SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-022-00603-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

An investigation on alternative ideas on thermal

phenomena of pupils with and without learning difficulties

Maria‑Aggeliki Katsidima1 · Konstantinos Lavidas1 · Athina C. Kornelaki2 ·

George Kaliampos3

Received: 29 July 2022 / Accepted: 23 December 2022 / Published online: 12 January 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Abstract
In the last decades, constructivism has dominated Early Childhood Science Edu-
cation. Within this context, alternative ideas of pre-school pupils have been thor-
oughly explored and analyzed. Nevertheless, research on these ideas in individuals
with learning difficulties remains scarce. Aiming to fill this gap, the present study
explores alternative ideas on thermal phenomena of pupils with learning difficul-
ties and compare them with those without learning difficulties. For this purpose,
an experimental investigation was conducted with 25 pupils with learning diffi-
culties (M = 72,50 months, s.d. = 8,11) and 25 pupils without learning difficulties
(M = 72,50 months, s.d. = 9,50). Drawing from constructivist theory, a structured,
computerized tool (A.I.H.E.T) was developed to fulfill research’s goal. Findings
suggest that pupils with and without learning difficulties use almost the same ideas
on thermal phenomena, on a different frequency though. The results support further
the findings of other research, according to which inclusive science education not
only is feasible but also it has great benefits for students with and without learning
difficulties.

Keywords Science education · Alternative ideas · Thermal phenomena · Learning

difficulties

Introduction

In the last decades, constructivism has dominated Early Childhood Science Educa-
tion and determines to a great extent the teaching interventions and strategies that
are implemented in everyday school practices (Ravanis 2017). Central role to this
theory holds the notion of ‘alternative ideas’; these are ideas that pupils have about
a number of natural phenomena in advance of their schooling and are often different

* George Kaliampos
[email protected]
Extended author information available on the last page of the article

Vol.:(0123456789)
15 Page 2 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

from scientifically accepted views. These ideas are derived from intuitions and that
sort of reasoning stays with the pupils for many years until there will be an organ-
ized context to contradict with these intuitions (Kornelaki, 2023). Therefore, these
ideas are likely to play a crucial role in the learning process as they often act as bar-
riers in the conceptualization of the physics concepts. Along this line, the teacher
should be aware of these alternative ideas and be ready to adjust their teaching in
response to them (Driver et al. 1985). While these ideas have been extensively stud-
ied by a number of academics and researchers in typical education context, this
has not been the case for pupils that lie on special needs spectrum (Ergazaki and
Ampatzidis 2012; Delserieys et al. 2017; Fragkiadaki and Ravanis 2021). Indeed,
there are some researchers who have tried to explore constructivism in the par-
ticularly demanding field of special education (Brigham et al. 2011; Duhaney and
Duhaney 2000; Ruban 2005; Kaliampos et al. 2020; Scruggs and Mastropieri 1994;
Villanueva and Hand 2011; Villanueva et al. 2012). The respective literature focuses
on the barriers of implementing inclusive science education in terms of infrastruc-
ture and provisions (Chunawala 2014), teachers’ training and readiness (Chunawala
2014; Reynaga-Peña et al. 2018), as well as the benefits of inclusive inquiry-based
science education to all students (Abels 2014; Villanueva et al. 2012). There is some
published research which points out students’ initial conceptions in inclusive sci-
ence education (Rott and Marohn 2018; Stinken-Rösner et al. 2020). In the former
research, the initial conceptions are conceived as independent of students having
learning difficulties or not, but they are considered essential for science teaching and
learning as well as for students’ engagement in science classes (Rott and Marohn
2018; Stinken-Rösner et al. 2020). Nevertheless, few previous research has explored
and compared students’ alternative ideas individually for students with and without
learning difficulties (Baysen and Dagli, 2014; Kaliampos 2021). A new prominent
trend within Early Childhood Science Education, the so-called Early Childhood
Special Science Education, is formulated in its initial phase trying to encompass the
trends that govern science education within special needs context (Kaliampos 2021).
Moving toward this line, the present study aspires to investigate alternative ideas on
thermal phenomena of pupils with learning difficulties (LD) and compare them with
those without learning difficulties.

Learning difficulties

Learning difficulties is a modern and quite topical issue in educational reality (Pan-
teliadou and Botsa 2007). Students that fall into this category constitute a substan-
tial proportion of the general school population (Chu and Lo 2016; Williams 1993).
This target group faces general difficulties in school’s demands (Leung et al. 2007)
and comprise a heterogeneous group of children with impairments that vary from
mild to severe. In particular, at the one end of the spectrum lie pupils with severe,
profound, and multiple impairments in learning, while on the other end stand pupils
with less severe impairments who are nevertheless capable of achieving academic
standards through appropriate teaching interventions (Colley 2020).
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 3 of 19 15

The term ‘learning difficulties’ is the most widely used to identify the severe or
specific difficulties that individuals experience in the process of acquiring academic
knowledge and literacy skills. The research efforts of scholars have contributed to
the creation of many definitions, which are subjected to constant critical analysis
and adaptation (Ysseldyke, 2005). One major and representative definition is the fol-
lowing that considers learning difficulties as ‘a dysfunction in one or more basic
psychological processes involving the understanding or use of language, written or
spoken, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read,
write, spell, or perform mathematical calculations’ (Brigham et al. 2011, p. 224).
These difficulties of pupils are likely to play a major role in learning acquisition. It
is noteworthy that the term ‘learning difficulties’ moves in a different direction from
that of specific clinical definitions used in the past that tended to target or stigmatize
those children (Dare et al. 2017). Nevertheless, it is a matter of debate whether it
actually achieves this goal, as each child with special needs is already stigmatized as
soon as it is placed in the special needs’ spectrum.
Learning difficulties therefore acts as a generic term with a variety of definitions
that refer to children with normal intelligence that face up difficulties in one or more
academic areas (Carroll et al. 2014). Specifically, it is a lifelong neurodevelopmen-
tal disorder that result in difficulties in the acquisition and use of academic skills
(reading, speaking, writing, mathematics), regardless of the average or above aver-
age cognitive abilities (Lipka et al. 2019). Individuals with learning difficulties are
mainly characterized with a significantly reduced ability to understand new or com-
plex information, to learn new skills (impaired intelligence) and to deal effectively
alone (impaired social functioning). Quite interestingly, some children exhibit spe-
cific learning difficulties in specific areas, such as literacy and mathematics. In gen-
eral, learning difficulties are characterized by intellectual disabilities, attention, and
memory issues as these pupils often struggle to retain different kinds of information
(Lee et al. 2001).
One of the most important and fruitful movements which emerged within educa-
tion field in the current century is that of inclusion (Timor and Burton 2006). The
theory of inclusion is based on serious issues concerning human rights, equal oppor-
tunities, social justice, and efforts for less restriction environments for all pupils,
as well as educational policies that promote a better future for them (Moran and
Abbott 2002; Timor and Burton 2006). It’s the keystone in a strong educational pol-
icy which promotes rights and high standards of all learners and narrow inequali-
ties (Moran and Abbott 2002; Stinken-Rösner et al. 2020). The idea of inclusion
is that all pupils, regardless of the abilities or disabilities, are accepted as they are,
and are part of the school community and participate equally in the school practices
(AuCoin and Berger 2021). So, in line with the idea of diversity that seem to gain
ground in the recent years in the field of education (Sliwka 2010), individual differ-
ences must be thought as opportunities for improvement of learning and teaching
practices and not as a problem (Moran and Abbott 2002).
Within the scope of inclusion, children with learning difficulties ought to par-
ticipate in the general classroom that is modified and correspond to the needs of
students (Ralli et al. 2011). Along this line, the specific characteristics and needs
of these pupils should be recognized and taken into account in order to promote a
15 Page 4 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

