.
(v) Women Groups : Women’s Indian Association (WIA) – 1917; All India Women’s
Conference (AIWC) – 1927; Vimochana – 1979; The Forum Against Oppression of
Women – 1980; Stree Shakti Sangthan (SSS) – 1989. (Shift 1 2022)

Social Action Group

• Social actions groups can be defined as "a group that is formed to take social action which
is essentially non-violent, though it may be militant”. (Shift 1 2021)
• The work of social action groups is to create transformative change. (Shift 2 2021)
• Social action groups take the shape of “both public and people - centred”
advocacy designed “to influence public policies or public attitudes in order to empower
the marginalized”.

Social Reforms (June 2023 Shift 1)

● Social Action encompasses intentional efforts to drive social change or address

issues.
332 332

● Social Reforms are organized endeavours to alter existing social structures for
societal improvement.
● Both are driven by normative ends, like equality or justice.
● Social Reform is a subset of Social Action, focusing on specific societal aspects,
whereas Social Action includes activism, advocacy, volunteering, etc.
● The scope of Social Action is broader, offering various avenues for societal
transformation beyond just reform.
● Examples-

o Mahila Mukti Morcha – Dalli Rajhara,

o ‘Chetna’ march in Panchmahal and Sabrakantha districts of Gujarat by DISHA

Electoral Politics In India

- IMPORTANT TERMS IN ELECTORAL POLITICS –
• 1). One Party Dominance –
• When one party dominate for the longest time is known as the one party dominance.
• Example – Indian National Congress (INC) maintained its one-party dominance
continuously from Independence 1947 to 1967. However, in 1967 Elections - the Congress
Party won a majority with just over 40% of the votes, and saw a consolidation of
opposition parties from then onwards in more and more States. This phase till 1967 is
termed as One-Party Dominance in State Politics of India.

• 2). Coalition Government – In a parliamentary system, when no party wins an election

with a clear majority of votes, then different political parties choose to cooperate and form
a government – this arrangement is called Coalition government. (Shift 1 2021)

• 3). EVM – Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) is an electronic device for recording votes.
(Shift 1 2021)
• EVMs were first used in 70-Parur Assembly Constituency of Kerala in the year 1982.
333 333

• 4). VVPAT – Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is an independent system attached
with the Electronic Voting Machines that allows the voters to verify that their votes are
cast as intended.
• VVPATs with EVMs were used for first time in a bye-election from 51-Noksen (ST) Assembly
Constituency of Nagaland. (Shift 2 2022)

• 5). NOTA – NOTA, or "None of the Above", is the option which enables the voter to
officially register a vote of rejection for all candidates who are contesting.
• If a voter chooses to press NOTA it indicates that the voter has not chosen to vote for any
of the party.
• In Landmark Judgement of Supreme court of India on 27 September, 2013 ruled that the
right to register a "none of the above" vote in elections should apply.
• This symbol appears in the last panel on all Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs).
• The main objective of the 'NOTA' option is to enable electors who do not wish to vote for
any of the candidates to exercise their right to reject without violation of the secrecy of
their decision.

- SIX NATIONAL POLITICAL PARTIES OF INDIA –

PARTY PARTY SYMBOL PARTY FOUNDER PARTY
PRESIDENT/LEADER
Indian National 1885 Mallikarjun Kharge
Congress (INC)
AO Hume,
WC Bonnerjee,
SYMBOL – Surendranath
Banerjee
Hand
Bhartiya Janata 1980 J.P. Nadda
Party (BJP)
(June 2023 Shift 2)
L.K. Advani,
SYMBOL – Bhairon Singh
Lotus Shekhawat
334 334

Communist Party of 1964 Sitaram Yechury

India Jyoti Basu,
- Marxist (CPI-M) E.M.S.
(June 2023 Shift 2) SYMBOL – Namboodiripad
Hammer, Sickle and
Star

Bahujan Samaj Party 1984 Mayawati

(BSP) Kanshi Ram

SYMBOL –
Elephant

National People’s 2013 Conrad Sangma

Party (NPP) PA Sangma
(March 2023 Shift 2)

SYMBOL –
Book

Aam Aadmi Party 2012 Arvind Kejriwal

(AAP) Arvind Kejriwal,
Prashant Bhushan,
SYMBOL – Yogendra Yadav
Jhaadu

- MAJOR STATE POLITICAL PARTIES OF INDIA –

PARTY PARTY SYMBOL PARTY FOUNDER PARTY
PRESIDENT/LEADER
Samajwadi Party 1992 Akhilesh Yadav
(SP) Mulayam Singh
(June 2023 Shift 2) SYMBOL - Yadav
Cycle (Shift 1 2022)
335 335

All India Trinamool 1998 Mamata Banerjee

Congress (AITC or Mamata Banerjee
TMC)
(June 2024 Shift 2) SYMBOL –
Twin Flowers And
Grass
Nationalist Congress 1999 Sharad Pawar
Party (NCP) Sharad Pawar,
Tariq Anwar,
SYMBOL – PA Sangma
Clock

Rashtriya Janata Dal 1997 Lalu Prasad Yadav

(RJD) Lalu Prasad Yadav Tejashwi Yadav
SYMBOL –
Lantern

Janata Dal (United) 2003 Nitish Kumar

(June 2024 Shift 2) SYMBOL – Sharad Yadav
Arrow

DMK 1949 MK Stalin

(Shift 1 2022) CN Annadurai
(March 2023 Shift 1)
SYMBOL –
(June 2024 Shift 2) Rising Sun

AIDMK 1972 E. Madhusudhanan

(March 2023 Shift MG
1) SYMBOL – Ramachandra n
Two Leaves
336 336

Telegu Desam Party 1982 N

(TDP) NT Rama Rao Chandrababu Naidu

(Shift 1 2022) SYMBOL –

(March 2023 Shift 1) Bicycle with Yellow
Background (Shift 1
(June 2024 Shift 2)
2022)

Assam Gana 1985 Atul Bora

Parishad (AGP)
(June 2024 Shift 2) Prafulla Kumar
SYMBOL – Mahanta
Elephant with RED
WHITE & BLUE

Shiv Sena 1966 Uddhav Thackrey

(June 2023 Shift 2) Bala Saheb Thackrey
SYMBOL –
Bow and Arrow
(Saffron)

Shiromani Akali Dal 1920 Sukhbir Singh Badal

(SAD) Sardar Sarmukh Singh
SYMBOL – Chubbal,
(Shift 1 2022) Beam Balance Master Tara Singh

Jharkhand Mukti 1972 Hemant Soren

Morcha (JMM) Binod Bihari Mahato

SYMBOL –
Bow and Arrow
(Green)
Biju Janata Dal 1997 Naveen Patnaik
Naveen Patnaik
(Shift 1 2022)
SYMBOL –
Conch
337 337

Famous Commentators of Indian Politics

Thinkers Concept + Views Books

Rajni Kothari Concept : ● Caste in Indian Politics

● Congress System (December 2018) (1970)
(2020) ● Politicisation of Caste (December 2023)
● Parties of Pressure (June 2023 Shift 1)

Views : ● Politics in India (1970)

● Caste in India function as a Pressure
Group.
● He terms social movements as the
“Non-Party-Political Formations”.
Founder of ‘Lokayan’.
● He gave the statement that, “In course
of time, however (while Nehru was still
alive), the Congress party ceased to be a
movement and became a party and
government” (June 2023 Shift 2)
Rudolph & Concepts : ● The Modernity of
Rudolph ● Bullock Capitalism Tradition : Political
● Modernity of Tradition Development in India
(Shift 2 2022)
● 3 Types of Mobilization :-
● Horizontal mobilization of Caste ● In Pursuit of Lakshmi:
● Vertical mobilization of Caste The Political Economy of
● Differential mobilization of Caste the Indian State

Views : ● Postmodern Gandhi

● India is a Weak-Strong State and Other Essays:
Gandhi in the World and
at
Home

Myron Weiner Concepts : ● Politics of Scarcity:

● Politics of Scarcity Public Pressure and
Political Response in
Two Types Political Culture - India
● Elite Culture
● Mass Culture ● Party Building in a
New Nation: The Indian
Views : National Congress
● Myron Weiner Focused on State
Politics of West Bengal.
338 338

● The Indian Paradox

(December 2018) (Shift
1 2022)
Morris Jones Concepts : ● The Government and
● Bargaining Federalism Politics of India (June
(2020) (June 2023 Shift 1) (December 2023) 2019) (2020)

● India's Political
Miracle
Morris Jones ● Saintly Idioms
● There are 3 different languages - ● Politics Mainly Indian
Language of traditional politics
Language of modern western politics
Language of Saintly Idioms

Views :
● Vinoba Bhave represents Saintly Idiom.
Indian Party system from 1947-67 is
Dominant-Party System.

Partha Chatterjee Concepts : ● Nationalist Thought

● Political Society concept. and the Colonial World:
● Derivative Discourse concept. A Derivative Discourse?
● Anti-Colonial Nationalism concept.
● The Nation and its
3 Stages of Colonial Nationalist thought - Fragments: Colonial and
1. Moment of departure Postcolonial Histories
2. Moment of Manuever
3. Moment of Arrival ● The Politics of the
Governed: Popular
Views : Politics in Most of the
● Partha Chatterjee - founder of World
Subaltern Studies Collective in India.

● Chatterjee favoured Political Society

and criticised Civil Society.

● Partha Chatterjee gave the idea of -

Thematic & Problematic.

Subaltern School Subaltern Thinkers - Ranajit Guha –

Thinkers - Dominance without
● Partha Chatterjee Hegemony: History and
● Ranajit Guha Power in Colonial India
● Gayatri Spivak Chakravarty
Gayatri Spivak –
339 339

Can The Subaltern Speak? :

Reflections On The History
Of An Idea

Ranajit Guha & Gayatri

Spivak –
Selected Subaltern Studies
Amartya Sen Concepts : ● Poverty and Famines:
● Capability Approach to Justice. An Essay on Entitlement
(June 2019) ● Helped to create Human Development and Deprivation
Index (HDI) with Mahbub ul Haq.
● Inequality Re-
Views : examined
Sen gave the idea – ● Development as
● " Instrumental Freedom ". Freedom
● The Argumentative
● Five types of Freedom to Sen - Indian
Political freedom ● Identity and Violence
Economic freedom ● The Idea of Justice
Social freedom
Transparency guarantees
Protective Security
Granville Austin Views : ● Working Democratic
● Granville Austin said - Nehru-Patel- Constitution : Indian
Azad-Prasad team was 'the oligarchy.’ Experience
(June 2023 Shift 1)
● The Indian
● "Constituent assembly was Congress Constitution:
and Congress was Constituent assembly". Cornerstone of a Nation
(June 2019) (June 2023
● "Both DPSP & Fundamental Rights are Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
Conscience of Constitution".

Atul Kohli Concepts : ● The State and Poverty

Crisis of Governability in India (Dec. 2024)

Views : ● Democracy and

For Atul Kohli, Crisis of Governability is Discontent
the breakdown of the Congress-System
and inability of any other political party ● The Success of India's
to take its place. Democracy (December
2023)

● Poverty Amid Plenty in

the New India
340 340

Paul Brass Concepts : ● Factional Politics in an

● Factionalism in Indian Politics Indian State: The
● Focus on – Riots, Fear, Trepidation Congress Party in Uttar
● Forms of Collective violence - Riots, Pradesh Paul Brass
Genocide in modern India
● Language, Religion
Views : and Politics in North
● Paul Brass Focused on State Politics of India
Uttar Pradesh.
Christophe Concepts : ● Religion, Caste and
Jaffrelot Politics in India
● Silent Revolution in the book –
● “India's Silent Revolution: The rise of ● Hindu nationalism: a
the lower castes in North India.” reader

Neera Chandhoke illustrates how NGOs can align their goals The conceits of civil
(June 2023 Shift 2) with grassroots movements they society, 2003
collaborate with.