successful and equal school environment (Colley 2020; Pui 2016). Further research
and practices should encourage the perception of inclusion and specify the way that
this would be implemented into teaching diverse subjects, physics among them, in
mainstream classes.

Thermal phenomena: the scientific point of view

According to the scientific point of view, temperature, along with volume and pres-
sure, is a basic parameter which characterizes a system. The knowledge of this
parameter gives us the capability to make predictions about the state of a system,
when an external factor intervenes on it (Hewitt 2014). In contrast, heat describes
the interaction between two systems. Specifically, it represents the energy which
flows from a system with a higher temperature to a system with a lower tempera-
ture (Hubber and Jobling 2015). This energy stops flowing when the temperature
of the two systems becomes the same (Hewitt 2014). So, for example, if we bring
in contact a hot metal with a cold piece of wood, energy in the form of heat will
start flowing from the metal to the piece of wood, until the temperatures of these
two materials become equal. Regarding thermal expansion and contraction, they
are characterized by a change in the volume of materials with the corresponding
changes in temperature. This change is clearly visible in metals, which is considered
to be the appropriate material to approach this phenomenon (Hewitt 2014).

Pupils’ alternative ideas on thermal phenomena: heat, expansion,

and contraction

A great number of science educators have conducted research on pupils’ understand-

ings of thermal concepts. The results show that pupils often hold alternative ideas
that differ from the scientifically accepted ideas of these phenomena. In what fol-
lows, pupils’ alternative ideas on heat as well as thermal expansion and contraction
are presented.
Regarding heat, pupils often treat it as a substance, which is usually invisible and
exists within objects. Being capable of moving, heat acts as a fluid that can either
move within an object or flow to another object (Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019). This
mental representation seems to have its roots in caloric theory; a theory that existed
in the eighteenth century and stated that the particles of a fluid, which is called heat,
can be attracted by any object which is near them (Hewitt 2014). Within this theory,
heat behaves as a substance which has all the ordinary characteristics of a material,
such as mass and volume (Erickson 1979).
The fact that heat is conceptualized by pupils as a fluid material makes them
believe that cold is a fluid material, too. Clough and Driver (1985) point out that
these two materials are considered by the pupils to be opposites and that their only
common characteristic is that they are both capable of moving. So, these two fluids
can exist simultaneously in the same object. Being hard objects, pupils believe that
metal objects attract, retain, and absorb the cold heat (Lewis and Linn 1994).
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 5 of 19 15

Quite interestingly, pupils often consider heat as a main characteristic of an item,

a feature that belongs to the object (Erickson 1979). Tiberghien (1980) points out
that these pupils do not recognize heat as an intermediate between two objects. Eve-
rything contains its own heat. So, for example, a metal is always cold or sand on a
beach is always hot. Pupils, who hold this view, are likely to have a causal reasoning
of the following type: ‘because a metal is cold, it cools’ or ‘because the cotton is hot,
it heats’ (Tiberghien 1980, p.297). Consequently, hot objects cool naturally, and cold
objects heat up, respectively. In addition, pupils often associate temperature with the
size of an object (Driver et al. 1985).
Consequently, it seems that pupils’ thinking consists of a local character, while
their way of dealing with natural phenomena is dominated by experiences from eve-
ryday life as well as early pre-collective forms of thinking (Bar and Galili 1994).
That is, the representations they have are linked to specific thoughts about the phe-
nomena, materials and tools they use (Ravanis 2022).
The way pupils conceptualize thermal expansion and contraction has not been
extensively studied in Early Childhood education framework. The limited findings
show that, while pupils mainly refer to heating and cooling as the cause of the con-
traction and expansion of metals, they can hardly explain it on kinetic theory of mol-
ecules (Lee et al. 1993). As Ravanis et al. (2013) point out, pupils tend to perceive
the changes of metal objects but find it difficult to attribute them to expansion or
contraction. To quote a student of their research ‘It will not pass… not now… It is
changing and it can’t happen…. It is changing… I don’t know what else is happen-
ing…. ‘When we heat it, it will find difficulty in…it won’t be able to pass through
the ring…’.

Research questions

Drawing from Early Childhood Special Science Education, the current study aspires
to expand constructivist theory in the particularly demanding field of special educa-
tion. In particular, it tries to explore (alternative) ideas on thermal phenomena of
Early Childhood education pupils with and without learning difficulties. To do so, it
tries to answer the two following research questions:

(1) What are the alternative ideas on thermal phenomena of pupils with and without
learning difficulties?
(2) How are these alternative ideas compared among the two study groups?

Materials and methods

Participants

To address the above-mentioned research questions, an experimental investiga-

tion was conducted with a total of 50 early childhood education participants, aged
4–7 years old, divided into two groups. Group 1 consisted of 25 pupils (mean
15 Page 6 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

age = 72,50 months, s.d. = 8,11), all having a formal diagnosis of learning difficulties
from Centre for Differential Diagnosis and Support (Dimakos et al. 2016). Group
2 consisted of 25 pupils without learning difficulties (mean age = 72,50 months,
s.d. = 9,50). All participants were recruited from kindergarten and primary schools
located in two semi-rural areas of West Greece. It is important to underline here that
in Greece, pre-school is two-year compulsory education and an integral part of for-
mal education.
According to the teachers of the classes involved, students didn’t have any prior
learning experiences about the topic. That is, none of the pupils had come across in
their school lessons to any kind of organized activity or reference concerning ther-
mal phenomena. Prior to conducting the study, the researchers received approval
from the teachers as well as the Research Ethics Board designated by the University
of Patras and particularly from the Department of Educational Science and Early
Childhood Education. In addition, parental permission and consent were obtained
for all pupils who participated in the study. Moreover, parents were analytically
informed by the researcher about the research context such as that: (a) the interview
will last approximately 15–20 min and it will be recorded, (b) children’s personal
information would be fully protected, and (c) children could withdraw at any time
from the research process.