Arvind Panagariya credits 1980s growth to liberalization, India in the 1980's and
(June 2023 investment, and government borrowing, 1990's: A Triumph of
Shift 2) boosting economic efficiency and Reforms, 2004
industrial expansion.
M.N. Srinivas discusses the impact of modern Caste in Modern India:
technology and representational politics And Other Essays, 1962
(June 2023 Shift 2) on caste politics in India. He notes
horizontal and vertical solidarity among
castes, along with economic competition.
Contrary to belief, modern technology
actually fostered caste solidarity by
enabling communication and awareness.

Social Movements
• Social Movement is defined as sustained collective action which is directed against the
state and takes the form of demanding changes in state policy or practice.
• The term Social Movement was introduced by Lorenz von Stein.
• M.S.A. Rao wrote, “Social Movements and Social Transformation: A Study of two
backward Classes movements in India” in the year 1979.
• Ghanshyam Shah works on Social Movements include –
o Social Movements in India (1990)
o Social Movements and the State (2002)
o Dalit Identity and Politics (2001)
341 341

• TRIBAL MOVEMENTS –
• There are three phases of Tribal Movements in India-
o First Phase (1795-1860)
o Second Phase (1860-1920)
o Third Phase (1920-1947)
• Major Tribal Movements –
• 1. The Chuar Revolt (1768-1799) –
o It was against the huge imposed tax by zamindars on Chuars who were inhabitant
of north western Midnapur.
• 2. The Kol Revolt (1829-1839) –
o The Kol tribe was the inhabitant of Chotanagpur.
o The Kols resented against taxes and a few officials were killed by them. (Shift 2
2021)
• 3. The Santhal Revolt (1855) –
o It was a massive tribal revolt which took place in 1855 against Britishers and
zamindari system as the zamindars claimed Santhals land as their own.
o In 1854, Bir Singh led first rebellion.
o In 1855, Sidhu and Kanhu led second rebellion. (Shift 2 2021)
• 4. Paralkot Rebellion (1825) –
o In 1825, the Paralkot rebellion was a symbol of protest against foreign rules by
Abujhmarias, who were the inhabitants of the present day state of Chhattisgarh.
• 5. Khondh Uprising (1846-1855) –
o They retaliated against the Britishers for putting an end to the Kandh’s practices
of human sacrifice initially through persuasion and later through force.
• 6. Mundane Ulgulam (1899-1900) –
o The Khunkatti system was replaced by the zamindar system.
o Their leader was Birsa Munda who organised people to revolt.

• 7. Bhil Uprising (1817-1819) –

o This tribe revolted against their new masters which was the East India Company
as the company will made hardships in agricultural practices.
o One of the main leaders was Sewaram.
• 8. Halba rebellion (1774) –
o The Halba rebellion started against the Marathas and the British in the year 1774
after the decline of the Chalukyas.
• 9. Maria Rebellion (1842-1863) –
o The uprising of Maria Tribe was a prolonged rebellion in Bastar.
o It was apparently fought to preserve the practice of human sacrifice.
• 10. Tarapur Rebellion (1842-1854) –
o Tarapur rebellion is a great example of the tribal rebellions in Bastar, the present
Chhattisgarh.
o The common people of Bastar stood against the foreign rulers.
• 11. Bodo Movement (1987) –
342 342

o The Bodos are recognized as a plains tribe in the Sixth Schedule of the Indian
Constitution.
o The major objective of the Bodo movement was to have a separate state of their
own. (Shift 2 2021)
• 12. Jharkhand Movement –
o The Jharkhand movement in Bihar is a movement of tribal communities led by
the Jarkhand Mukti Morcha consisting of settled agriculturalists who are
sensitised to Vaishnavism.
o The movement which lasted for more than five decades ended with the
formation of new separate Jharkhand State.

Rani Gaidinliu (June 2023 Shift 1)

● Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga spiritual and political leader of Manipur. She belonged to the
Rongmei tribe, one of the three Zeliangrong Tribes.
● Gaidinliu's introduction to the revolutionary world was at the age of 13 when she
joined the Heraka Movement (1920s). Although it was a socio-religious movement,
it also had political undertones against British rule.
● At the age of 17, Gaidinliu started preaching Gandhian principles and launched an
open rebellion against British rule.
● She urged the people of the Zeliangrong tribe to unite against the British by refusing
to pay taxes or cooperate with them.
● She was described as the "Daughter of the Hills" .
● She was conferred with the Tamrapatra (1972), Padma Bhushan (1982), Vivekananda
Sewa Summan (1983), and the Bhagwan Birsa Munda Puraskar (posthumously) in
1996.

• DALIT MOVEMENTS –
• List of Dalit Movements in India –
• Nair Movement (1861) –
o Started under the leadership of CV Raman Pillai, K Rama Krishna Pillai and M.
Padmanabha Pillai in 1861.
• Satyashodhak Movement (1873) –
o Jyotiba Phule founded in 1873 (Maharashtra)
• Justice Party Movement (1916) –
o Started under the leadership of Dr. T.M Nair, P. Tyagaraja Chetti and C.N Mudalair
in 1916.
o The South Indian Liberation Federation (SILF) was formed in 1916.
343 343

• Self-Respect Movement (1925) –

o Started under the leadership of EV Ramaswamy Naicker or Periyar in 1925.
o Kudi Arasu journal was started by Periyar in 1910.

• Depressed Classes Movement (Mahar Movement) (1924) –

o Started under the leadership of BR Ambedkar in 1924.
o Depressed Classes Institution was founded in 1924.
o Marathi fortnightly Bahiskrit Bharat was started in 1927.
o Establishment of Samaj Samta Sangh in 1927.
• Congress Harijan Movement (1932) –
o Establishment of All-India Anti-Untouchability League in 1932.
o Weekly Harijan was founded by Gandhi in 1933.
• Independent Labour Party (1936) –
o In 1936, B.R. Ambedkar formed the ILP which includes all the depressed sections
of the society – Dalits, non-brahmins, peasants and workers but was unable to
consolidate and resolve differences between Dalits and Non – Brahmins.
• Dalit Panther (1972) –
o With the emergence of Dalit Panthers in 1972, the first wave of the new anti- caste
movement came into existence, which comprised of ex-untouchables youth of
Maharashtra. Dalit Panthers was founded by Namdeo Dhasal in 1972.
• Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) (1984) –
o In 1984 (BSP) came into existence as the party of Dalits, backwards and minorities.
BSP emerged as a political wing of the Backward and Minority Communities
Employees Federation (BAMCEF) – launched by Kanshi Ram.
• Dalit feminist literary movement (June 2023 Shift 1)

o "Samvadini-Dalit Stree Sahitya Maanch" is a pioneering literary platform

amplifying the voices of Dalit women.
o It sparked the Dalit feminist literary movement (1960s), offering a space for
diverse perspectives and raising crucial questions often overlooked. These
discussions challenged Brahmanical norms in feminism, critiqued the Indian
women's movement, and revitalized Phule/Ambedkarite feminist thought in
India.

• PEASANT MOVEMENTS –
• Some of the important struggles of farmers or peasants during the British period were:
o Bhil Revolt (1822,1823,1837-60)
o Deccan Peasant Revolt (1875)
344 344

o Mopilla Revolt (1921)

o The Muslhi Satyagraha (1921-24)
o Struggle of Warlis (1945)
o Birsa Munda revolt (1830-33) (Shift 2 2021)

• Three Important Movements led by Gandhi –

o Champaran Satyagraha (1918-19)
o Bardoli Satyagraha (1925)
o Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

• Post-independent India Farmers’ Movements –

o Telangana Movement (1946-51)
o Tebagha movement (1946-1949)
o Kagodu Satyagraha (1951)
o Naxalbari Movement (1967)
o Lalgarh movement (2009)

o Farmer’s Protest (2020) –

Farmers in India protested against the three new agriculture-related laws
which were as follows-
✓ 1. Farmer’s Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Bill.
✓ 2. Farmer’s (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement of Price Assurance
and Farm Service Bill, 2020.
✓ 3. Essential Commodities (Amendment Bill) 2020.

• WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS –
• The Important National Women’s Organisations are :-
o Sakhi Samiti (1886) (June 2023 Shift 1)
o Bharat Mahila Parishad (1904),
o Bharat Stri Mahamandal (1909),
o Women’s Indian Association (1917), (June 2023 Shift 1)
o National Council of Women in India (1925) (June 2023 Shift 1)
o All India Women’s Conference (1927) (June 2023 Shift 1)
o Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust
o The Special Marriage Act, 1954.
o The Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act, 1955.
o The Adoption Act, 1956.
o Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
o The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986.
o The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
o Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
o The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (PREVENTION, PROHIBITION and
REDRESSAL) Act, 2013
345 345

o The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013

Chipko Movement (March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)

● The Chipko movement emerged in Uttarakhand in 1973 when villagers protested

the forest department's refusal to fell ash trees.
● Led by Gandhian activist Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt, the
movement spread as villagers demanded local control over natural resources and
economic development without ecological harm.
● Women played a significant role, combating alcoholism among forest workers.
● The movement's success led to a 15-year ban on tree felling in the Himalayan
regions and inspired similar grassroots movements across India, reflecting rural
discontent with distant government policies.

Reorganisation of States
• Three Important Commissions –
• Dhar Commission 1948 –
o Chairman – S.K. Dhar.
o Members – Jagat Narain Lal and Panna Lal.
o On June 17, 1948, Constituent assembly appointed the Linguistic Provinces
Commission which was headed by Justice SK Dhar. (December 2023)
o Recommendation – Rejected the idea of creation of States on the basis of
Language.
• JVP Committee 1948 –
o Members – Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel,
and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. (JVP).
o Recommendation – Rejected language as the foundation for the
reorganisation of States.

• Fazl Ali Commission 1953 –

o Chairman – Fazl Ali.
o Members – K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru.
o Recommendation – Fazl Ali Commission for the first time accepted Language
as the basis for Reorganisation of States.
346 346

o But it rejected the idea of “One language, One state”.

• On the Basis of Recommendations of 1956 State Reorganisation Commission,

14 states and 6 UTs were created.
• States Reorganisation Commission
Some of the important recommendations of the Commission were:
o Preservation of unity and integrity of the country
o Preservation of linguistic and cultural homogeneity,
o Financial, economic and administrative viability

• Chronology of Reorganisation of States in India :-

o 1953 - Andhra Pradesh becomes first State to be created on basis of language.
o 1960 - Bombay state split into Maharashtra and Gujarat. (December 2019)
(June 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift 1)
o 1963 - Nagaland carved out of Assam state. (June 2024 Shift 1)
o 1966 - Haryana and Himachal Pradesh carved out of Punjab state (PEPSU).
(June 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift 1)
o 1972 - Meghalaya , Manipur and Tripura were formed. (Dec. 2024)
o 1975 - Sikkim became part of Indian union. (December 2019) (June 2024 Shift
2) (Dec. 2024)
o 1987 - Goa and Arunachal Pradesh became States. (December 2019) (June
2024 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
o 2000 – 3 New States – Uttaranchal (out of UP), Jharkhand (out of Bihar) and
Chhattisgarh (out of Madhya Pradesh) were formed. (June 2024Shift 2) (Dec.
2024)
o 2014 – Telangana (out of Andhra Pradesh) became India's 29th state.
(December 2019) (June 2023 Shift 2) (June 2024 Shift 2) (Dec. 2024)
o 2019 – 5th August 2019 – Jammu & Kashmir became a UT with legislature and
Ladakh became a UT without legislature. (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Today as per 2024, India has total = 28 States and 8 UTs.
• Proposed Demand of Statehood –
o Awadh from – Uttar Pradesh
o Harit Pradesh from – Uttar Pradesh (June 2019)
o Purvanchal from – Uttar Pradesh
o Bagelkhand from – Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
o Bundelkhand from – Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
o Malwa from – Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
o Maru Pradesh from – Rajasthan
o Bodoland from – Assam
o Garoland from – Meghalaya
o Chakmaland from – Mizoram
o Gorkhaland from – West Bengal
o Jungle Mahal from – West Bengal
347 347

o Kodagu from – Karnataka

o Kongu Nadu from – Tamil Nadu
o Kosal from – Odisha
o Rayalaseema from – Andhra Pradesh
o Saurashtra from – Gujarat
o Vidarbha from – Maharashtra (June 2019)
348 348

UNIT 9 – PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Evolution of Public Administration
Public Administration as an independent and separate subject occur in 1887
and the credit for this goes to Woodrow Wilson. To understand where it stands today, we
need to look at how it has evolved over time.

Wilson outlined four stages of Public Administration's development:

• Phase I: The analytic distinction of politics from administration
• Phase II: The concrete distinction of politics from administration.
• Phase III: A science of management.
• Phase IV: The pervasive orientation toward public policy.

However, looking at it logically, Public Administration's growth as a field can be seen in five
stages:

Phase I: The Politics/Administration Dichotomy (1887-1926); also the time period between
1887-1910 is known as the “Exploratory Period”. (June 2023 Shift 2)
Phase II: The Principles of Administration also known as Golden Era of Public Administration
(1927-1937) (June 2023 Shift 2)
Phase III: Criticism and Challenges (1938-1950)
Phase IV: Crisis of Identity (1950-1970)
Phase V: Public Administration as an Independent Discipline (1970 Onwards)

Events/Conference of Public Administration (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ Major events/conferences of Public Administration:

➢ Publication of “The Elements of Administration” by Urwick – 1944

➢ The Philadelphia Conference – 1967

The Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration was held
in 1967.
The conference was attended by a group of public administration scholars and practitioners
who were interested in discussing the future of the field.
The conference resulted in a number of publications that helped to shape the development
of New Public Administration.
349 349

➢ First Minnowbrook Conference – 1968 (Dec. 2024)

One of the most important events was the Minnowbrook Conference, which was held in
1968 at the State University of New York at Albany.
The conference was attended by a group of young public administration scholars and
practitioners who were dissatisfied with the state of the discipline.
They argued that public administration had become too focused on efficiency and technical
expertise, and that it had lost sight of its broader purpose of serving the public interest.

➢ Publication of book “Public Administration in a time of Turbulence” by Waldo - 1971

The First Minnowbrook Conference (1968) resulted in the publication of a book called Public
Administration in a Time of Turbulence, in 1971 which edited by Dwight Waldo.
It was a seminal work that helped to define the field of New Public Administration.

Scientific Management Theory:-

➢ The term “scientific management” was first coined by Louis Brandies (1910).
➢ Frederick Winslow Taylor propounded Scientific Management with a systematic
explanation. (December 2018)
➢ He came to be known as the “Father of Scientific Management” and Scientific
management is also known as “Taylorism”. (December 2023)
➢ Basic Theme: management is a true science as it rests on clearly fixed laws, rules and
principles, which have universal applicability in all types of organizations. (December
2023)
➢ The primary goal of Scientific management is to increase efficiency. (December 2018)
➢ The concept of ‘Mental Revolution’ given by Taylor refers to a change in the attitude of
both management and workers towards each other. (June 2023 Shift 2)
➢ He believed that for scientific management to be successful, there must be a
fundamental change in the way that both parties think about their roles and
responsibilities.
➢ Thus, the Mental Revolution involves a combination of Cooperation and Harmony
between workers and management. (March 2023 Shift 2)
➢ four principles of scientific management:-
1 Develop a science for each element of a man’s work
2 Scientifically select and then train workmen
3 Management should fully cooperate with workers
4 Equal division of work and responsibility
➢ Important Techniques:-
350 350

1) Functional Foremanship: a worker is supervised by eight functional foreman

(four are responsible for planning, four are responsible for execution).
Taylor advocated the concept of functional foremanship under which a worker is
supervised and guided by eight functional foreman (i.e., specialised supervisors).

Thus, he rejected the system of single foremanship (also known as unity of

command or linear system or military type of organisation) under which a worker
recieves orders from only one superior.

Of the eight functional foremen, four are responsible for planning and sit in the
planning room.

They are— (i) Order-of-work-and-route clerk, (ii) Instruction-card clerk, iii) Time-
and-cost clerk, and (iv) Shop disciplinarian.

The other four functional foremen are responsible for execution, and serve on
the shop floor. They are - (i) Gang boss, (ii) Speed boss, (iii) Inspector, and (iv)
Repair boss. In effect, each worker, will have eight functional bosses.

Thus, it will facilitate specialisation as well as separation of planning from

execution. (June 2023 Shift 2)

2) Motion Study: observation of all the motions comprised in a particular job and
then determination of the best set of motions. (December 2023)

3) Time study: used to determine the standard time for completion of work.
(December 2023)
4) Differential Piece Rate Plan: pay by piece rates on the basis of standards set by
motion and time studies. (December 2023)
5) Exception Principle: setting up a large daily task by the management,

Taylor’s Major works:- (Shift 2 2021)

➢ A Piece Rate System (1895)
➢ Shop Management (1903)
➢ Art of Cutting Metals (1906)
➢ Principles of Scientific Management (1911)
Bureaucratic Theory:-
➢ The term “bureaucracy” was first coined by Vincent de Gourney, in 1745.
➢ Morstein Marx classified bureaucracy in 4 types:-
1 Guardian Bureaucracy
2 Caste Bureaucracy
351 351

Patronage Bureaucracy
3
4 Merit Bureaucracy, (Jan 2017)
➢ The credit for systematic formulation of the bureaucratic theory goes to Max Weber.
➢ Max Weber called his formulation of bureaucracy as ‘ideal type’ thus considered as a
‘utopia’. (December 2023)
➢ Theory of Authority: authority is ‘authoritarian power of command’ and he called it
‘domination’. He stated that, “all administration means domination.”
➢ Types of Authority:-
- Traditional Authority
- Charismatic Authority
- Legal-Rational Authority (July 2018)
➢ He defined six characteristics of bureaucracy:-
- Formal hierarchical structure
- Management by rules
- Division of labour
- Achievement focused advancement
- Efficient organization
- impersonality
➢ He identified five mechanisms to control over bureaucracy:-
- Collegiality
- Separation of powers
- Amateur administration
- Direct democracy
- Representation bodies
Main work:- (Shift 1 2022)

➢ The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (1947)

➢ Economy and Society (1968) (Dec. 2024)
Managing Conflict in the Organization
➢ Mary Parker Follett is regarded as a bridge between the classical and the behavioral-
human relations approach.
➢ She was the first thinker to advance the idea of worker’s participation. (July 2018)
➢ According to her, conflicts should be conceived as a normal process in organization
and should be handled in a constructive way. (June 2024 Shift 1)
➢ For Follett "Conflict is not warfare, but is only an appearance of difference -
difference of opinions, of interests not only between employer and employee but
also between managers, between directors or wherever differences appear".
(Shift 2 2021)
➢ Follett propounded the concept of ‘constructive conflict’.
(Shift 1 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 2) (December 2023)
➢ Follett suggested three ways for resolving conflict in the organization:-
352 352

(i)Domination—Victory of one side over the other.

(ii)Compromise—Both sides surrendering some part of what they want.
(iii)Integration—Finding a new solution which satisfies the ‘real needs’ of both sides
and neither side sacrifices anything. (June 2019) (Shift 1 2021)
➢ Follett considered integration as the best way of resolving conflict
➢ Concept of Power:-
o ‘Power-over’ it means asserting oneself and forcing another to do
one’s will.
o ‘Power-with’ a superior does not share power with his immediate
subordinates. However, he can give them opportunities for
developing their powers.
She postulated four fundamental principles of coordination:- (June 2023 Shift 2)
i) Coordination by Direct Contact
ii) Coordination in the Early Stages
iii) Coordination as a Continuing Process
iv) Coordination as the Reciprocal Phenomena
M.P. Follet’s Main works:-

➢ The Speaker of the House of Representatives (1896)

➢ The New State (1920)
➢ Creative Experience (1924)
➢ Dynamic Administration (1941)
The Human Relations Theory
➢ The Human Relations Theory of organization came into existence in 1930s as a
reaction to the classical approach. (Shift 1 2021) (December 2023) (Dec. 2024)

➢ Elton Mayo is regarded as the ‘father of human relations theory’.

➢ He called this approach as “clinical method”.
➢ He undertook the first research programme in 1923 in a textile mill near Philadelphia
and named it “The First Enquiry”.
➢ The Hawthorne experiments (1924-32) formed the basis for the rise of human
relations theory. (July 2018) (June 2024 Shift 1)
➢ The Hawthorne experiments can be divided into 5 major parts.
- Experiments on Illumination. (Shift 2 2021) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Relay Assembly Experiment. (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Mass Interviewing Programme. (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Bank Wiring Observation Room. (Shift 2 2021)
- Personnel Counseling.
➢ Some conclusions of the Hawthorne studies are:-
o The social and psychological factors at the workplace determine the
employees’ morale and output.
o The organization is a social system.
353 353

➢ Three elements Human Relations Theory: (i) The Individual (ii) Informal
Organization (iii) Participative Management
➢ One who communicates detrimental information about other to the supervisor
known as “Squealer” (Jan 2017)
Elton Mayo’s Main works:-

➢ The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933) (December 2023)

➢ The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1945)

➢ The Political Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1947)

Decision Making Theory:-
➢ Herbert A. Simon is the foremost decision-making theorist. (Shift 1 2021)
➢ Simon was very critical of the classical approach and described them as
“proverbs”.(July 2018)
➢ He defined decision-making as “the optimum rational choice between alternative
courses of action.” (December 2018)
➢ Every aspect of administration revolves around decision-making.
➢ According to Simon, every decision is based upon two premises— Fact (statement of
reality), and Value (expression of preference)
➢ Stages of Decision-Making:-
i. Intelligence Activity: involves finding occasions for making a decision.
ii. Design Activity: inventing, developing and analyzing possible courses of action.
iii. Choice Activity: selecting a particular course of action. (December 2023)
➢ His model of rational decision-making is also known as Behavior Alternative Model.
➢ Simon believed that total rationality is impossible in administrative behavior.
➢ Therefore, he characterized human behavior by bounded rationality (limited
rationality)
➢ By which a decision maker chooses an alternative, which is satisfactory or good
enough. (December 2018)

Herbert Simon’s Major works:-

➢ Proverbs of Administration (1946), (Jan 2017)
• Administrative Behavior (1947) (December 2023) (Dec. 2024)

Communication –
➢ Chester I. Bernard defined formal organization as cooperative system which has
three elements:-
(i) Communication
(ii) Willingness to cooperate
(iii) Common purpose (June 2020)
354 354

➢ He defined informal organization as a natural system, which give rise to formal

organization.
➢ Acceptance Theory of Authority: a subordinate will accept a communication in four
conditions:-
i. understands the communication
ii. Communication is not inconsistent with the purpose.
iii. Communication is compatible with his personal interest.
iv. mentally and physically comply with the communication (Shift 1 2022) (Shift
2 2022)
➢ The acceptance of authority, according to Barnard, is facilitated by the zone of
indifference. (Shift 2 2021)
➢ He said that, “The communication of intangible facts, opinions, suggestions and
suspicions that cannot pass through formal channels are communicated through
informal channels”. (June 2023 Shift 2)
➢ Barnard suggested seven principles of communication.
Chester Barnard’s Major works :-
➢ The Functions of Executive (1938), (Jan 2017) (Shift 2 2021) (Dec. 2024)
➢ Organization and Management (1948)
Other thinkers:-
➢ Henry Fayol : first thinker to introduce the problem of communication in an
organization.
- Provided a meaningful solution in the form of ‘gang plank’. (Dec. 2024)
- Implies the system of horizontal communication to avoid delay in the disposal of
business.
➢ Herbert Simon :
- Simon stresses the informal channels of communication (grapevine) for the
transmission of information.
- According to him, the informal communication system is built around the social
relationships of the members of the organization.