Research instrument

The research was conducted through individual semi-structured interviews (Bryman

2016), which lasted approximately 15–20 min. The interviews were conducted via a
structured, digital tool which was developed to explore alternative ideas on thermal
phenomena of pupils with learning difficulties (A.I.H.E.T.—Alternative Ideas Heat
Exploration Tool) and meet the needs of remote research. A.I.H.E.T. is comprised
of 5 tasks divided into two basic sections (see full tool in Appendix). The first sec-
tion deals with thermal conduction in objects and consists of 3 tasks. Particularly,
A1 depicts a copper tube whose one end is set on fire from a gas fire, A2 shows two
metal tubes of different length whose ends are set on fire while A3 illustrates two
spoons made of different material (metal and wooden), which are placed in differ-
ent glasses full of hot water (A3). Pupils were encouraged, during the interviews,
to develop their ideas about what they think will happen to the objects if they come
into contact with heat. The second section deals with thermal expansion and con-
traction of metals and consists of 2 tasks. In these tasks pupils are asked to com-
municate their ideas about what would happen if a metal ball (B1) and a metal tube
(B2) get heated for a long time.
All tasks of A.I.H.E.T. are based on previous research in the respective field in
academic literature (Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019; Ravanis 2022). In the case of
A.I.H.E.T., the tasks appear in digital form as new technologies attract pupils’ inter-
est and enhance their motivation to actively participate in the learning process (Stan-
berry and Raskind 2009).
There is consensus about the benefits of introducing ICT tools in education, not
as sole means to approach a concept or phenomenon, but supplementary to multiple
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 7 of 19 15

methods (Smetana and Bell 2012). Prerequisite for the latter though is the teacher’s
guidance and support to students while using the digital tools in order the students
to benefit from their use (Smetana and Bell 2012). Therefore, ICTs can’t replace
teacher’s role in learning process (Lorenzo and Trujillo 2018), but only offer mul-
tiple representations to students. In the case of the present research, the use of the
A.I.H.E.T. tool allowed the implementation of the intervention amid the pandemic
of Covid-19. In case the intervention hadn’t be affected by the pandemic’s restric-
tions, the tool would have been used supplementary to face-to-face intervention
enriched with hands-on experiments.
In addition, all A.I.H.E.T. tasks illustrate familiar and representative images from
everyday life, accompanied with movement and visual effects, as visual learning
helps pupils to conceptualize the phenomenon they deal with, which in turn contrib-
utes to the validity of the measurement (Witzel et al. 2001).
A.I.H.E.T. tool was pilot tested with two pupils, the first aged 5 years old and the
second with learning difficulties aged 6 years old. Results showed that no changes
were needed in the layout and the structure of the tool. These two pupils were not
included in the final sample.

Research procedure

In this study, a qualitative design method was utilized, collecting qualitative data
that support a more analytic and in-depth comprehension of pupils’ representations
(Bryman 2016). As mentioned above, pupils’ descriptions were collected through
remote individual semistructured interviews (Bryman 2016). Due to the pandemic of
Covid-19, research was conducted entirely remotely through WebEx platform. Par-
ticularly, both researcher and participants, along with their parents, logged in from
their houses and during the interview the researcher, using the A.I.H.E.T. digital
environment, asked pupils questions about the thermal phenomena. The interviewer
addressed questions to the pupils encouraging them to express their thoughts, treat-
ing them with sensitivity and without prejudice. Additionally, to confirm the validity
of the responses, the researcher was paraphrasing some of the questions and, when
the pupils’ responses differed, the researcher was asking pupils for more explana-
tions (Pogiatzi et al. 2022).

Data analysis

Data analysis was based upon verbatim transcribed data of the discussions between
the researcher and pupils along the A.I.H.E.T. tool utilization. Particularly, a con-
tent analysis method was conducted which is a high flexible method since it can
be applied to a wide variety of different kinds of unstructured textual data (Bry-
man 2016, p. 304–305). Inter-coder reliability in the process of content analysis was
ensured by designing a coding manual that provides complete lists of all codes and
the corresponding categories as well as guidance on how to interpret these catego-
ries (Bryman 2016). Following the manual’s directions, two independent researchers
15 Page 8 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

read through the transcribed data and evaluated whether pupils’ answers fell within
the scientific model, based on a three-point scale (sufficient, intermediate, and insuf-
ficient) (Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019; Ravanis 2005). In particular, in category a
(sufficient responses), the answers in which pupils seemed to have grasped the sci-
entifically acceptable ideas on thermal phenomena depicted in the tasks were classi-
fied. In category b (intermediate responses), the answers in which pupils’ reasoning
was characterized by a mixture of both scientifically acceptable and unacceptable
ideas were classified. Finally, in category c (insufficient answers), the answers in
which pupils either expressed ideas that did not entail any scientific argument or
did not give an answer at all were classified. To test the inter-coder reliability, we
calculated Cohen’s kappa. This coefficient measures the level of agreement between
two coders in terms of coding. According to this coefficient, values that exceed 0.7
are considered very satisfactory (Bryman 2016). The Cohen’s kappa coefficients
for each of the five tasks were (A1 = 0.87, A2 = 0.90, A3 = 0.86, B1 = 0.90, and
B2 = 0.93) and therefore the inter-coder reliability is considered very satisfactory.
In addition, in the result section frequencies and percentages of each category
are presented for the two groups of pupils in all tasks. Finally, with a nonparametric
Mann–Whitney independent sample test, it was investigated whether there are sig-
nificant differences in pupils’ responses in the two groups. The Mann–Whitney test
is used to compare differences between two independent groups since the dependent
variable is ordinal (3 categories) (Field 2018).

Results

First section of the A.I.H.E.T

In what follows, the rates of pupils’ responses for each task of the first section of
A.I.H.E.T. are presented (see Table 1). Quite interestingly, in all three tasks, the
Mann–Whitney test did not reveal statistically significant differences (A1: U = 295.5,
p = 0.7, A2: U = 255.5, p = 0.2, A3: U = 258.5, p = 0.3).

Task A1

Almost 12% of pupils with LD gave an appropriate response in regard to the scien-
tifically accepted view on task A1. These pupils predicted that the copper tube will

Table 1  Percentages of pupils’ responses on the first section of A.I.H.E.T

Task Α1 Task Α2 Task Α3
LD TD LD TD LD TD

Sufficient responses 3(12%) 5(20%) 8(32%) 11(44%) 7(28%) 7(28%)

Intermediate responses 15(60%) 13(52%) 14(56%) 13(52%) 13(52%) 7(28%)
Insufficient responses 7(28%) 7(28%) 3(12%) 1(4%) 5(20%) 11(44%)
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 9 of 19 15

be heated along its entire length and justified their view by stating that the heat will
occur gradually along the length of the tube. A typical example is the answer: ‘The
whole pipe will be heated all the way to the end; the fire is hot and it’s slowly going
further’ (LD.17).
The majority (60%) of pupils with LD gave a response which was described as
‘intermediate.’ Here, pupils predicted that the copper pipe will be heated up along
its entire length but did not give a scientific reason for this. To quote a pupil ‘There
will be a lot of fire and the pipe will get into trouble and it will go bad and burn all
over’ (LD.6).
Finally, a group of pupils (28%) with LD answered inappropriate in regard to
a scientifically accepted idea. That is, pupils did not predict that the copper pipe
would be heated up to the end. Typical answers are as follows: ‘The pipe will only
burn where the fire is’ (LD.5) and ‘It will break’ (LD.20).
Almost 20% of pupils without LD responded adequately to this task. The major-
ity of them (52%) gave an intermediate response such as ‘It will burn the whole
pipe’ (Without LD.9). On the other hand, 28% of pupils gave inadequate answers as
the following ‘It will rust from the fire’ (Without LD.19).
As it was stated above, 12% of pupils with LD gave a scientifically acceptable
answer on task A1. However, of great interest are the alternative ideas that emerged
from the remaining percentage of pupils’ responses. Specifically, the first alternative
idea is that pupils do not predict that the pipe will be heated all the way to the end.
Instead, they state that the pipe will only be heated where the fire burns, as the heat
is not capable of being transferred (Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019). This idea cor-
responds to 16% of the sample’s responses and is evident in the following pupil’s
response: ‘The pipe will only burn where the fire is. The fire cannot go further’
(LD.5). As a second alternative idea, the local character of pupils’ responses was
detected, which constitutes early pre-collective form of thinking and derives from
their everyday experience (Bar and Galili 1994). Here pupils responded at a rate
of 8% that the pipe will be heated and melted. To quote two indicatively answers
‘The tube will melt’ (LD.3) and ‘The tube will get hot and soften… it can melt it’
(LD.11). Finally, the alternative idea that emerges (8%) is that pupils’ representa-
tions are related to specific thoughts about the materials (pipe) and the phenomena
used (heating with fire) (Ravanis et al. 2022). Indicative responses are the following:
‘The pipe will rust’ (LD.16) and ‘The metal pipe will break’ (LD.20). Table. 2.

Task A2

32% of pupils with LD gave an appropriate response in regard to the scientifically

accepted view on Task A2 stating that the smaller pipe would be heated up to its
end more quickly than the larger pipe and justified their answer by mentioning the
heat spread in metal pipes. To quote a pupil ‘The small metal pipe because it is
smaller and will burn more quickly, the big one is bigger and will burn more slowly’
(LD.14).
The majority (56%) of pupils with LD managed to predict that the small tube
would get heated more quickly, without giving a scientific reason for their answer
though. Typical examples are the following ‘The small one because it is small
15 Page 10 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

Table 2  Percentages of alternative ideas expressed by pupils on task A1 of A.I.H.E.T

Pupils’ alternative ideas Percentage % Percentage %
LD Without LD

Scientific sufficient response 12 20

Heat is not transferred along the entire length of the object 16 12
Local character of pupils’ responses derived from their everyday experi- 12 24
ence
Pupils’ representations are related to specific thoughts about the materi- 8 12
als and phenomena used
Other responses 52 32

and the big one is slow’ (LD.4) and ‘The small one because it is small and will
get hotter faster while the big one will burn up to the middle’ (LD.15).
Finally, 12% of pupils with LD answered inappropriate in regard to a scientifi-
cally accepted idea giving responses such as ‘None, because the fire will not get
there’ (LD.3).
On the other hand, 44% of pupils without LD managed to give a scientifically
accepted response. The majority of pupils (52%) gave the correct answer with-
out mentioning heat though. Indicative is the following answer ‘The little one
because it is smaller’ (Without LD.17). 4% of pupils here gave inappropriate
answers such as ‘The big pipe will burn faster’ (Without LD.24).
Taken from above, 32% of pupils with LD gave a scientifically acceptable
answer on task A2. However, of particular interest are the alternative ideas of
pupils that emerged on the task. Specifically, the first alternative idea detected at
a rate of 12% was that pupils perceive that in the tube with large size the heat will
go faster (Paik, Cho and Go, 2007). They typically responded, ‘The big pipe will
heat up faster because it is bigger and therefore the fire will go faster’ (LD.10)
and ‘The big pipe will burn faster… since it is big the fire goes faster… in the
small one it goes slower because it is small’ (LD.21). The second alternative idea
that emerges is that pupils do not anticipate that the pipes will be heated up all
the way (Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019). This idea corresponds to 8% of the sam-
ple responses and is evident in following pupil’s answer: ‘No pipe will be heated
to the end, because the fire will not reach there’ (LD.3). Table. 3

Table 3  Percentages of alternative ideas expressed by pupils on task A2 of A.I.H.E.T

Pupils’ alternative ideas Percentage % Percentage%
LD Without LD

Scientific sufficient response 32 44

In the pipes with large size the heat will go faster 12 4
Pipes will not be heated up all the way 8 4
Other responses 48 48
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 11 of 19 15