Ecological Approach : F.W. Riggs

➢ explain three administrative theories (i) ecological approach (ii) structural-functional
approach; and (iii) ideal models
➢ Ecological approach: interaction between administrative system and its
environment. (Shift 1 2021)
➢ Structural-functional approach: explaining the administrative systems from
ecological perspective. (first suggested in 1955 by Dwight Waldo)
➢ Based on the structural-functional approach, Riggs has constructed two ‘ideal
models’- (i) agraria-industria model (ii) fused-prismatic-diffracted model.
➢ agraria-industria model (1956), (July 2018) (December 2018)
355 355

- distinguished between two types of societies — societies dominated

by agricultural institutions (agraria) and societies dominated by
industrial institutions (industria).
- According to him, all societies move from agraria stage to industria
stage.
- In the following year (1957), postulated an intermediate model called
‘transitia’ bears the features of both and represents a transitional
society.
➢ Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model (1959) (June 2024 Shift 2)
- Represents the underdeveloped, developing and developed societies
respectively.
- Underdeveloped societies: the fused model, and developed
societies: the refracted model. (December 2019)
- Intermediate between these polar extremes is the prismatic model,
- Prismatic society is a transitional society and combines the features of
both.
➢ Prismatic-Sala Model
- ‘Prismatic’ represents the transitional society and ‘sala’ represents the
administrative sub-system of a prismatic society.
- Three features of prismatic-sala model—Heterogeneity, Formalism,
Overlapping. (June 2020)
➢ Change in a Prismatic Society
- External change: ‘exo-genous change’
- internal change: ‘endo-genous change’
- both external and internal change: ‘equi-genetic change’

➢ When discussing a Prismatic Society, “Heterogeneity" refers to the coexistence of

diverse structures.
➢ This means that within such a society, various elements with contrasting
characteristics exist side by side. This diversity extends to viewpoints and practices,
even those that are diametrically opposite.
➢ The consequence of such parallel existence is that any societal change occurring
within this prism of diversity tends to be inconsistent, lacking in completeness, and
unresponsive to uniform transformation.
➢ Riggs points out that one might observe the coexistence of highly modernized
structures alongside deeply traditional ones. (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ For instance, Urban areas, influenced by Western patterns and trends, undergo a different
trajectory compared to rural regions, where traditional ways of life persist. This coexistence
results in an uneven developmental landscape.
356 356

▪ All these complexities give rise to challenges and intricacies within the society's fabric
where the level of social change taking place within a prismatic society would be
inconsistent, incomplete and unresponsive from place to place.

In his book Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismatic Society

(1964), Riggs mentioned the following points:
A. The structures of a modern society are typically functionally specific.
B. A structure is defined as any pattern of behaviour, which has become a standard
feature of a social system.
C. Agraria will move towards Industria through the process of transition in the society.
D. Although the "image" of Agraria resembles the 'model' of a fused society, the two
constructions are by no means identical. (December 2023)
Major works:-
➢ The Ecology of Public Administration (1961) (Dec. 2024)
➢ Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismatic Society (1964)
(December 2023)

Rational Choice Theory (June 2024 Shift 1)

➢ Also known as Public Choice Theory.
➢ The term public choice approach was coined in the late 1960s.
➢ Vincent Ostrom, the chief protagonist of this approach advocated for replacement of
‘bureaucratic administration’ by ‘democratic administration’.
➢ The theory postulates that an individual will perform a cost-benefit analysis to
determine whether an option is right for them.
o Rational Choice Theory of Public Administration encourages research in
policy analysis because it aligns with the theory's core assumption that
individuals are rational actors who carefully assess their options to maximize
their interests. (June 2023 Shift 2)
➢ Policy analysis helps decision-makers identify optimal policies by providing a
systematic framework to evaluate alternatives, anticipate consequences, and
ultimately make more informed and effective choices in the realm of public
administration.
➢ Main assumptions:-
- individuals are driven by self interest.
- Individuals act rationally with adequate information and order of
preference.
- Individuals are utility maximisers.
➢ Public choice emphasizes the following: -
- Anti-bureaucratic approach
- Institutional pluralism
- Diverse democratic decision-making centres
357 357

- Application of economic logic to the problems of public service

distribution
- Decentralization
- Popular participation in administration.
Major work:-
➢ “The Intellectual Crisis in American Public Administration”1974 (June 2019)
Management By Objectives (MBO) –
➢ Also known as management by planning, or management by results was first
popularized by Peter Drucker in 1954. (Shift 2 2021)
➢ Management by Objective (MBO), also called Management by Results (MBR), is a
theory of management developed by Peter Drucker in his book Practice of
Management (1954). (Shift 1 2022)
➢ Defines roles and responsibilities for the employees and help them chalk out their
future course of action in the organization.
➢ It forces the manger to simplify the plan and activities for the best result.
➢ Guides the employees to deliver their level best and achieve the targets within the
stipulated period.
➢ The process of management by objective focuses more on results rather than the
activities involved.
➢ Process of management by objective:-
1. Define the goal of the organization
2. Define the objectives of employees
3. Continuously monitoring performance and progress
4. Performance evaluation
5. Providing feedback
6. Appraisal of performance
. Peter Drucker also coined the term ‘Knowledge workers’ in his book, The Landmarks of
Tomorrow (1959). (Shift 1 2022)

o ▪ According to Peter Drucker’s Management by Objectives (MBO): (June 2023

Shift 2)
▪ Peter Drucker believed that management has a specific role to perform within an
organization. He defined management as the process of planning, organizing, directing, and
controlling an organization's resources to achieve its goals and objectives.

▪ Peter Drucker advocated for the democratization of management. He believed that

management principles should not be reserved for a select group of experts or elites but
should be accessible and applicable to individuals from all walks of life.

▪ According to Peter Drucker, management is not subjective. In fact, he emphasized that

management is a discipline that can be studied, learned, and practiced objectively. Drucker
358 358

believed that there are principles and practices that can be applied universally to achieve
effective management.

▪ Peter Drucker was critical of the mechanistic model of organizational management. He

believed that organizations should be more flexible, adaptive, and people-centered. He
advocated for a more organic and human-centered approach to management, which is in
contrast to the rigid and hierarchical nature of the mechanistic model.

“Sins” of non-performance (June 2023 Shift 1)

▪ According to Peter Drucker, the following are the Six 'Sins' which contribute to non-
performance:

▪ 1. Dogmatism – Dogmatism refers to a rigid adherence to beliefs, ideas, or methods

without considering alternative viewpoints or being open to new information. According to
Drucker, dogmatism can hinder performance because it limits innovation, creativity, and
adaptability.

▪ 2. Having lofty objectives – While having ambitious goals can be motivating, Drucker
cautioned against setting overly lofty objectives that are unrealistic or unattainable.

▪ 3. Attempting to do several things – Drucker argued that trying to do too many things at
once, without prioritizing them can lead to non-performance.

▪ 4. Fat is beautiful - Drucker believed that over-staffing is a sure way for non-performance
and focuses on ‘administration’ than on ‘results’.

▪ 5. Failure to learn from ‘experience’.

▪ 6. Belief in immortality and inability to abandon and continue the policies, programme and
institutions long after they are unnecessary and their need disappeared.

Peter Drucker’s Major works :- (Shift 1 2022)

➢ The Practice of Management (1954) (Dec. 2024)

➢ The Effective Executive (1966)
➢ The Landmarks of Tomorrow (1959)

System theory:-
➢ A system as, “A set or arrangement of things so connected as to form a unity or
organic whole.”
➢ A system has a number of parts. These parts are called sub-systems.
➢ The system has a defined boundary through which it interacts with its environment.
This external environment is called a supra-system.
359 359

➢ A system consists of five basic parts: input, process, output, feedback and
environment.
➢ Systems are of two categories:-
- Open systems: social and biological systems, interaction with their
environment.
- Closed systems: mechanical and physical systems, do not interact
with environment.
➢ Organization falls in the category of open social systems consisting of seven sub-
systems.
➢ The systems approach to the study of organizations was developed after 1950.
➢ It is also known as the Modern Organization Theory.
➢ Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, a biologist, developed the General Systems Theory.
(December 2018)
➢ M.P. Follett viewed organization as a social system.
➢ Chester Barnard gave the first comprehensive explanation of organization from the
systems point of view. He described an organization as a “cooperative” social
system. (June 2020)
➢ Norbert Wiener pioneered in the field of cybernetics and gave the first clear view of
an organization as a system consisting of inputs, process, outputs, feedback and
environment.
➢ Herbert Simon’s decision-making model is based on the systems approach.

➢ There are three models of organization:-

- Closed model: bureaucratic, hierarchical, formal, rational.(December
2018)
- Open model: collegial, competitive, free-market, informal, natural
- Newer tradition model: tries to synthesize both closed and open
models. (called by James D. Thompson)

Theories of Leadership:-
➢ Trait Theory (great man theory): This theory says that a person becomes a leader
because of the traits possessed by him.
➢ Behavioral Theory: concentrates on what leaders ‘do’ (leadership functions and
styles)
➢ Situational Theory: This theory believes that the leadership is influenced by
situational variables and differs from situation to situation.
➢ M.P. Follett distinguished between the following three types of leadership:-
- Leadership of position
- Leadership of personality
360 360

- Leadership of function
➢ Chester Barnard’s leadership depends on three things: the individual, the followers,
and the conditions.
➢ John French and Bertram Raven have proposed five sources of power bases of
leadership.
- Coercive Power
- Reward Power
- Legitimate Power
- Expert Power
- Referent Power
➢ There are three basic styles of leadership: autocratic, democratic and laissez faire.
➢ According to George R. Terry ‘Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive
willingly for mutual objectives.’ (Shift 2 2022)
➢ According to Koontz and O’Donnell – Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce
subordinates to work with zeal and confidence. (December 2019)

Theories of Motivation:-
➢ Traditional Theory:
- Also known as (a) Monistic Theory of Motivation, (b) Economic Theory of
Motivation, (c) Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation.
- This theory says that people working harder when adequate material rewards
are available or when there is a strong fear of punishment
- F.W. Taylor was the first major exponent of this approach.

➢ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:- (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1) (June 2024 Shift 2)
(Dec. 2024)
- In his classic paper, A Theory of Human Motivation (1943) propounded the
‘Need Hierarchy’ theory of human motivation. (Shift 2 2021)
- He said “behavior in administration should be studied through psycho analysis”
(July 2018)
- The first systematic conceptual model of human motivation.
- Maslow’s need hierarchy concept consists of five levels of human needs
1) Physiological needs ➢ Considered as Lower
2) Security needs order needs
3) Social needs

4) Esteem needs ➢ Considered as Higher

5) Self- Actualization order needs

- The prepotency (urgency) of a satisfied need decreases and another unsatisfied

need emerges to replace it.
361 361

Maslow’s Major works:-

- Motivation and Personality (1954)

➢ Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (Shift 2 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Also known as motivation-hygiene theory or motivation-maintenance theory.
- He found two sets of factors for motivation and dissatisfaction (both are
different from each other):-
1) ‘satisfiers’ (motivators or growth factors) like achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, growth
2) ‘dissatisfiers’ (hygiene factors or maintenance factors) like company
policy, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, working conditions etc
- Herzberg has divided people working in organizations into two categories called
‘hygiene seekers’ and ‘motivation seekers’.