Task A3

28% of pupils with LD predicted that the metal spoon would be heated up more
quickly, attributing this to the distinct materials the two spoons are made of.
To quote a pupil ‘The metal spoon will heat up faster because it is metal, the
wooden spoon will not heat up’ (LD.24).
Almost half of pupils with LD (52%) gave an answer which was classified as
’intermediate’. Here, pupils predicted that the metal spoon would get hot more
quickly, without referring to the nature of materials though. Indicatives are the
following answers ‘The metal spoon will get hot and if you touch it you will
burn’ (LD.4) and ‘The metal one because it is harder’(LD.3).
A fairly large group of pupils (20%) with LD answered inappropriate in regard
to a scientifically accepted idea. Here, pupils mainly predicted that the wooden
spoon would get heated up more quickly. To quote one pupil ‘The wooden one
because it heats up faster, the metal one is cold’ (LD.14).
Pupils without LD responded adequately to this task at a rate of 28%. A simi-
lar percentage (28%) gave an intermediate answer such as ‘The metal spoon will
heat up faster’ (Without LD.4). A fairly high percentage of pupils (44%) gave
inadequate answers and were classified in the corresponding category.
As it was stated above, 28% of pupils with LD gave a scientifically accept-
able answer on task A3. However, of great interest are the alternative ideas that
emerged on the remaining percentage of pupils’ responses. Specifically, the first
alternative idea is that pupils predict that the wooden spoon will be heated up
faster and even catch fire (Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019). This idea corresponds
to 16% of the sample responses and is evident in the following response ‘The
wooden spoon because it is made of wood and when it is left in the heat for a
long time it will catch fire and burn’ (LD.15). The second alternative idea relates
to the local character of pupils’ responses, which constitutes early pre-collec-
tive form of thinking and derives from their everyday experience (Bar and Gal-
ili 1994). Here pupils responded, at a rate of 12%, that the wooden spoon will
break as soon as it is left in hot water for too long. To quote one of them ‘The
wooden spoon is made of wood so it heats up faster… and if you leave it in for a
long time it will be in pieces’ (LD.22). Finally, the alternative idea that emerges
at a rate of 12% is that metal objects attract, retain, and absorb cold, while they
are able to transfer it to other objects (Lewis and Linn 1994). Table. 4.

Second section of the A.I.H.E.T

In what follows, the rates of pupils’ responses for each task of the second section
of A.I.H.E.T. are presented (see Table 5). Quite interestingly, in all two tasks,
the Mann–Whitney test did not reveal statistically significant differences (B1:
U = 302.5, p = 0.8, B2: U = 307, p = 0.9).
15 Page 12 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

Table 4  Percentages of alternative ideas expressed by pupils on task A3 of A.I.H.E.T

Pupils’ alternative ideas Percentage % Percentage%
LD Without LD

Scientific sufficient response 28 28

The wooden spoon will be heated up faster and catch fire 16 38
The wooden spoon will be heated up and break 12 8
The wooden spoon will be heated up, while the metal spoon will 12 8
make the water cold
Other responses 32 18

Table 5  Percentages of pupils’ Task B1 Task B2

responses on the second section
of A.I.H.E.T LD (%) TD (%) LD (%) TD (%)

Sufficient responses 15 (60) 17 (68) 10 (40) 12 (48)

Intermediate responses 5 (20) 1 (4) 7 (28) 2 (8)
Insufficient responses 5 (20) 7 (28) 8 (32) 11 (44)

Task B1

The majority of pupils with LD (60%) gave an appropriate response in regard to the
scientifically accepted view on task B1. Specifically, pupils predicted that the metal
ball will not pass through the ring after it is heated and attributed this to the expan-
sion of metal objects due to temperature fluctuations. Typical of this category is the
following response: ‘The metal ball will not pass through the hoop… it will not pass
because the ball is made of metal and the fire has made it bigger’ (Without LD.12).
The percentage of pupils with LD who gave a response that was classified as
’intermediate’ was 20%. Here, pupils predicted that the metal ball will not pass
through the ring but did not attribute this to the expansion of metal objects. Illustra-
tive is the following quotation: ‘The metal ball won’t go through, because there is
something in it and it is stuck in the ring’ (LD.9).
Finally, 20% of pupils with LD answered inappropriate in regard to a scientifi-
cally accepted idea predicting either that the metal ball would pass through the ring
or that it would not pass, attributed it to various causes though. To quote a pupil
‘The metal ball will pass through the ring as before… I don’t know why it doesn’t
pass through in the end, it probably got stuck’ (LD.15).
Pupils without LD responded adequately to this task at a rate of 68%. On the
other hand, 4% of pupils gave an intermediate answer, stating that: ‘No, the metal
ball will not pass through the ring… it will not pass because it is hot and stuck
somehow’ (Without LD.19). Almost 28% of pupils gave inadequate responses and
were coded in the corresponding category.
As it was stated above, 60% of pupils with LD gave a scientifically acceptable
answer on task B1. However, of great interest are the alternative ideas that emerged
on the remaining percentage of pupils’ responses. Specifically, the first alternative
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 13 of 19 15

idea is that pupils assume that the metal ball does not pass through the ring because
it is hot and the heat sticks to the ring. This idea corresponds to 20% of the sample
responses with typical answers being ‘The ball will not pass… it will stick to the
hoop… and that’s how the craftsman makes a fire and sticks the irons together…
I’ve seen it’ (LD.1) and ‘The bullet stuck and that’s why it won’t go through… you
put it in the fire and it got hot and when it touched the ring it stuck and couldn’t go
through’ (LD.2). The second alternative idea relates to the local character of pupil’s
responses, which constitutes early pre-collective form of thinking and derives from
their everyday experience (Bar and Galili 1994). Here pupils indicated, at a rate of
12%, that the ring will get smaller because the hot bullet touched it. To quote one
of them ‘The bullet won’t go through… yes, it won’t pass because the hot bullet
touched the ring and it got smaller’ (LD.22). Finally, the third alternative idea that
emerged (8%) is that the two metal balls depicted in the task were not the same. That
is, pupils believe that the metal ball that went through the hoop had different size
from the one that was heated. Indicative is the following answer: ‘This bullet won’t
pass because it’s different… it’s bigger… that’s why it won’t fit… this time you put
in another bullet, it’s not the same’ (LD.25). Table. 6

Task B2

40% of pupils with LD gave an appropriate response in regard to the scientifically

accepted view on Task B2 attributing tube elongation to the expansion of metals. To
quote a pupil ‘The metal tube will become 7 cm, that is very correct, that is, it will
grow a little, because it was in the fire and the fire made it bigger’ (LD.11).
28% of pupils gave intermediate responses; that is predicted the correct answer
without referring to metal expansion at all. Typical was the following answer ‘It will
get bigger; it will go 7’ (LD.4).
In addition, 32% of pupils with LD answered inappropriate in regard to a scien-
tifically accepted idea. Illustrative answers of this category are the following ‘It will
stay the same 6 cm’ (LD.2) and ‘It will be a little smaller, because it was heated too
much and shrunk’ (LD.10).
Pupils without LD responded adequately to this task at a rate of 48%. In contrast,
8% of pupils gave an intermediate answer simply stated that ‘The metal pipe will go
7 cm…. I don’t know…’ (Without LD.6). Finally, 44% of pupils gave inadequate
responses and were classified in the corresponding category.