Herzberg’s Major works:-

- The Motivation to Work (1959)
- Work and the Nature of Man (1966)
- Managerial Choice : To Be Efficient and To be Human (1976)
Articles:-
- One more time: How do you motivate employees? (1968)
- Job enrichment pays off (1969), along with W J Paul and K B Robertson
(Jr).

➢ Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y (June 2024 Shift 1)

- According to McGregor, management holds two different sets of assumptions
about human nature in organizations.
- He as Theory X and Theory Y. calls sets of assumptions.
Theory X Theory Y
• Dislike their work Human • Happy to work and
and avoid Nature in accept responsibility.
responsibility Organization
• Autocratic/Directive Leadership • Democratic/Participative.
• External and rigid Control • Internal and based on
self-control.
• Punitive/Coercive Motivation • Rewarding/Praising.
• Fault-finding Appraisal • Solve problems creatively
and imaginatively.

- Central principles which derives from Theory X, has been called ‘the scalar
principle’ and Theory Y, has been called Principle of Integration.
- Theory X is work-centred, while Theory Y is both work and people-centred.
362 362

- McGregor concluded that managerial strategy based on Theory Y assumptions

would be more beneficial and participative.
- According to Douglas McGregor – In Theory Y - the integration of behaviour - is
seen as the key process in management. (June 2023 Shift 1)
- This means that managers should strive to create an environment that
encourages the active participation and engagement of employees.
- The assumption is that when employees are given the opportunity to contribute
and be involved in decision-making processes, they will feel a sense of ownership
and responsibility towards their work.
- Theory Y results in the creation of conditions that are conducive to employees
achieving their own goals while also contributing to the success of the
organization.
- This means that when employees are given autonomy and trust, they are more
likely to align their personal goals with the goals of the enterprise.

McGregor’s Major work:-

- The Human Side of Enterprise (1960). (Shift 1 2021)

Comparative Public Administration – Ferral Heady (March 2023 Shift 1)

According to Ferrel Heady, the comparative public administration addresses five 'motivating
concerns' as an intellectual enterprise. These are:
(i) The search for theory;
(ii) The urge for practical application;
(iii) The incidental contribution of the broader field of comparative politics;
(iv) The interest of researchers trained in the tradition of administrative law; and
(v) The comparative analysis of ongoing problems of public administration.

Fred Riggs mentions there are three trends in Comparative Public Administration:
(i)A shift from Normative studies (which deal with what ought to be) to Empirical Studies
(which deals with what is).
(ii) A shift from Ideographic studies (which focuses on one nation studies/ individualistic
studies) to Nomothetic studies (which focuses on universal studies).
(iii) A Shift from Non-ecological studies (which focuses on administrative phenomena as an
isolated activity) to Ecological studies (which examines on Administrative phenomena in
relation to its External environment). (March 2023 Shift 2)

Behavioural Approach (March 2023 Shift 2)

The behavioural approach in the study of organizations focuses on understanding how
people behave within an organizational context.
363 363

This approach draws on theories and concepts from psychology, sociology, and other
behavioural sciences to analyse and explain individual and group behaviour within
organizations.
The key features of the behavioural approach include the use of empirical research to
identify patterns and trends in organizational behaviour, the emphasis on the importance of
organizational culture and values in shaping behaviour, and the use of interventions and
techniques to change behaviour and improve organizational outcomes.

New Public Administration (March 2023 Shift 1) (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ New Public Administration advocates a client-focused approach. It stresses not only on

providing goods and services to the clients but also giving them a voice in how and when
and what is to be provided.
▪ It requires positive, proactive and responsive administrators rather than authoritarian and
ivory-tower bureaucrats.
▪ The Anti-Goals of New Public Administration (NPA) are the opposite of the traditional goals
of public administration.
▪ They are:
A. Anti-Positivism: This means rejecting the idea that there is only one objective truth that
can be discovered through scientific methods. NPA argues that multiple perspectives and
interpretations of reality exist, and they should be taken into account in public
administration.
B. Anti-Technical: This means rejecting the idea that public administration is a technical
process that can be solved through the application of expertise and rational analysis alone.
NPA argues that public administration is a complex social process that involves value
judgments, politics, and conflicting interests.
C. Anti-Hierarchical: This means rejecting the idea that public administration is a
hierarchical system in which power is concentrated at the top. NPA argues that public
administration should be a more collaborative and participatory process that involves
citizens, community groups, and other stakeholders. (March 2023 Shift 2)

New Public Management (June 2023 Shift 1 and 2)

▪ New Public Management (NPM) is an approach in public administration that applies

knowledge and experience gained in the world of management and other disciplines to
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public service performance in modern
bureaucracies. It focuses on public sector management that is performance-oriented, not
policy-oriented. (December 2023)
364 364

▪ It is an approach to public administration and governance that emerged in the 1980s and
1990s. It aimed to introduce principles and practices from the private sector into the public
sector to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability.
▪ New public management has emerged out of the Thatcherism and Reaganism (USA) of the
1980s.
▪ The emphasis of new public management is on performance-appraisal, managerial
autonomy, cost-cutting, financial incentives, output targets, innovation, responsiveness,
competence, accountability, market-orientation, quality improvement, contracting out,
flexibility, competition, choice, information technology, de-bureaucratisation,
decentralization, down-sizing and entrepreneurialism.
▪ The new public management involves a shift from direct provision of services by
government to indirect methods like policy-making, facilitating, contracting, providing
information and coordinating other actors.
▪ Attributes of NPM are:
▪ 1. Decentralization: Giving more decision-making power and autonomy to lower-level
units and managers.
▪ 2. Performance Measurement: Emphasizing the use of performance indicators and
metrics to evaluate the success of public organizations.
▪ 3. Results-Oriented: Focusing on achieving measurable outcomes and results in the
delivery of public services.
▪ 4. Customer Focus: Placing emphasis on meeting the needs and demands of citizens and
customers.
▪ 5. Competition and Market Mechanisms: Introducing competition or market-like elements
in the provision of public services.
▪ 6. Accountability: Holding public officials and organizations accountable for their
performance.

Harold Lasswell – Policy Cycle (March 2023 Shift 1)

According to Harold Laswell, in his book (the Decision Process, 1986) –

There are Total Seven Stages in the Policy Process:

 Intelligence
 Promotion
 Prescription
 Invocation
 Application
 Termination
 Appraisal

Robert Dahl - Cross-Cultural Studies (March 2023 Shift 1)

365 365

The statement suggests that Robert Dahl has suggested for cross-cultural studies in Public
Administration.
In his book "Who Governs?"(1961), Dahl argued that public administration is not immune to
the effects of political, cultural, and environmental systems in which it operates.
366 366

Development Administration
• The term Development Administration was first coined by Indian scholar Goswami in
1955.
• It was popularized by Edward Weidner, who defined it as an "action-oriented,
goal-oriented administrative system."
• Its main aim is to bring planned societal change for economic and political progress.
• Scholars like Lucian Pye and F.W. Riggs supported a broader view, linking devel-
opment administration with nation-building, especially in developing countries.
• F.W. Riggs emphasized that administrative improvement needs:
o Reform in government systems.
o Changes in external conditions or infrastructure.
o Strengthening administration to manage development programs.
• Montgomery and Fainsod proposed a narrower view, focusing mainly on adminis-
trative efficiency.
• Core features of development administration include:
o Modernization.
o Socio-economic development.
o Institution building.
• It focuses on the 4 P’s:
o Plan
o Politics
o Programs
o Projects
• In developing countries, it mainly deals with political and economic development.
• Development administration has two key dimensions:
1. Administration of Development – using administration to direct so-
cio-economic and political change.
2. Development of Administration – improving the administrative sys-
tem to handle change and lead reforms.
367 367

Organisational Communication: Theories and Principles

Meaning:

• Communication is a basic and essential function of administration.

• It means sharing of ideas, facts, opinions, and understanding.
• Derived from Latin "Communis" meaning common.
• It involves transfer of information from one person/place to another.
• It refers to the process of sending and receiving information within an organization.
• Helps in coordination, decision-making, and goal achievement.

Key Definitions

• Pfiffner: Communication is the heart of management.

• Millet: It means shared understanding of a shared purpose.
• Peter Drucker: It is the ability of different groups to understand each other’s func-
tions.

Types of Communication:

1. Formal Communication – Follows official structure (e.g., memos, meetings).

2. Informal Communication – Unofficial channels (e.g., gossip, chats).
3. Vertical Communication – Between different levels (upward/downward).
4. Horizontal Communication – Between same-level employees/departments.
5. Diagonal Communication – Between different departments without hierarchy.

Types of Communication Networks

1. Chain: Message passes step-by-step in hierarchy.

2. Wheel: One central figure communicates with others.
3. Circle: All individuals can talk to each other.
4. Inverted V: Two subordinates communicate with a common superior.
5. All Channel: Free flow of communication among all.

Communication Theories:

1. Classical Theory – Focus on formal, top-down communication.

2. Human Relations Theory – Emphasizes informal communication and feedback.
3. Systems Theory – Views communication as an open, dynamic system.
4. Transactional Theory – Communication as two-way, with sender and receiver influ-
encing each other.
368 368

Chester Bernard Principles of Communication

Key Ideas by Chester Barnard (from "The Functions of the Executive"):

• Communication is essential for cooperation in organizations.

• A successful organization depends on an effective communication system.

Main Principles:

1. Channels of communication should be definite – Clear and known paths.

2. Everyone should know the channel – Employees must know where to send or re-
ceive information.
3. Line of communication must be direct – Short and quick routes are better.
4. Complete and continuous communication – It must flow without breaks.
5. Authority flows through communication – Instructions must be well-communicated
to be accepted.
6. The message should be understood – No value unless it is understood by the re-
ceiver.
369 369

Information Management in the Organization

Meaning:

• It is the process of collecting, storing, sharing, and using information efficiently.

Importance:

• Supports decision-making and policy formulation.

• Improves accountability, transparency, and efficiency.
• Helps in record-keeping and performance monitoring.

Key Components:

1. Data Collection – From internal reports, surveys, feedback, etc.

2. Storage – Through files, databases, cloud systems.
3. Processing – Turning raw data into useful information.
4. Sharing – Communicating relevant information with stakeholders.
5. Security – Protecting data from misuse or loss.

Modern Tools:

• MIS (Management Information Systems)

• RTI (Right to Information Act)
• Digital dashboards, e-Governance platforms
370 370

UNIT 10 – GOVERNANCE AND

PUBLIC POLICY IN INDIA

Governance, good governance and democratic governance, role of state,

civil society and individuals

Governance: Definition & Meaning

• Governance refers to the process and structures through which decisions are made
and implemented in society.
• The concept of governance has been in use since at least the fourteenth century. It was
first used in France.
• The term is derived from the Greek word ‘Kybernan’ which means ‘to steer and to
pilot or be at the helm of things.’
• In simple terms, governance means “the process of decision-making”.
• It includes formal and informal actors, rules, institutions, and processes that man-
age public affairs.
• The term ‘governance’ was first used by Harland Cleveland (1972). He used it as an
alternative to public administration. According to him, what people want is ‘less gov-
ernment and more governance’

Key Definitions:

• World Bank (1992): "The manner in which power is exercised in the management of
a country's economic and social resources for development."

• UNDP (1997): Governance is the exercise of economic, political and administrative

authority to manage a country's affairs at all levels.

• Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): the use of

political authority and exercise of control in a society in relation to the management of
its resources for social and economic development. The OECD lays down the key
components of governance as follows:

1. Legitimacy of government;
2. Accountability of political and official elements of government;
3. Competence of governments to make policy and deliver services; and
4. Respect for human rights and the rule of law
• UNESCO (1997): defines governance as a process whereby citizens’ needs, and inter-
ests are articulated for the positive social and economic development of the entire
Concept of Governance society and in the light of a perceived common good.

Government and Governance

371 371

The terms government and governance have been very well explained by Rosenau. Accord-
ing to him, both refer to purposive behaviour, to goal-oriented activities, to system of rule of
law.

• Both government and governance involve goal-oriented activities and systems of

rule.
• Government relies on formal authority and police power to implement policies.
• Governance relies on shared goals and may not need legal authority or police power
for compliance.
• Governance is broader than government, including governmental and non-govern-
mental mechanisms for people and organizations to meet their needs.

Good Governance
• It is a normative concept that refers to the ideal form of governance which is ac-
countable, transparent, participatory, responsive, and rule-based.

• The concept of good governance gained more importance in the 1990s.

Good Governance aims at:

• Improving the quality of life of citizens.

• Enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of administration.
• Establishing the legitimacy and credibility of institutions.
• Securing the freedom of information and expression.
• Providing citizen-friendly and citizen-caring administration.
• Ensuring accountability.

World Bank on Governance: Two reports were published by the World Bank in this
regard.

1. Initial Use of ‘Governance’ (1989 Report)

• Report: Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (1989).

• The World Bank introduced the concept of ‘crisis of governance’ in the African
context.

• Identified issues:
o Widespread corruption.
o Excessive personalisation of political power.
o Neglect of human rights.
o Non-accountable and non-elected governments.

• These were seen as impediments to sustainable development.

• The crisis was linked to inefficient Structural Adjustment Programmes.

2. Transition to ‘Good Governance’

• Document: Governance and Development (1992).

372 372

• Governance defined as: “The manner in which power is exercised in the manage-
ment of a country’s economic and social resources for development.”

• Key components of governance:

a. Form of political regime (parliamentary, presidential, military, authoritarian).

b. Process of exercising authority in managing resources.
c. Government capacity to design, formulate, and implement policies.

Elements of Good Governance

Worldwide Governance Indicators Project - World Bank: Through this project, the World
Bank ranks more than 200 countries (1996–2023) based on 6 key indicators of governance.
These 6 indicators are:

1. Voice and Accountability

2. Political Stability and Lack of Violence
3. Government Effectiveness
4. Regulatory Quality
5. Rule of Law
6. Control of Corruption

Key Characteristics of Good governance (As per UNDP):

1. Participation – Involvement of all stakeholders, especially marginalized groups.

2. Rule of Law – Fair legal frameworks, protection of human rights.
3. Transparency – Easy access to information.
4. Responsiveness – Institutions serve all stakeholders in a timely manner.
5. Consensus-Oriented – Mediates differing interests.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness – All groups feel included and empowered.
7. Effectiveness and Efficiency – Resource use is sustainable.
8. Accountability – Institutions and officials are answerable to the public.

Good Governance Index (India): Published by the Department of Administrative

Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) to assess states and UTs.

Democratic Governance
A form of good governance practiced within a democratic framework—where power is de-
rived from the will of the people, institutions are accountable, and civil liberties are guaran-
teed.

Core Features:

• Free and fair elections

• Respect for fundamental rights
• Separation of powers
• Independent judiciary
• Freedom of press and speech
373 373

• Rule of law
• Citizen participation

Relationship Between the Three: State, Civil Society, and Individuals

Element Function in Governance Example

PMAY, MGNREGA, Digital In-
State Policy-maker, implementer, enforcer
dia
Civil Soci- Advocacy, accountability, service deliv- RTI movement, NGOs in educa-
ety ery tion
Individuals Active citizenship, monitoring, feedback Voting, filing RTIs, social audits

Challenges to Good and Democratic Governance

• Corruption
• Red-tapism and bureaucratic inertia
• Political interference
• Lack of awareness among citizens
• Weak civil society in some regions
• Digital divide and exclusion

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission of India, in its report titled "Citizen-Cen-
tric Administration: The Heart of Governance (2009)," identified the following five bar-
riers:

1. Attitudinal problems of civil servants.

2. Lack of accountability.
3. Red-tapism.
4. Low level of awareness among citizens regarding their rights and duties.
5. Ineffective implementation of laws and rules.

MAJOR TOPICS OF GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC POLICY IN INDIA

TOPIC – KEY POINTS –

1. RTI • Right to Information Act, 2005. (June 2023 Shift 2) (March

2023 Shift 2)
(Right to • RTI Enacted on June 15th, 2005 – by Parliament of India.
Information Act, • RTI Commenced on October 12th, 2005 – became fully
2005) operational. (NET 2016)

• It was introduced by Second Administrative Reforms

Commission which has submitted a total of 15 reports and
374 374

‘Right to Information : Master Key to Good Governance’ was

among them. (NET 2018)

• It replaced the former Freedom of Information Act, 2002.

(NET 2016)
• RTI is an act that sets out the rules and procedures regarding
citizens right to information.
• RTI is a redressal mechanism of grievances as it empowers
the citizens to ask questions from the government, seeks
information, observe government policies and schemes.
(NET 2021)
• This act was enacted in order to consolidate the fundamental
right in the Indian Constitution ‘Freedom of Speech’.
• RTI have been introduced traits like caution, care and
vigilance in the politico-administrative system.
(NET 2019)

• To Receive Public Information Under RTI – 3 cases are

important to note :-

• (1). In Normal Course – any information to an applicant is to

be supplied within 30 days from the receipt of application by
the public authority – the PIO
(Public Information Officer).
• (2). If information concerns the life or liberty of a person, it
shall be supplied within 48 hours.
• (3). In case the application is sent through the Assistant Public
Information Officer or it is sent to a wrong Public Authority,
FIVE Days shall be added to the period of 30days/48hrs, as
the case may be.
• Central Information Commission (CIC): (June 2023 Shift
2)
A. CIC was constituted through an official gazette notification
under the provisions of the RTI Act 2005.
B. When CIC was constituted initially, it has five
commissioners including Chief Information Commissioners.
C. The Chief Information Commissioner holds office for a
period of three years from the date on which he enters upon
office.
• Central Information Commission (Amendment Bill 2019)
- The RTI Act was amended in 2019 with the following
changes:
o There is no longer a fixed term of five years for
Commissioners (CIC & ICs).
o There cannot be more than 10 Central Information
Commissioners.
o Salaries and Allowances of Commissioners are now decided
by the Central Government.
o The age of retirement for the Chief Information Commissioner
is 65 years.
375 375

2. Citizens • The Citizens Charter is a voluntary and written document

Charter which states a service provider’s efforts taken on their
commitment towards fulfilling the needs of their
citizens/customers.
• Citizens Charter includes the ways in which citizens can
redress any grievances. It includes what the citizens can
expect out of their service provider.

• The concept of Citizens Charter first started in UK in 1991

under the then British Prime Minister John Major.
(December 2023)
• In 1998, in the UK, the concept was renamed as
‘Services First’.

• In India, the concept of Citizens Charter was first adopted in

1997 at the ‘Conference of Chief Ministers of various States
ansd Union Territories’ in New Delhi.
• One Key Component of Citizens Charter in India is that it is
NOT Legally enforceable here. This has made the
mechanism of Citizens Charter ineffective in a real sense.

• In India, the task of coordination, formulation and

operationalisation of Citizens Charter is done by the
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public
Grievances (DARPG).

• Therefore, we can see the Indian Model of Citizens Charter is

an adaptation from the UK model. One additional component
of the Charter here in the Indian version is the inclusion of the
point ‘expectation from clients’.

• On 31st May 2002, a comprehensive Website of Citizens'

Charter in Government of India (www.goicharters.nic.in)
was developed and launched by the Department of
Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances
(DARPG). (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Six Principles of ‘Citizen’s Charter Movement’

- The basic objective of the Citizen's Charter is to
empower the citizen in relation to public service
delivery. The six principles of the Citizen's Charter
movement as originally framed were:
(i) Quality: Improving the quality of
services;
(ii) Choice: Wherever possible;
376 376

(iii) Standards: Specifying what to expect

and how to act if standards are not met;
(iv) Value: For the taxpayers' money:
(v) Accountability: Individuals and
Organisations; and
(vi) Transparency:
Rules/Procedures/Schemes/Grievances
(March 2023 Shift 1)
3. Consumer • First implemented on December 24th, 1986.
Protection Act • The Consumer Protection Act covers all the Goods and
Services of All Public, Private or Cooperative Sectors,
except those exempted by the central government.
• The purpose of this Act is that this provides a platform for a
consumer where they can file complaint and the forum then
takes action against the concerned supplier and compensation
is granted to the consumer for the inconvenience, he/she has
encountered.

• An Amendment was brought on the Consumer Protection Act,

1986 – on August 9th, 2019. (NET 2020) (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Consumer Protection Act, 2019 :-

• It widened the definition of consumer and recognize mediation
as an alternate disputes resolution mechanism.
• It established the Central Consumer Protection Authority
(CCPA) whose primary task is to promote, protect and enforce
the rights of consumers. Previously, no such central regulator
was present in India. (NET 2020)
• The CCPA can take suo-moto actions, recall products, order
reimbursement of the price of goods/services, cancel licenses,
impose penalties and file class-action suits.
• The CCPA has an investigation wing to conduct independent
inquiry or investigation into any consumer law violations.

• The 2019 Act, also has established the Consumer Disputes

Redressal Commission (CRDC) – at the national, state and
district levels.
• The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 also allows E-Filing of
Complaints. Now with this Act, a consumer in India can file a
complaint into a consumer court where the complainant
resides or works (anywhere in India). (NET 2020)

• The CCPA may impose a penalty on a manufacturer or an

endorser, for a false or misleading advertisement.

• First President of National Consumer Disputes Redressal

Commission
o In India the NCDRC is a quasi-judicial commission which
was set up in 1988 under the Consumer Protection Act of
377 377

1986. Its head office is in New Delhi. The commission is

headed by a sitting or retired judge of the Supreme Court
of India. The commission is presently headed by Justice R
K Agrawal, former judge of the Supreme Court of India.

o Justice V. Balakrishna Eradi was the first President of

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission from
1988 to 1993. (March 2023 Shift 2)

4. Lokpal • The word Lokpal was coined by L.M. Singhvi in 1963.

It is derived from the Sanskrit word meaning “protector of
Lokayukta people”.

(Ombudsman • At First, the ARC 1 – Administrative Reforms Commission

System in India) of India (1966–1970) recommended the setting up of two
special authorities designated as ‘Lokpal’ and ‘Lokayukta’ for
the redressal of citizens’ grievances in India. (June 2023 Shift
2)

• The first Lokpal Bill was introduced in Parliament in 1968.

(NET 2022)

• After ten official attempts, from 1968 to 2011 the Government

of India finally passed the Lokpal
and Lokayuktas Bill, of 2011 was passed in the year 2013.
• In 2011, the famous Anna Movement for Lokpal took place
at Jantar Mantar, Delhi.
• The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 came into force
w.e.f. 16.01.2014. (June 2023 Shift 2) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• This established the institution of Lokpal at the Centre and the
Lokayukta at the State level.
• Justice (Retd) Pinaki Chandra Ghose became the first
appointed Lokpal of India, along with eight judicial and non-
judicial members, on March 19, 2019.
The term of Lokpal is - 5 years or till the age of 70 years.

• Composition of Lokpal :-
• Under the 2013, Act, the Lokpal should consist of a
chairperson and such number of members, not exceeding 8.
Of the members, 50% should be Judicial members.
Also, not less than 50% of the members should be from among
persons belonging to the SCs, the STs, OBCs, minorities and
women.

• Who selects the Chairperson and members of Lokpal?

• Selection Committee – consisting of the Prime Minister,
Speaker of Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition of Lok Sabha,
Chief Justice of India (CJI) or a sitting Supreme Court Judge
nominated by the CJI and an eminent jurist to be nominated by
378 378

the President of India on the basis of recommendations of the

first four members of the selection committee.

• Powers and Limitations :-

• Lokpal of India will have the power of superintendence and
direction over any investigating agency, including the CBI.
• But, Lokpal cannot suo-motu proceed against any public
servant. Also, under this system, Anonymous complaints are
not allowed – i.e., no complaint will be taken up without the
supporting documents.

• Lokayukta – The Lokayuktas are the State equivalents of the

central Lokpal.
• Maharashtra became the first state in India to introduce
Lokayukta in 1971.
• Ombudsman – In India Lokpal and Lokayukta is also known
as Ombudsman.
• The concept of Constitutional Ombudsman was proposed by
Ashok Kumar Sen in Parliament in India. (NET 2022)

5. MGNREGA • The Parliament of India passed the MNREGA Act

Act, 2005 on August 23rd, 2005.
• MNREGA Act was enacted on September 7th, 2005.
• It came into force on February, 2nd 2006 in 200 backward
districts of rural India.
• Earlier it was known as NREGA.
• Framing of NREGA
o Jean Dreze is an Indian-Belgian economist and social
activist who is known for his work on poverty, hunger, and
social inequality in India. He has made significant
contributions to the design and implementation of various
social welfare programs in India, including the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). (March
2023 Shift 1)

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act 2005; which was earlier known as NREGA (National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act) is an Indian labour law and
social security measure that aims to guarantee the ‘right to
work’.

• The MNREGA Act, 2005 passed during the tenure of PM

Manmohan Singh aims to enhance livelihood security in rural
areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a
year for unskilled manual work.
(NET 2021)
6. RTE • RTE was enacted on August 4th 2009.
• This act came into force on April 1st 2010. (June 2023 Shift
2)
379 379

(Right to
Education Act) • The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act or Right to Education (RTE) Act which describes
importance of free and compulsory education for children
between 6-14 years in India under Article 21(a) of the Indian
Constitution.
• Indian became one of 135 countries to make education a
fundamental right of every child.
• The Act makes education a fundamental right of every child
between the ages of 6-14 years and specifies minimum norms
in elementary schools.

7. NITI AAYOG • Established on January 1, 2015. (June 2023 Shift 2) (June

2024 Shift 2)
• Replaced Planning Commission
• The first chairman of NITI Aayog in India was Prime
Minister Narendra Modi. (NET 2020)
• The Narendra Modi Government scrapped the 65 year old
Planning Commission on 13th August 2014 and announced
Sthat it would be replaced by a new body; which is NITI
AAYOG (National Institution for Transforming India).
• NITI Aayog is the government policy of ‘Think Tank’ of
India provides both directional and policy inputs.
• It is neither a constitutional body nor a statutory body
rather it is an extra-constitutional body.
• The objective of this scheme is to evolve a shared vision of
national development priorities, sectors and strategies with the
active involvement of states.
• The working principle of NITI AAYOG is to foster
cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives
and mechanisms with the states on a continuous basis.
• NITI Aayog published many reports; one of them is National
Multidimensional Poverty Index. (NET 2022)

8. Jan Sunwai • No official date; but Jan Sunwais were organised by an

organisation known as Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan
(MKSS) between December 1994 and April 1995 in
Rajasthan. (December 2023)
• Jan Sunwai is a phrase of Hindi language which means ‘Public
Hearing’ or ‘to hear people’.
• It is a democratic way to familiarise local people with
government policies and the activities of the public
authorities so that they can understand that what the
government is doing for them.
• The practice of Jan Sunwai is an instrument of a social audit.
Social audit is device of people that keeps them in the loop
regarding the government’s future activities. (June 2024 Shift 1)
380 380

9. • First major step towards e-governance in India was taken in

e-Governance 1997 with establishment of the National Informatics Centre
(NIC). (June 2024 Shift 1)

• E-Governance means the usage of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) by the government to
provide and facilitate government services, exchange of
information and so on.

• In simple words, it is the use of technology to perform

government activities and achieve the objectives of
governance.

• Major Examples of E-Governance Initiatives in India :-

• Digital India (2015) : It aims to empower the country

digitally.

• Aadhar (UIDAI) : A unique identification number that serves

as a proof of identity.
• UMANG : A Unified Mobile Application which provide
access to government services.
• Digital Locker : It helps citizens digitally store important
documents.
• myGov.in : A national citizen engagement platform where
people can involve in matters of governance.
• Government 2.0 : It refers to Government policies that aim
to harness interactive Internet tools to create an open source
computing platform. (NET 2022)
• Nine Pillars of Digital India : 1. Broadband Highways,
2. Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity, 3. Public
Internet Access Programme, 4. e-Governance – Reforming
Government through Technology, 5. e-Kranti (NeGP 2.0) –
Electronic delivery of services, 6. Information for All, 7.
Electronics Manufacturing, 8. IT for Jobs, and 9. Early
Harvest Programmes (NET 2022)

10. NHM • The National Health Mission (NHM) was launched in 2013.

(National Health • National Health Mission was launched by the Government of

Mission) India (GOI) in 2013 subsuming the National Rural Health
Mission (Launched in 2005) and the National Urban Health
Mission (Launched in 2013).

• The vision of NHM is the “Attainment of Universal Access

to Equitable, Affordable and Quality health care services,
accountable and responsive to people’s needs; with effective
inter-sectoral convergent action to address the wider social
determinants of health”.
381 381

• NHM focuses on decentralized health planning , service

delivery, creating knowledge hubs within district hospitals,
strengthening secondary level care at district hospitals,
strengthening secondary level care at district hospitals,
expanding outreaching services and so on.

• The main aim is to create a full functional, decentralized and

community owned system with greater inter-sectoral
coordination so that wider social determinant factors affecting
health of people like water, sanitation, nutrition, gender and
education are also equally addressed.

11. National • The National Food Security Act 2013 has the following salient
Food Security features:
Act 2013 • 1. The Act aims to provide food and nutritional security to the
(March people by ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food
2023 Shift at affordable prices.
2) • 2. The Act provides for the identification of eligible
households and the distribution of foodgrains to them through
the Public Distribution System (PDS).
• 3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to meals
under the Act.
• 4. The eldest woman of the household is the head of the
household for the purpose of issuing a ration card.
• 5. Children in the age group of 6 months to 14 years are entitled
to free meals in schools.
• 6. The Act also provides for the setting up of grievance
redressal mechanisms to address any complaints related to the
implementation of the Act.
12. • The First Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)
Administrative (June 2023 Shift 2)
Reforms o The First Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) as
Commission a Commission of Inquiry was set up in January,1966, to
examine the public administration of the country and make
recommendation for reform and reorganisation when
necessary, involving the following aspects:

- The Administrative Reforms Commission was

initially Chaired by Shri Morarji R Desai, MP, and
later on Shri K. Hunmanthaiya, M.P became its
chairman when Shri Morarji R Desai, MP, became the
Deputy Prime Minister of India.
- The Commission was empowered to devise its own
procedures, appoint Committees and Advisors to
assist it. The Commission had set up 20 Study Teams,
13 Working Groups and one Task Force. The Working
Groups made detailed studies of specific agencies and
382 382

organisations such as Customs & Central Excise, Post

& Telegraphs, Life Insurance, Income Tax, Police and
Developmental Control and regulatory organisations
o The Commission submitted the following 20 reports
before winding up in mid- 1970 -
1. Problems of Redress of Citizens Grievances (Interim)
2. Machinery for Planning
3. Public Sector Undertakings
4. Finance, Accounts & Audit
5. Machinery for Planning (Final)
6. Economic Administration
7. The Machinery of GOI and its procedures of work
8. Life Insurance Administration
9. Central Direct Taxes Administration
10. Administration of UTs & NEFA
11. Personnel Administration
12. Delegation of Financial & Administrative Powers
13. Centre-State Relationships
14. State Administration
15. Small Scale Sector
16. Railways
17. Treasuries
18. Reserve Bank of India
19. Posts and Telegraphs
20. Scientific Departments

The above 20 reports contained 537 major recommendations.

Based on inputs received from various administrative
Ministries, a report indicating implementation position was
placed before the Parliament in November,1977.

• The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)

- The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)
was constituted on 31.08.2005, as a Commission of
Inquiry, under the Chairmanship of Shri Veerappa Moily
for preparing a detailed blueprint for revamping the public
administrative system.
- The Commission was requested to suggest measures to
achieve a proactive, responsive, accountable, sustainable
and efficient administration for the country at all levels of
the Government. It had presented the following 15
Reports to the Government for consideration:
1. Right to Information: Master Key to Good Governance
2. Unlocking human capital: Entitlements and Governance – a
Case Study)
3. Crisis Management: From Despair to Hope (March 2023
Shift 2)
4. Ethics in Governance (March 2023 Shift 2)
383 383

5. Public Order: Justice for each … Peace for all (March 2023
Shift 2)
6. Local Governance (March 2023 Shift 2)
7. Capacity Building for Conflict Resolution – Friction to Fusion
8. Combating Terrorism
9. Social Capital – A Shared Destiny
10. Refurbishing of Personnel Administration – Scaling New
Heights
11. Promoting e-Governance – The Smart Way Forward
12. Citizen Centric Administration – The Heart of Governance
13. Organisational structure of Government of India
14. Strengthening Financial Management System
15. State and District Administration

The procedure prescribed for processing of the recommendations

made by ARC is that the recommendations are first considered by
the concerned administrative ministries/departments. Their views
are then considered by the Core Group on Administrative
Reforms (CGAR) headed by the Cabinet Secretary.
Subsequently, they are placed before the Group of Ministers
(GoM) for its consideration. The views and recommendations of
the GoM are then submitted for the information/directions of the
Prime Minister.

13. Bhadigari • The Delhi Government established the Bhagidari Program in

Approach to the late 99/early 2000 to promote democratic citizenship,
Deevelopment organizational humanism, and community involvement. This
(June 2023 Shift initiative fosters a partnership between citizens and the
1) government, encouraging joint responsibility and shared
governance. Inspired by Gandhi's principles of self-
governance and decentralization – Bhagidari ensures active
citizen engagement and equal participation in local
development efforts.
• It was initiative of the former Chief Minister (CM) of Delhi
– Smt. Sheila Dikshit who started the Bhagidari process of
interaction, dialogue, consultation and partnership with the
citizens groups to improve the quality of administration and
civic life in Delhi.
• The Four Basic Elements of Bhagidari are:
▪ Partnership and Participation
▪ Governance
▪ Citizens /Resident Welfare Associations (RWAs)
▪ Public Utility Departments (PUDs) and Civic Service
Agencies (CSAs) - which impact citizens lives most at the day-
to-day ground level.
14. Social Audit • Meghalaya became first state in India to operationalize The
Law Meghalaya Community Participation and Public Services
Social Audit Act, 2017, a law that makes Social Audit of
Government Programmes and Schemes a part of government
practice.
384 384

• It was launched by Chief Minister Mukul Sangma at a

national convention in Shillong. (March 2023 Shift 1)
15. Good • Union Minister of Home Affairs and Minister of
Governance Index Cooperation, Mr Amit Shah released the Good Governance
(March 2023 Shift Index 2021 prepared by DARPG on Good Governance Day at
1 and 2) Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.
• Good Governance Index, GGI 2021 Framework covered ten
sectors and 58 indicators.
• The sectors of GGI 2020-21 are:
1) Agriculture and Allied Sectors,
2) Commerce & Industries,
3) Human Resource Development,
4) Public Health,
5) Public Infrastructure & Utilities,
6) Economic Governance,
7) Social Welfare & Development,
8) Judicial & Public Security,
9) Environment, and
10) Citizen-Centric Governance.

• The GGI 2020-21 categorises States and UTs into four

categories:
(i)Other States Group A;
(ii) Other States - Group B;
(iii) North-East and Hill States; and
(iv) Union Territories.

REVISION OF MAJOR GOVERNMENT SCHEMES SINCE 2014 –

Name of Short Form Date of Related Ministry Purpose of the

Government Scheme Scheme
Scheme
2014
385 385

Namami Gange NG June, 2014 Ministry of ● The purpose of this

(Dec. 2024) Water Resources scheme is to
accomplish the twin
objectives of
effective abatement
of pollution,
conservation and
rejuvenation of
National River
Ganga.

● The implementation
of the program has
been divided into
entry-level activities
(for immediate
visible impact),
medium term
activities (to be
implemented within 5
years of time frame)
& long-term activities
(to be implemented
within 10 years).

Pradhan Mantri PMJDY August 28, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Jan Dhan 2014 Finance scheme is to enable
Yojana the citizens to
(NET 2022) understand financial
operations and
conduct them without
difficulties.

● This scheme is part

of the National
Mission on Financial
Inclusion to provide
all households in the
country with financial
services with
particular focus to
empower the
economically weaker
sections of society,
including women,
small and marginal
farmers and labourers
both rural and urban.
386 386

Make in India MI September Ministry of ● The purpose of this

25, 2014 Commerce & scheme is to
Industry recognise ‘ease of
doing business’ as the
single most important
factor to promote
entrepreneurship.

● This scheme has

been built on layers of
collaborative effort of
Union & State
governments.

Swachh Bharat SBA October 2, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Abhiyan 2014 Housing & Urban scheme is to achieve a
(March 2023 Affairs Swachh Bharat,
Shift 1) Swachh Prayatan &
bring focus on
hygiene and
sanitation.

● Under this mission,

all Districts, States &
UTs in India declared
themselves “open-
defecation free”
(ODF) by 2nd
October, 2019.

Pandit PDUSJY October 16, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Deendayal 2014 Labour & scheme is to create a
Upadhyay Employment conducive
Shrama Jayate environment for
Yojana industrial
development & doing
business with ease.

● This scheme also

expands government
support to impart skill
training for workers.

2015
Beti Bachao, BBBPY January 22, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Beti Padhao 2015 Women and scheme is to make
Yojana Child sure of the better
(NET 2022) Development employment facilities
387 387

for the girl child and

to give them a
reputation in society.

● The government
wanted to ensure
equal employment
and equal pay scale
with equal respect for
the girl child in the
nation.

Atal Mission for AMRUT January 25, Ministry of ● The purpose of the
Rejuvenation & 2015 Housing and scheme is to establish
Urban Urban Affairs Infrastructure that
Transformation could ensure
adequate robust
sewage networks and
water supply for
urban transformation.

Atal Pension APY May 9, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Yojana 2015 Finance scheme is to focus on
(NET 2019) unorganized sector
(March 2023 workers.
Shift 1)
● At the age of 60,
guaranteed minimum
pension will be given
according to
contribution by the
citizens/subscribers.

Digital India DI July 1, 2015 Ministry of ●

The purpose of this
Electronics and scheme is to
Information transform India into a
Technology digitally services,
knowledge &
information.
Skill India SI July 15, Ministry of Skill ● The purpose of this
2015 Development and scheme is to allow
Entrepreneurship aspirant candidates to
register for skill
training, learning &
employment
opportunities through
the online portal.

● It focuses to build
on such skill that will
388 388

enable Indians to
enhance their
contribution in
nation-building.

Pradhan Mantri PMKVY July 15, Ministry of Skill ● The purpose of this
Kaushal Vikas 2015 Development and scheme is to
Yojana Entrepreneurship encourage & promote
skill development in
the country by
providing free short
duration skill
training.

● The training under

this scheme ensures
that the youth of India
get a proper
educational job in the
near future.

Deen Dayal DDUGJY July 25, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Upadhyaya 2015 Power scheme is to provide
Gram Jyoti continuous power-
Yojana supply to the entire
(NET 2019) rural India.

2016
Startup India Startup India January 16, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
2016 Commerce & scheme is to promote
Industry and support the start-
ups in India by
providing bank
finances.

● It is a platform
which gives multiple
opportunities,
recognition & support
to all the start-ups.
Pradhan Mantri PMFBY February Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Fasal Bima 18, 2016 Agriculture scheme is to
Yojana safeguard farmers by
providing them crop
subsidy insurance.

● It aims to reduce the

burden of insurance
premiums on farmers.
389 389

Standup India Standup India April 5, Ministry of Social ● The purpose of this
2016 Justice & scheme is to facilitate
Empowerment easy loans to
scheduled caste,
scheduled tribe &
women borrowers.

Pradhan Mantri PMUY May 1, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Ujjwala Yojana 2016 Petroleum and scheme is to
Natural Gas safeguard the health
of women and
children by providing
them with a clean
cooking fuel – LPG.

● Under this scheme,

LPG connections are
targeted to provide to
BPL (below poverty
line) families.

Pradhan Mantri PMGKY December Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Garib Kalyan 16, 2016 Finance scheme is to allow
Yojana individuals to deposit
(NET 2022) money that is not
taxed.

2017
Saubhagya- SAUBHAGYA September Ministry of ● The Pradhan Mantri
Pradhan Mantri 25, 2017 Power Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar
Sahaj Bijli Har Yojana - Saubhagya
Ghar Yojana aims to bring
electricity to every
(March 2023 household, whether in
Shift 1) rural or urban areas.
● It ensures that all
homes, even those
without electricity,
get connected to the
power grid.
● This involves
setting up electricity
connections by
extending cables
from nearby poles to
households, installing
energy meters,
providing wiring for a
light point with an
LED bulb, and
390 390

including a mobile
charging point.
● If there's no
electricity pole
nearby, the scheme
also covers installing
additional poles and
the necessary
equipment.
Unified Mobile UMANG November Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Application for 2017 Electronics & scheme is to develop
New-age Information a common, unified
Governance Technology platform and mobile
app to facilitate a
single point access to
all government
services.

● Itsaim is to act as a
master-application,
which will integrate
major government
services from various
sectors such as
Agriculture,
Education, Health,
Housing, among
others.

2018
Ayushman AB - PMJAY September Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Bharat – 23, 2018 Health & Family scheme is to provide
Pradhan Mantri Welfare accessible &
Jan Aarogya affordable healthcare
Yojana to the common man.

● This scheme is
“world’s largest
government funded
healthcare program”
targeting more than
50 crore
beneficiaries.

● Ayushman Bharat
adapts a continuum of
care approach,
comprising of two
inter-related
391 391

components – which
are :-

✓ Health & Wellness

Centres (HWCs).
✓ Pradhan Mantri Jan
Aarogya Yojana
(PM-JAY).

2019
PM – Pradhan PM-KUSUM March 08, Ministry of New ● The purpose of this
Mantri Kisan 2019 & Renewable scheme is to ensure
Urja Suraksha Energy energy security for
evam Utthaan Indian Farmers along
Mahabhiyan with cutback
dependency of
farmers on fossil
fuels.

● This scheme will

help farmers to install
solar pumps, grid
connected solar &
other renewable
energy power plants.

2020
Prime PM CARES March 28, Ministry of Home ● The purpose of this
Minister’s Fund 2020 Affairs, Defence scheme is to provide
Citizen Minister, fund during
Assistance & & COVID-19
Relief in Finance Minister pandemic.
Emergency
Situation Fund
Aarogya Setu April 2, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
2020 Electronics & scheme is to ensure
Information the utmost safety for
Technology its citizens from
corona virus through
application.

● This application
connects Indian
health services to its
people at this
unpredictable time.
392 392

Survey of SWAMITVA April 24, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Villages & 2020 Panchayati Raj scheme is to ensure
Mapping with financial stability to
Improvised villagers by letting
Technology in them use their
Village Areas property to take loans
to form banks and
financial institutions.

● This scheme aims to

create a survey
structure and GIS
maps (geographic
information system)
that will allow other
departments to use
these documents as
per their requirement.
Mission Sagar May 10, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
2020 External Affairs scheme is to provide
essential aid and
supplies to pandemic-
hit countries in the
Indian Ocean Region
through Indian Navy
ships.

● The Indian Navy

ships provided
rescue, medical care
and relief to friendly
foreign countries.

Atmanirbhar May 12, ● The purpose of this

Bharat Abhiyan 2020 scheme is to promote
(NET 2021) Indian goods in the
global supply chain
markets and help the
country achieve self-
reliance.

● This scheme aims to

determine adequacy
of each sector (e.g.,
defence, agriculture,
healthcare,
infrastructure, etc.)
and in this mission
India to achieve self-
reliance.
393 393

Prime Minister PMSVANidhi June 1, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Street Vendor’s 2020 Housing & Urban scheme is to help
Atmanirbhar Affairs formalize the street
Nidhi vendors open up new
opportunities to this
sector to move up the
economic ladder.

● It aims to provide
micro-credit facilities
to street vendors
affected due to
Covid-19.
National Digital NDHM August 15, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Health Mission 2020 Health & Family scheme is to develop
Welfare the backbone
necessary to support
the integrated digital
health infrastructure
of the country.

● It creates a seamless
online platform
through the provision
of a wide-range of
data, information &
infrastructure
services.
394 394

Changes in 3rd Edition

Units Update New
Political Theory • Elite theory of • Major
power Methodologies
• Major Traditions
and their
Proponents
• Debate on the
Decline of Political
Theory

Indian Political • Constructive

Thought programme by INC
• Dadabhai Naoroji

Comparative Politics • State theory:

debate over the
nature of state in
capitalist and
socialist societie
• post-colonial state;
welfare state;
globalization and
nations-states
• Electoral Systems
• Political Parties
theory
• Theory of
representation
• Non-Governmental
Organisations
(NGOs) and civil
society campaigns
• Revolutions.
• Modernization
Theory
• Political regimes:
democratic and
395 395

non-democratic
regimes
• Constitutions and
Constitutionalism
International Relations • International
terrorism
Political Institutions in • Panchayati raj • Union Executive:
India committees President, Prime
Minister and
Council of Ministers
• Union Parliament:
Structure, Role and
Functioning,
Parliamentary
Committees
• Judiciary: High
Court, Judicial
Review, Judicial
Activism, Judicial
Reform
• Executive and
Legislature in the
States: Governor,
Chief Minister,
State Legislature
• Federalism in India:
• Inter-State Council
• Local Government
Institutions:
Functioning and
reforms.
• Electoral Process
and Election
Commission of
India: Conduct of
Elections, Rules,
Electoral Reforms.
• Constitutional and
Statutory Bodies:
Comptroller and
396 396

Auditor General,
National
Commission for
Scheduled Castes,
National
Commission for
Scheduled Tribes,
National
Commission for
Human Rights,
National
Commission for
Women, National
Commission for
Minorities.
Public Administration • Major topics of • Development
Pub ad has been Administration
updated with • Organisational
important info Communication:
and PYQs. Theories and
Principles
• Chester Bernard
Principles of
Communication
• Information
Management in the
Organization
Governance and Public • Governance, good
Policy in India governance and
democratic
governance, role of
state, civil society
and individuals