Table 6  Percentages of alternative ideas expressed by pupils on task B1 of A.I.H.E.T

Pupils’ alternative ideas Percentage % Percentage %
LD Without LD

Scientific sufficient response 60 68

Metal ball does not pass through the ring because it is hot and stuck 20 20
The ring shrinks as it comes into contact with the hot metal ball 12 8
The two metal balls depicted in the task are not the same 8 4
15 Page 14 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

Taken from above, almost half of pupils with LD (40%) gave a scientifically
acceptable answer on task B2. However, of particular interest are the alternative
ideas of these pupils that emerged on the task. Specifically, the first alternative idea,
held by 20% of pupils, states that the metal pipe will remain the same, unaffected
by the fire (Ravanis et al. 2013). To quote one pupil ‘The pipe will stay the same,
6 cm… it will not be harmed by the fire… no matter how much you put a metal pipe
in the fire it will not be harmed, the fire will not harm it’ (LD.2). The second alterna-
tive idea is that pupils predict, at a rate of 28%, that the metal pipe will be shrunk
by the fire (Ravanis et al. 2013). Indicative is the following response: ‘The metal
pipe will go 5 cm… when you heated it, it got smaller and smaller… the fire made it
smaller…’ (LD.1). Finally, the third alternative idea emerged at a rate of 8%, is that
pupils believe that the pipe will be cut in two if it gets heated too long. Typical is
the following response ‘The fire will heat the pipe… it will bend and cut in half…’
(LD.23) Table 7.

Discussion

The present study tried to explore alternative ideas on thermal phenomena of pupils
with and without learning difficulties and compare them. Our findings seem to be in
line with those that have been found on the international literature for pupils with-
out LD. Particularly, regarding propagation of heat to objects, the majority of pupils
with LD recognizes that heat will spread along the entire length of the pipe and will
not just be refined at the point where the fire comes out of the gas flame. Similar
data are found in the literature, where pupils tend to associate heat with a moving
substance (Erikson, 1979; Kaliampos and Ravanis 2019; Paik et al., 2007). Conse-
quently, in those pupils’ mind, heat is capable of moving along objects.
Quite interestingly, a percentage of pupils with LD do not anticipate that the tube
will be heated up to its opposite end. As Kaliampos and Ravanis (2019) pointed out,
children do not recognize that the tube will be heated up to the edge. It could be
assumed that pupils’ answers are based on thoughts, experiences, and data from their
everyday life. This is consistent with Bar and Galili’s (1994) research, who high-
lighted the local nature of pupils’ responses, which constitutes early pre-collective

Table 7  Percentages of Pupils’ alternative ideas Percentage % Percentage %

alternative ideas expressed by LD Without LD
pupils on task B2 of A.I.H.E.T
Scientific sufficient response 40 48
The metal pipe will remain the 20 4
same, it will not be affected by
the fire
The metal pipe shrinks by the fire 28 40
The pipe will be cut in two parts 8 0
Other responses 4 8
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 15 of 19 15

form of thinking and derives from their everyday experience. The same is argued in
Duit and Treagust’ research (1998) as cited in Lederman and Abell (2014).
In addition, the common alternative idea often stated by pupils according to
which heat acts as a permanent property of the material (Clough and Driver 1985;
Tiberghien 1980) was identified in the sample of the current study, too. In particular,
pupils with LD pointed out that the metal spoon will not be heated up quickly as it
is naturally cold, whereas the wooden spoon will be heated up because it is burned
immediately. Similar data are presented by Lewis and Linn (1994), who found that
young children perceive that metal objects attract, retain, and absorb cold.
Regarding the expansion and contraction of metal objects, a significant percent-
age of the sample satisfactorily predicted that the metal sphere will not pass through
the metal tube after it’s heated up, though without referring to any kind of expansion
or contraction. Ravanis et al. (2013) came to the same conclusion, finding that pupils
perceive the changes that occur in metal objects, but have difficulty attributing them
to contraction and expansion. Similar conclusions were reached by Lee et al. (1993),
who reported that children conceptualize heating and cooling as the cause of metal
contraction and expansion but have difficulty explaining it in terms of molecular
motion.
These findings suggest that pupils aged 4–7 years, whether they are classified
as learning disabled or not, have similar alternative ideas, thoughts and difficul-
ties about thermal phenomena. This assumption can act as the starting point and
reinforce the academic belief of a holistic, inclusive education for all pupils, with a
common curriculum, acknowledging specific talents or difficulties (Amor et al 2019;
Sakiz 2018). That is, pupils of diverse origins, including pupils with LD, can be
taught thermal phenomena along with their peers and be expected, with the appro-
priate scaffolding of their teachers, to successfully participate in science activities.
This finding is in line with other researchers who have also promoted inclusive edu-
cation for teaching and learning science to pupils with difficulties (Gebbels et al.
2010; Moin et al. 2009; Turner 2008; Villanueva and Hand 2011).
There is rigorous research from which we draw data about science and special
education and the way these two fields meet and share common goals to achieve
“science for all” (Taylor and Villanueva 2017; Villanueva et al. 2012). The former
research focuses on barriers to the learning process and the ways with which the
movement “science education for all” can be achieved. In regard to the barriers, the
authors mention teachers’ readiness, implying the need for pre- and in-service train-
ing, as well as practical obstacles teachers encounter in their everyday practices, such
as lack of equipment and specialized assistance, students’ difficulties in communi-
cation, and more. Another barrier mentioned is the way science is approached in
classroom given the available resources. At the same time, the authors highlight the
benefits science education has to students with a variety of disabilities in compari-
son with other disciplines, such as mathematics and linguistics. Finally, the authors
stress the importance of synergies between science and special education in order
to achieve greater science success (Taylor and Villanueva 2017; Villanueva et al.
2012). The present paper contributes to this extent focusing on students’ alternative
ideas on thermal phenomena in the frame of a micro level study. The results of this
study can support teachers’ design of interventions considering the similarities and
15 Page 16 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

differences among the students’ conceptions with and without learning difficulties.
Of course, further research is needed on the one hand to more students, while on the
other to more concepts and phenomena from the field of science education. Finally,
what would interest both science and special education fields is to study whether the
identification and addressing of students’ alternative ideas support greater science
success to students with learning difficulties as it is concluded in published research
for the students without learning difficulties (Boilevin et al. 2022).

Study limitations

A limitation of the current study relates to the small sample of the research. What
is more, the sample has been recruited from specific regions of Greece,; therefore,
it is not a nationally representative sample. Further research extending to a multi-
ple number of pupils from diverse regions could also add value to our findings. In
addition, another limitation concerns the fact that due to Covid-19 restrictions, the
study was conducted through WebEx, with pupils being at different places from the
researcher. Possibly, a meeting of the researcher with the participants, in advance
of the research procedure, could make pupils feel intimacy and express themselves
freely. Finally, a limitation of the study is related with the diagnosis itself as it is a
fact that diagnoses are not comparable, and it is sometimes unclear why a child has a
diagnosis and another one has not.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1007/​s43545-​022-​00603-5.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank both the parents who permitted their children to
participate in this research as well as the children themselves

Author contribution MAK held the research idea, posed the research questions, designed and imple-
mented the research, and collected the data. KL and ACK analyzed the data. GK assisted in the research
design, wrote the text, and organized the whole team. All the authors contributed in the discussion
section.

Funding The research study was not funded by any organization.

Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available
from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations
Disclosure The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest, No potential conflict of interest was
reported by the authors.

Ethical approval (a) The research study was approved by the Research Ethics Board designated by the
University of Patras and, particularly, by the Department of Educational Science and Early Childhood
Education (protocol code 10/3–3-2020). (b) The authors confirm that all research studies were conducted
in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki regarding the relevant guidelines/regulations applicable
when human participants are involved.

Informed consent Prior conducting the study, the researchers received approval from the teachers and
parental permission while consent was obtained for all pupils who participated in the study.
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 17 of 19 15

References
Abels S (2014) Inquiry-based science education and special needs – teachers’ reflections on an inclusive set-
ting sisyphus. J Educ 2(2):124–154
Amor AM, Hagiwara M, Shogren KA, Thompson JR, Verdugo MÁ, Burke KM, Aguayo V (2019) Interna-
tional perspectives and trends in research on inclusive education: a systematic review. Int J Incl Educ
23(12):1277–1295
AuCoin D, Berger B (2021) An expansion of practice: special education and Montessori public school. Int J
Incl Educ. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​13603​116.​2021.​19317​17
Bar V, Galili I (1994) Stages of children’s views about evaporation. Int J Sci Educ 16(2):157–174
Baysen E, Dagli O (2014). Intellectually disabled students’ conceptions concerning the earth and heavenly
bodies. Cypriot J Educ Sci 9(3):238–250
Boilevin J-M, Delserieys A, Ravanis K (2022) Precursor models for teaching and learning science during early
childhood. Springer Nature, Switzerland
Brigham FJ, Scruggs TE, Mastropieri MA (2011) Science education and students with learning disabilities.
Learn Disabil Res Pract 26(4):223–232
Bryman A (2016) Social research methods. Oxford University Press, London
Carroll A, Houghton S, Bourgeois A (2014) Self-reported substance use among high school students with and
without learning difficulties. Aust J Learn Difficu 19(1):47–59
Chu SY, Lo YLS (2016) Taiwanese families’ perspectives on learning disabilities: an exploratory study in
three middle schools. J Res Spec Educ Needs 16(2):77–88
Chunawala, S. (2014). Marching towards Inclusive Education: Are we Prepared for Inclusive Science Educa-
tion? Proceedings of epiSTEME 5, India, 314–320. Retrieved from http://​epist​eme.​hbcse.​tifr.​res.​in/​index.​
php/​epist​eme5/5/​sched​Conf/​prese​ntati​ons
Clough E, Driver R (1985) Secondary student’s conceptions of the conduction of heat: bringing together scien-
tific and personal views. Phys Educ 20:176–182
Colley A (2020) To what extent have learners with severe, profound and multiple learning difficulties been
excluded from the policy and practice of inclusive education? Int J Incl Educ 24(7):721–738
Dare L, Nowicki E, Felimban H (2017) Saudi children’s thoughts on inclusive education. Int J Incl Educ
21(5):532–543
Delserieys A, Impedovo M-A, Fragkiadaki G, Kampeza M (2017) Using drawings to explore preschool chil-
dren’s ideas about shadow formation. Rev Sci Math ICT Educ 11(1):55–69
Dimakos IC, Tsaganelia A, Lavidas K (2016) Parental requests for evaluation and authorities’ responses: issues
of accord. Eur J Spec Needs Educ. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​08856​257.​2016.​11945​72
Driver R, Guesne E, Tiberghien A (1985) Children’s Ideas in Science. Open University Press, Milton Keynes
Duhaney LMG, Duhaney DC (2000) Assistive technology: meeting the needs of learners with disabilities. Int
J Instr Media 27(4):393–393
Duit R, Treagust DF (1998) Learning in science—from behaviourism towards social constructivism and
beyond. In: Fraser BJ, Tobin KG (eds) International handbook of science education, Part one. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp 3–26
Ergazaki M, Ampatzidis G (2012) Students’ reasoning about the future of disturbed οr protected ecosystems &
the idea of the “Balance of Nature.” Res Sci Educ 42(3):511–553
Erickson GL (1979) Children’s conceptions of heat and temperature. Sci Educ 63(2):221–230
Field A (2018) Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics, 5th edn. SAGE, Thousand Oaks
Fragkiadaki G, Ravanis K (2021) The unity between intellect, affect, and action in a child’s learning and devel-
opment in science. Learn Cult Soc Interact 29:100495
Gebbels S, Evans S, Murphy L (2010) Making science special for pupils with learning difficulties. Br J Spec
Educ 37(3):139–147
Hewitt PG (2014) Conceptual Physics. Pearson Education, New Jersey
Hubber P, Jobling W (2015) Energy. In: Skamp K, Preston C (eds) Teaching primary science constructively.
Cengage, South Melbourne, Victoria, pp 118–158
Kaliampos G (2021) Early childhood special science education: setting the frameof a newly born and well-
promising trend. Rev Sci Math ICT Educ 15(2):61–76
Kaliampos G, Ravanis K (2019) Thermal conduction in metals: mental representations in 5–6 years old
children’s thinking. Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Fisika ‘al-BiRuNi.’ https://​doi.​org/​10.​24042/​jipfa​lbiru​
ni.​v8i1.​3737
15 Page 18 of 19 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15

Kaliampos G, Ravanis K, Vavougios D (2020) A comparison study of alternative conceptions on impetus the-
ory and projectile motion of adolescents with typical development and high functioning autism spectrum
disorder. Int J Sci Educ 43(1):128–156
Kornelaki, AC (2023) Exploring early graders’ preconceptions about air within non-formal settings. Mediterr J
Basic Appl Sci 3(1):39–49
Lederman N, Abell SK (2014) Research on teaching and learning of nature of science. In: Lederman N, Abell
SK (eds) Handbook of Research on Science Education, vol II. Routledge, New York
Lee O, Eichinger DC, Anderson CW, Berkheimer GD, Blakeslee TD (1993) Changing middle school students’
conceptions of matter and molecules. J Res Sci Teach 30(3):249–270
Lee D, McGee A, Ungar S (2001) Using multimedia to teach personal safety to children with severe learning
difficulties. Br J Spec Educ 28(2):65–70
Leung C, Lindsay G, Lo SK (2007) Early identification of primary school students with learning difficulties in
Hong Kong: the development of a checklist. Eur J Spec Needs Educ 22(3):327–339
Lewis E, Linn M (1994) Heat, energy and temperature concepts of adolescents, adults and experts: implica-
tions for curricular improvements. J Res Sci Teaching 31:657–677
Lipka O, Forkosh Baruch A, Meer Y (2019) Academic support model for post-secondary school students with
learning disabilities: student and instructor perceptions. Int J Incl Educ 23(2):142–157
Lorenzo MF, Trujillo CM (2018) Cognitive processes, ICT, and education: a critical analysis. Comput Sch
35(3):186–203
Moin L, Magiera K, Zigmond N (2009) Instructional activities and group work in the US inclusive high school
co-taught science class. Int J Sci Math Educ 7:677–697
Moran A, Abbott L (2002) Developing inclusive schools: the pivotal role of teaching assistants in promoting
inclusion in special and mainstream schools in Northern Ireland. Eur J Spec Needs Educ 17(2):161–173
Paik S, Cho B, Go Y (2007) Korean 4- to 11-Year-Old Student Conceptions of Heat and Temperature. J Res
Sci Teach 44(2):284–302
Panteliadou S, Botsa G (2007) Learning Difficulties: Basic concepts and characteristics. Grafima Publications,
Volos
Pogiatzi M, Bardoutsou I, Lavidas K, Komis V (2022) Interviewing preschool children in Greece about their
usage of mobile devices at home. SN Social Sciences 2:215
Pui WSW (2016) Differentiated curriculum design: responding to the individual and group needs of students
with learning difficulties with self-regulated learning strategies. Support Learn 31(4):329–346
Ralli AM, Margeti M, Doudoni E, Pantelemidou V, Rozou T, Evaggelopoulou E (2011) Typically develop-
ing children’s understanding of and attitudes towards diversity and peers with learning difficulties in the
Greek setting. Eur J Spec Needs Educ 26(2):233–249
Ravanis K (2005) The natural sciences in preschool education. Typothito, Athens ((in Greek))
Ravanis K (2017) Early childhood science education: state of the art and perspectives. J Balt Sci Educ
16(3):284–288
Ravanis K (2022) Research trends and development perspectives in early childhood science education: an
overview. Educ Sci 12(7):456. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​educs​ci120​70456
Ravanis K, Papandreou M, Kampeza M, Vellopoulou A (2013) Teaching activities for the construction of a
precursor model in 5–6 years old children’s thinking: the case of thermal expansion and contraction of
metals. Eur Early Child Educ Res J 21(4):514–526
Ravanis K, Kambouri M, Jameau A, Boilevin J-M (2022) Teaching interaction strategies with children 5–6
years in the mental construction of a Precursor Model: the case of water state changes. In: Boilevin J-M,
Delserieys A, Ravanis K (eds) Precursor Models for teaching and learning Science during early child-
hood. Springer, pp 95–110
Reynaga-Peña CG, Sandoval-Ríos M, Torres-Frías J, López-Suero C, Garza AL, Félix MD, Maitland MG,
Ibanez JG (2018) Creating a dialogic environment for transformative science teaching practices: towards
an inclusive education for science. J Educ Teach 44(1):44–57
Rott, L., & Marohn, A. (2018) Choice2explore – a teaching concept for inclusive science education in pri-
mary schools, In: O. Finlayson, E. McLoughlin, S. Erduran, & P. Childs, (Eds.), Proceedings of the 12th
ESERA 2017 Conference, Research, practice and collaboration in science education, Dublin City Uni-
versity, Dublin
Ruban LM (2005) Identification and assessment of gifted students with learning disabilities. Theory into Prac-
tice 44(2):115–124
Sakiz H (2018) Students with learning disabilities within the context of inclusive education: issues of identifi-
cation and school management. Int J Incl Educ 22(3):285–305
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:15 Page 19 of 19 15

Scruggs T, Mastropieri M (1994) The construction of scientific knowledge by students with mild disabilities. J
Spec Educ 28(3):307–321
Sliwka, A. (2010). From homogeneity to diversity in German education. In OECD (Hrsg.), Educating Teach-
ers for Diversity: Meeting the Challenge (S. 205–217). OECD Publishing. https://​www.​oecd.​org/​berlin/​
44911​406.​pdf
Smetana LK, Bell RL (2012) Computer simulations to support science instruction and learning: a critical
review of the literature. Int J Sci Educ 34(9):1337–1370
Stanberry, K. & Raskind, M. H. (2009). Assistive Technology for Kids with Learning Disabilities: An overview.
Stinken-Rösner L, Rott L, Hundertmark S, Baumann Th, Menthe J, Hoffmann Th, Nehring A, Abels S (2020)
Thinking inclusive science education from two perspectives: inclusive pedagogy and science education.
Ristal 3(2020):30–45
Taylor JC, Villanueva MG (2017) Research in science education for students with special education needs. In:
Hughes MT, Talbott E (eds) The Wiley handbook of diversity in special education. John Wiley & Sons,
pp 231–252
Tiberghien, A. (1980) ‘Modes and conditions of learning, an example: The learning of some aspects of the
concept of heat’ Cognitive Development Research in Science and Mathematics, pp.288–309 WF Archen-
hold et al (eds), The University of Leeds
Timor T, Burton N (2006) School culture and climate in the context of inclusion of students with learning dis-
abilities in mainstream secondary schools in Tel-Aviv. Israel Int J Incl Educ 10(6):495–510
Turner S (2008) School science and its controversies; or, whatever happened to scientific literacy? Public
Underst Sci 17(1):55–72
Villanueva MG, Hand B (2011) Science for all: engaging students with special needs in and about science.
Learn Disabil Res Pract 26(4):233–240
Villanueva MG, Taylor J, Therrien W, Hand B (2012) Science education for students with special needs. Stud
Sci Educ 48(2):187–215
Williams P (1993) Integration of students with moderate learning difficulties. Eur J Spec Needs Educ
8(3):303–319
Witzel B, Smith SW, Brownell MT (2001) How can I help students with learning disabilities in algebra?
Interv Sch Clin 37(2):101–104
Ysseldyke J (2005) Assessment and decision making for students with learning disabilities: What if this
is as good as it gets? Learn Disabil Q 28(2):125–128

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under
a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and
applicable law.

Authors and Affiliations

Maria‑Aggeliki Katsidima1 · Konstantinos Lavidas1 · Athina C. Kornelaki2 ·

George Kaliampos3
Maria‑Aggeliki Katsidima
[email protected]
Konstantinos Lavidas
[email protected]
Athina C. Kornelaki
[email protected]
1
Department of Educational Sciences and Early Childhood Education, University of Patras,
Patras, Greece
2
Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
3
Department of Education, School of Education, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus