Course Outline

Module one(weeks1-4)

Week 1: What is Philosophy, logic and Human existence? What is the relevance of Philosophy?

Week 2: Fundamental problems of Philosophy.

Week 3: Concepts, method of knowledge acquisition. Why must i live a moral life?

Week 4: History of Philosophy – Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance eras.

Module two: (weeks5- 7)

Week 5: African Philosophy.

Week 6: Modern Philosophy.

Week 7: Contemporary Philosophy.

Module three: (weeks8-11)

Week 8: Main themes in Existentialism.

Week 9: Modern Logic

Week 10: Fallacies

Week 11: REVISION

Method of Grading: Continuous Assessment (question and answer in class), End of Semester
Examination.

Term paper and Assignment:

What is your guiding principle of life? (aimed at helping the student to make decisions that would
guide him in life)

Man and his hidden nature. to assist the student to discover himself)

Module One

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

Philosophy – thinking, critical thinking, deep thinking. The desire to acquire knowledge, the
acquisition of knowledge in order to act right.

Logic – sequential thinking, concise thinking. Being consistent.

Human existence – man in action, man the thinker, man the subjective and objective being. Man the
embodiment of sentiments. The deep man, the self-centred man.

Philosophy

Philosophy is derived from the Greek words ‘philo’ and ‘sophia’ which are interpreted as ‘love’ and
‘wisdom’. Therefore, philosophy can be interpreted as love for wisdom. Philosophy is the theoretical
vision, mirror, illuminant, road map, signpost that guides a person’s actions. It is the guiding principle
that propels every man into action, no matter his field of study or religion. Examples include ‘the end
justifies the means’, ‘do unto others as you want them do to you’, ‘whatever will be will be’, etc.

While other subjects are after the ‘how, where, what, who and when philosophy proceeds to ask
‘why’.

Basic Philosophical Topics and Questions

1. OF BEING AND BEINGS:

Plato’s world of forms and appearance, Parmenides’ concept of permanence, Aristotle’s
viewpoint of matter and form, the church father’s insistence of God as the eternal Being,
etc.
2. OF SUBSTANCE:
Is it the thing in itself- noumena/ phenomena-as it appears of Kant, the world of ideas of
Plato, Locke’s primary vs secondary qualities of a thing – whiteness, sweetness,
disintegrated nature of sugar, et cetera.
3. OF ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE:
Man and men, tree and trees, morality and morals of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Kierkegaard,
Camus, Sartre, St. Augustine, et cetera.
4. OF UNIVERSALS:
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hegel, et cetera.
5. OF APPEARANCE AND REALITY:
Parmenides, Heraclitus, Plato, et cetera.
6. OF UNITY AND DIVERSITY:
Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Zeno, Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, et cetera.
7. OF DETERMINISM AND FREE WILL:
Destiny, fate, liberty, choice, responsibility for consequences, blameless, unadvocated
existence, uncontrollable sequences, et cetera.

Importance of Philosophy

1. Philosophy allows man to critically examine his opinion of life, discard the worthless and
hold tenaciously to the beneficial.
2. Delivers man from pride/superiority complex and accommodate the stand of others.
3. Understand different societies and their guiding principles. (capitalism, communism,
spirituality, et cetera).
4. Perceives man as formed by his experiences (Marx, Nkrumah, Senghor, et cetera).
5. Due to its open-minded nature, philosophy prepares man to fit into any circumstance he
finds himself – quickly looking for solution rather than complaining. (@ NYSC, work,
home, et cetera).
6. Only philosophy delves into morality as man invents tools, enslaves other men, bringing
sanity to society. It is concerned with total, positive development of man and nature-
spirituality and scientifically.
7. Is the discipline that gave birth to all disciplines – politics (Plato, Hobbes), capitalism,
socialism (Marx), science (Galileo) arithmetic (Pythagoras, Zeno). A combination of all
thoughts and their dividends result in the development of societies/the world.
 8. At PhD level, all disciplines re-converge into philosophy (the thinking process behind the
area of specialization).

Branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics: It is the study of reality that is out of reach of the senses. The Greek word ‘meta’
means ‘beyond’ or ‘after’ while physics is interpreted as ‘physical’. Man’s inquiry into subject matters
like God, spirit, soul, dreams, visions, Angels, mind is a delve into metaphysics.

It is the aspect of philosophy that asks questions such as ‘what is man’, where did man emanate
from’, ‘why do men die’, ‘what is the destination of man at death?’

Epistemology: It is the aspect of philosophy that asks questions such as ‘what is man’, ‘where did
man emanate from’, ‘why do men die’, ‘what is the destination of man at death?’. epistemology has
two schools – rationalism and empiricism.

Rationalism: It is the school that insists that nature can be studied objectively through reasoning
only. The senses of man proffer limited knowledge they insist. Mathematics, Physics and other
related subjects fall into this school. (Apriori)

Empiricism: It insists that adequate knowledge is filtered from nature through the five senses of
man. Example of empiricists include Aristotle and Locke. (Posteriori)

Logic

Logic is the study of valid correct reasoning. It exposes fallacies.

Logic is the mathematical aspect of philosophy. It is the systematic study of facts. It is concerned with
orderliness and precision. It is against wastefulness and approves man being concise, accurate and
straight to the point in writing and speech. Logic makes use of symbols in expression and writing.

Ethics

Ethics are the study of actions that are good against evil ones. It inquires into actions that ‘are’
against those that ‘ought to be’. It holds the view that there are actions that are universally accepted
as good. It is concerned with human conduct, good character of man and what brings fulfilment to
man. (the law of karma, nemesis, retribution, sowing and reaping.) Morality is concerned with
concepts of “good”, “evil”, “right”, “wrong”. Ethics make use of concepts of “ego”, “altruism”,
“sacrifice”.

Note: There exists the philosophy of aesthetics, politics, education, science, law, mathematics,
language, religion, social sciences.

• A social being resides among similar beings.( footballers, athletes, area boys, …)

• For society to be viable, there must be rules and regulations. (rewards and punishments for
responsible and irresponsible citizens)

• The social contract is binding on all members. (Ignorance is not an excuse).

• Moral actions, social actions – immoral actions, anti-social actions.

Morality and Happiness

 • A social being resides among similar beings.( footballers, athletes, area boys, …)

• For society to be viable, there must be rules and regulations. (rewards and punishments for
responsible and irresponsible citizens)

• The social contract is binding on all members. (Ignorance is not an excuse).

• Moral actions, social actions – immoral actions, anti-social actions.

Laws of Nature

• Nature performs in ordered pattern. (not chance/haphazard happenings)

• Cause and effect.

• Law of sowing and reaping – Gal 6:7, …

• Law of karma

• Law of retribution or natural law of justice.

Note: What are the meanings of moral, immoral, and amoral?

Concepts

A concept is applicable to the ideas or principles that guide the actions of the people in a given
society.

Common Concepts

Egoism: is the philosophical school that recognizes and approves selfishness and self–centredness as
inherent in man. Here man evaluates his action as good when it is beneficial to him even if it does
not favour others or the majority. (self 1 st, others last.)

Altruism: is when an action is defined as good as long as it is beneficial to others or the majority first
of all. Sometimes it may not be to the benefit of the one recommending it or acting. (sacrificial life.)

Sceptism: is the school of thought that glorifies doubt. It maintains the idea that it is not possible for
a thing to be known. ‘Having deceived myself to think that I have acquired knowledge’ sceptism
insists that it is impossible for such knowledge to be transferred to another.

Relativism: is the school that insists that there is no absolute standard that can be used to judge an
action, opinion or position. Perspectives determine opinions the relativist says.

Monism: is the concept that reality is metaphysical and it is only one. Everything emanated from one
single source. (sun, moon, hot, cold.)

Dualism: is the school of thought that reality is made of two substances – spirit and matter, mind and
body.

Pluralism: is the metaphysical theory that reality is made of many aspects. Short, tall, medium, cold,
hot, lukewarm.

Realism: is the viewpoint that man’s perception of the physical world is reality. The physical world is
as experienced by man, no hidden meaning, no coded expression.

Idealism: is reality is made up of ideas and can be captured by the mind only. The mind is superior to
the experiences of man.
Pantheism: is the school of thought that nature and the physical world is an expression of God. God
is responsible for all events taking place in nature.

Theism: is the idea that God is responsible for the existence of the world and he is actively involved
in the happenings.

Atheism: is the viewpoint that God does not exist neither is he involved in the events taking place.
Atheists think that the creation of the earth can be explained through physical processes only.

Fideism: is the school that holds that though it may not have been proven that God exists, it is more
profitable to believe in him than not to.

Freewilism: is the concept that man has a will that he exercises as he chooses. He may have been
created without his consent but he free to do with his life as he deems fit. He is liable for the
outcome of his choices.

Determinism: is the viewpoint that man should not be held responsible for the outcome of his life as
he is not in control of his life.

Pragmatism: is the viewpoint that “good” is defined by the practicability of an idea, invention, law,
theory.

Read more: Existentialism, utilitarianism, solipsism, intuitionism, materialism, socialism, communism,

nihilism, welfarism, evolutionism.

Note: No single concept, method or branch is valid or correct.

Some Methods

Socratic method: also called the dialectic method is that which postulates that man is embedded
with innate knowledge. This is basically knowledge of good and evil. Man is lazy and ignorant hence
makes wrong conclusions. Man, know thyself Socrates counsels.

Deduction: is the method that emphasizes the past general experiences of men as a pointer to what
a men would experience in future.

It is drawing particular conclusion based on general evidences.

e. g. All men are mortals.

Adamu is a man.

Therefore Adamu is mortal.

Induction: is the method that stresses the particular experiences of man in nature with which
general conclusions are made.

e.g. MCE students are careful.

EEE students are careful.

Therefore all Engineering students are careful.

Existential method: is that which emphasizes the role of man in knowledge acquisition. Man’s
person is consciously involved hence the possibility of filtered objective knowledge.
The point of view of the existentialist is that the subjective man having undergone rigorous reasoning
process arrives at objective knowledge.

Analytic method: is that which emphasizes clarity of terms and expressions in our attempt to
communicate our findings to others.

As man attempts to unravel nature, his discoveries must be defined clearly or be verifiable.

Phenomenological method: is that which targets the “essence”, “the thing in itself”, “back to the
thing”. Man is instructed to avoid reasoning, analysis of experiences. He should search for the core of
a thing – this is genuine knowledge.

An orange is not determined by the size, colour, number of seeds encased, … . Orange is determined
by its function.

Read More: Medical ethics, philosophy of law, philosophy of education, philosophy of history,
philosophy of social sciences.

HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

• Ancient philosophy

• medieval philosophy

• renaissance philosophy

• modern philosophy

• contemporary philosophy

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

• Pre-ancient philosophy, mythology. (source of rain, Ife – cradle of creation, …)

• Ancient philosophy focused on nature. (origin of matter, ultimate substance,

change/permanence, …)

It is a departure from mysticism to nature. It understood nature as monistic. It was concerned with
cosmology, what the world is made off, what is the primary and ultimate stuff that comprises
creation. There appears to be changes but there also appears to be no change – things remain
constant it seems.

History of Western Philosophy

Started in Miletus, a seaport in Greece Asia minor.

 Thales postulated water as the ultimate substance in creation. It exists in three distinct
forms: gaseous, liquid and solid but is ultimately same substance. He said that water is the
ultimate origin of all, accepts all. cloud, earth, underground, dew, rain, river/sea/lake, body
fluid, sap in plants).

 Successfully interpreted the movement of the stars and predicted an eclipse which took
place.
  Anaximander postulated the primary stuff in existence as uncommon, enduring, boundless,
infinite and neutral. He says it is not water. Anaximander disagreed with Thales. The source
of all things must be complex, infinite, accommodate opposites – hot/cold. He tagged it the
“indeterminate stuff”.

 Anaximander postulated that the world is cylindrical in shape and drew a map.

 Anaximenes of family tie with Thales and Anaximander, rejected theirs and postulated that
the primary stuff in creation is air. This he claimed is a midpoint between the previous two
elements.

 The earth is round he said.

 Heraclitus of Ephesus hypothesized that fire is the primary source of all things and at death
all things return to fire in one form or another.

 He says nature is in constant change, it is ephemeral. Constant ordered change in motion –

(unity in diversity).

 Parmenides opposed the existence of change and insisted that there is no division in nature.

 There is no change, no motion, no space.

 Parmenides insisted in the existence of unity as against diversity.

 Change is illusion, appearance, opinion while permanence is reality, truth.

 A thing is either “Being” or “not being”, not becoming.

 Pythagoras reduced all things in nature to numbers: odd - even, limited - unlimited, cold –
hot, night – day, etc.

 The universe is infinite while particulars are finite expression of the whole.

 Monism was replaced with dualism.

 He(and the Pythagoreans) insisted that motion happens, space exists.

 Democritus the atomist, combining monism and dualism postulated pluralism.

 Sophism is the return of focus on man. Sophists were teachers, charged for their services.
Sophists were at best relativists and at the extreme skeptics. It re-defined truth, ethical
sayings, knowledge.
 Man is the measure of all things, only the weak complain of injustice, are examples of their
viewpoints.

Note: Read on Zeno, Empedocles, Xenophanes, Anaxagoras, Protagoras.

Philosophers

Socrates

Socrates was a moral philosopher, attempting to sanitize society of the effect of sophism. He insisted
that objective and universal moral concepts exist. Man involve in evil acts due to ignorance.
Goodness and knowledge are connected. (knowledge results in virtue.)
The Socratic Era

The common statement “man, know thyself” implies that all men have knowledge in them.
Knowledge is innate in man, with the aid of his soul man can pull out the good and act rightly. To
acquire knowledge, be honest to yourself that you do not know. (the beginning of wisdom).

Post-Socratic Era

Epicureanism: is the school of thought that an action is good if it results in pleasure and an action is
evil if it results in pain. Advocated the simple life as the best. It is sometimes referred to as
hedonism. Epicurus the founder of the school distinguished between dynamic (over feeding,
alcoholism, brutality, …) and passive (assisting others, …) pleasure. He advocated the avoidance of
any action that gives pleasure but ends with pain.

Stoicism: holds the view that man should live in line with reason and not his emotions. Man should
obey the laws of nature. They advocated celibacy. Epicurus the founder of the school distinguished
between dynamic (over feeding, alcoholism, brutality, …) and passive (assisting others, …) pleasure.
He advocated the avoidance of any action that gives pleasure but ends with pain. The Stoics
interpreted man as part of nature hence he is controlled by its laws. He is not free to manipulate any
of them.

Man’s thinking ability is not to restructure nature but a means to perceive/understand it and follow
suit. Stoicism advocated a life of celibacy for man to be happy. (vegetarians, no marriage). They
postulated that man has innate knowledge of what is good. Senses are deceptive – mirage.

Plato

He was a student of Socrates, wrote all that is credited to the latter. He expressed views on
politics/government, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics and epistemology among others. He postulated
the popular “Philosopher King” theory. He established the 1 st European University.

His moral philosophy holds happiness as the ultimate of human life. To be happy, man must live a
virtuous life. True and objective knowledge is acquired through reason and is not in the physical
world. Universals such as honour, equality, beauty, goodness, evil are known innately.

Aristotle

A former student and later critic of Plato. He is the father of empiricism, wrote books on Biology,
Ethics, Politics, Logic, Physics, Aesthetics, Metaphysics, Rhetoric, etc. He taught that matter and form
are intertwined. An action that results in happiness is that which is moral.

Medieval Philosophy ( 11TH – 15TH C.)

It is characterized by theologians (St. Augustine, St. Aquinas, Islamic scholar Avicenna, Latin W.
Ockham, Jewish Ben Gerson, etc). It interpreted philosophy to justify religious proclamations. It
proves for the existence of God, origin of evil were major concerns.

St. Augustine & God’s Existence

He says God is eternal, above/ bigger than man. God is the cause of all existence and the universe is
the effect. ( no effect – universe, if there is no cause – God). He thought of man as proof that He
exists. Man’s moral goal is to be happy, which can be achieved only when he does the will of God.

St. Augustine & Evil

The all -good God created an all-good world. The freewill of man allows man to choose. Wrong
choices (which are against the moral law imprinted in all men results in evil).

St. Augustine & Time

Time does not exist – it is a fantasy of man’s mind. The past is as man recalls, the present is man’s
reference point between the past and the future, while the future is man’s expectations. The past
cannot be recalled, the future is yet to be while the present is a passing phase.

Note: Read on St. Aquinas’ cosmological argument for the existence of God and St. Anselm’s
ontological argument for the existence of God.

St. Augustine

An indigene of Tagaste, North Africa. He was a clergy in the Catholic Church. He postulated that God
is everlasting, he is above man and directs him.

St. Anselm & God’s Existence

God is him that no other being can be conceived to be greater than. Since he is the all great God, he
must therefore be existing. This is ontological argument for the existence of God. BUT with
imagination man can create: a suspended house, a flying horse etc.

St. Thomas Aquinas and Philosophy

He postulated a cosmological argument for the existence of God. Essence precedes existence: each
finite being proceeds from the infinite. (motion, necessary cause).

Note: Read on Cynicism. Are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, … evil or good?

MODERN PHILOSOPHY

It is an offshoot of epistemology, comprising of empiricism and rationalism. It is an extension the

scientific feats reached during the 2nd World War. ( trade and economic boom). Renewed opposition
between the Church and thinkers. ( tenacious grip on the heliocentric theory against geocentric
theory, Knox and other church members questioning policies not to the advantage of man, etc.)

Perception of reality changed – Ptolemy had postulated that the earth was the centre of all creation
(geocentric). In modern times the sun was postulated as the centre of creation (heliocentric) by
Copernicus.

Francis Bacon changed the method of knowledge acquisition to induction.

Note: Read on the heliocentric theory, the geocentric theory, and their opposition against each other.

Modern Philosophers

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon postulated induction against deduction for knowledge acquisition.

Rene Descartes
Descartes, a French citizen was a mathematician. He is fondly called the father of modern science.
He said for one to acquire objective knowledge, one must consciously doubt everything he knows
but cannot prove. The statement “cogito ergo sum” – ‘I think, therefore I am’ is credited to him.

He said the best method through which objective knowledge can be acquired is by combining
deduction and mathematics- (logico- mathematical reasoning).

Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677)

A Portuguese- Jew. A rationalist, glorified reason above dogma and reality. He saw God as the
ultimate substance and everything in the universe as modes(Pantheist). To be fulfilled, man must
align with the laws of nature – (determinism). His method was deduction.

Leibnitz (1646 – 1716)

He saw God as the universal substance and simple (small) substances are monads. He
accommodated God as universal, mind with which to reason and matter that can be experienced.
Two types of truth abound - truth of fact known by experience, and truth of reason known by
reason.

Locke (1631 – 1704)

Locke as a Briton, an empiricist. He influenced government policies. He criticized the concept of

innate ideas. Man’s mind is a “tabula rasa”.

George Berkeley (1685 – 1753)

Berkeley was a Briton, an empiricist. He said anything that cannot be perceived is meaningless. His
dictum was “esse est percipi” i.e. to be (to exist) is to be perceived.

David Hume (1711 – 1776)

Born in Edinburgh, Hume was an empiricist. Human mind can conjure anything based on prior
experience, he said - e.g. winged horses. Knowledge derives from perception which gives rise to (1)
impression, (2) ideas. His theory of causality is a criticism of the mind of man misleading him to
conclusions.

Note: Read on The enlightenment, Immanuel Kant, Hegel, Ptolemy, Copernicus.

COMTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

This is the period when western philosophy changed content from concentrating on holistic world
views to particular, topical issues. Thinkers in this period desired philosophical speculations that
would centre on man. They desired a philosophy that would be relevant in the house, office, social
circles, political spheres, economical arena and other spheres of life.

The period is characterized by names such as Schlick, Moore, Popper, Kuhn, Peirce, Dewey, James,
Kierkegaard among others. Almost all the contemporary philosophers were rationalists,
mathematicians, empiricists and scientists. They were avowed antagonists to metaphysics and
religion.

The Analytical School/Movement

It was founded by Bertrand Russell (1872-1970). Its main thrust is to analyse and explain complex
topics in clear and simple terms. The goal of the movement is to make all writings and statements
understandable to both professionals and non-professionals in any given field.

Reality to them is atomic, isolated, particular, individual units that are accessible to all.

This clarity they insist is achieved when propositions/ postulates are expressed in clear and simple
language. They thus advocate logical analysis of all propositions, statements and theories. This is to
avoid ambiguities and vagueness.

G.E. Moore(1873-1958) and L. Wittgenstein(1889-1951) are among members of this school.

Wittgenstein

Wittgenstein insists that man’s language and mind vis a vis reality must work hand in hand. He
maintains that the universe consists of ‘’atomic’’ facts that will give rise to bigger facts when sewn
together.

When does a word become meaningful? Wittgenstein says meaning is accrued to a word when such
has a corresponding reference. As long as a word, sentence, or proposition is ‘’real’’, i.e. empirical,
then it becomes meaningful.

Where it lacks a correspondence in the physical, Wittgenstein insists such word/ object/expression is
meaningless. Their contention is with religious, aesthetical, metaphysical and moral ideas.(beauty,
melody, spirit, goodness, best way to serve God, etc.)

Logical Atomism

Postulated by Bertrand Russell and A.N. Whitehead is the philosophy of symbolic logic /
mathematics. It proved that mathematics is an aspect of logic and not a distinct discipline of itself. It
proved that all languages have a structure that is similar to that of logic. Logic is a tool with which
other languages can be clarified logical atomists held.

This school held that language is made up of atomic and molecular propositions. Atomic proposition
is a simple proposition. e.g. Adamu is a farmer. (noun/ subject and object/ characteristics). The
school insists that the universe is made up of atomic, simple facts.

A molecular proposition is a combination of simple propositions. These make use of terms such as
“and”, “or”, ‘if”, “then”, …

E.g. since Segun is hefty, he must be a wrestler.

It has been established that Adefuye is the west of Nigeria hence she must love amala.

As long as C.U. is renown in West Africa, she must be number 1 in Nigeria.

Logical Positivism

Sometimes this is referred to as logical empiricism. Names synonymous with it are Ayer, Carnap, and
C.W. Morris among others. They were greatly influenced by Wittgenstein. That which is key to this
movement is the principle of verifiability. Simply stated it says:

A sentence or notion is meaningful if it corresponds with a form of sense- experience. In this way the
notion is proven to be either false or true synthetically.
Furthermore a sentence is meaningful when the WORDS and GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE expressing
it are analytically proven. The sentence may be neither true nor false but as long as it satisfies the
verifiability test, it is tagged meaningful.( a flying horse, a flying car, etc.)

Logical positivism is after facts and not values as majority of them were scientists. Their concern was
the logicality of scientific expressions. They preferred a world view that is ‘’atomistic’’, one that
considers each statement or claim on its merit, rather than one that is holistic. Their criticisms were
thus against metaphysical, moral and religious statements.

Existentialism

It is a reaction against the concept of absolute and objective knowledge acquisition. It insists
existence precedes essence. It emphasizes the subjective person and the relevance of his discoveries
to himself. It insists while other beings are only man exists. It insists that man is free and must
exercise it optimally.

Pragmatism

This is a philosophical school that offers man a method by which the truth value and meaning of an
idea, proposition or statement can be determined.

It is the brain child of C.S. Peirce, developed later by W. James and J. Dewey. It is more of an
American movement.

Its basic tenet is that a statement or theory or concept is meaningful and has value if such a
proposition has practical consequence or value.

For the pragmatist whatever does not have cash value is not meaningful and should be discarded.
For a theory to have meaning it must have beneficial consequences when tested.

Belief in God is meaningful if it has cash value - healing, freedom, dignity, etc. if believing in an
invisible God has not added any tangible benefit to one’s life; that act is meaningless says the
pragmatist.

For the pragmatist, the process of impact may not be explicable, but as long as the impact is tangible,
the concept is meaningful.

What is meaningfulness? It is when a proposition is of practical consequence to the life of man.

When is a statement true? It is when its consequence is positive, beneficial says pragmatism.

William James further says the truth value and meaningfulness of a belief or theory is further
strengthened when it is consistent with previously existing beliefs, theories etc and their consequent
facts and experiences. He added the corroboration and correspondence theory to further verify
pragmatism.

The Correspondence Theory

What is the correspondence theory? it states that a proposition is meaningful and true if it
corresponds with REALITY or FACTS. The proof that it corresponds is by empirical verification. Where
empirical verification is lacking concerning a statement, theory, idea immediately; James says such a
postulate can be tagged potentially true.

Philosophy of Love
According to The Merriam-Webster Thesaurus, love is “the feeling which animates a person who is
genuinely fond of someone or something”.

Words that connote love include attachment, fondness, affection, devotion, passion. Love is
demonstrated through words (speech), Items (gifts), Actions.

Characteristics of love

• Love is always good.

• Love and justice are identical.

• Love is not liking.

• Love is selfless.

Types of love

• Eros/romantic/infatuation/companionate/con-summate/empty – is love between male

and female, between selfish lovers. (passion, intimacy, …)

• Philia – is love between / among persons. (cares, assists, helps one another, equal share, …)

• Agape – is expression of unconditional love. ( mother/child, leader/led, …) Jonathan and

David, King David and Absalom, Prodigal’s father and his son, God and Adam/Eve, Jesus and
man, …

Existentialism

Who is Man?

He is the highest being in nature. (scientific postulation through evolution)

All other creatures are under him. He interpretes his encounters with nature and not been opposed.

Man alone exists while others are.

Sophism saw man as the epitome of all beings in the universe. He is the measure of all things – his
declaration is final.

Stoicism interpreted him as the being with innate ideas. He instructs others while he knows the right
thing to do always.

Epicureanism defined man as the being that hates and avoids pain and chooses to enjoy his
existence.

Sigmund Freud saw man as an embodiment of instincts (libido). The self-controlled man is not the
real one.

Fredrich Nietzsche saw the real man as one that is ruthless, competitive, wicked and without
consideration for the other. A very selfish being.

Man is an irrational being. Anger, hate, malice, bitterness, lawlessness, … is natural with man. (1
Sam. 25 David & Na’bal, …)

Rationalism, the art of reasoning is alien to him. Society has re-worked him and made him a shadow
of himself, says existentialism.
Interiority: is natural with man. He is laughing but actually plotting death. (David & Uriah, Cain &
Abel, …)

Individuality: is a trait inherent in natural man. Cain and Abel, Esau and Jacob, the prodigal and
brother are lone siblings but unique. (behaviour, career, …)

Freedom: is a major attribute of man. He is awake but free to start his day or not. Laws tamper with
his liberty. (John 3:16, the prodigal son, …)

Choice: making is part of the natural man. He may not have been free to determine his nationality,
but free to choose to retain it or change it. (the prodigal son, David being pursued by Saul, being a
student of C.U., …)

Responsibility: is bearing the consequence of choices made. (David forgave Absalom, illegal
immigrant in the U.S., …)

Authenticity: is when man takes his destiny in his hands, designs his own life, writes his own history,
faces challenges but takes steps to overcome challenges. (David & his brothers in the warfront,
Joseph & his brothers before & after their father’s death, …).

Inauthenticity: is man being controlled by others. He bears names since others approve of them –
Belinda, Na’bal, …. He is afraid to exercise his liberty, make choices, take responsibility for outcomes.
He blames others for the outcome of his life.

The real man takes some steps that are surprising to others. Against all odds David accepted
Absalom, David refusing to kill Saul, the prodigal son’s father, king Solomon & 1000 women with his
wise sayings, ….

Anguish: is experienced by man time and again in the form of pain and disappointment resulting
from decisions taken. (Absalom the coup plotter, Uriah's refusal to go home)

Facticity: is the limitedness of man. He did not choose to be created, as infant he enjoyed all the care
but against his desire he grew. As a youth he has all the strength, unending opportunities are
available but as he started manifesting old age knocks at his life. Weakness sets in.

He dies not knowing where to just as he knows not where he came from. An emptiness exists in man
eternally.

Man’s exercise of his freedom by making choices involves a leap of faith. He convinces himself that
the result, consequence will be favourable. Absurd situations are faced hoping that the result will be
positive this time.

Bad faith: is when man decides not to initiate an action, insisting that whatever has been ordained to
happen cannot be changed. (fate, predestination, determinism, …)

The subjective man is committed to act not sure of the result. His freedom and sense of
responsibility towards others pushes him on. He is conscious of others in the world and seeks their
good – sometimes without a reward in view.

Death: for the existentialist is something positive. According to M. Heidegger it is the crowning effect
of man’s existence, it gives meaning to existence.

With death in view, man attempts to make history before exiting. (Guinness book of record, naming
of streets, authorship, family names, …). Man is a being towards death, old enough to die at birth.
J. P. Sartre says death makes life meaningless. Man’s struggles are snatched from him before he
enjoys the proceeds.

What is Life?

What is this life, but a shadow

What is this life, but a dream

What is this life, but a vapor

Which vanishes away.

What is man, that thou art mindful of him? And the son of man, that thou visitest him?....Thou
madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands: thou hast put all things under his
feet:…Psalm 8 :4&6

Sophism sees man at the centre of life. Man gives meaning to life(subjectively).

Socrates defines life around man. To avoid abuse man should know himself(objectively).

Epicureanism defines life as the fullness of pleasure at the disposal of man. “Pleasure is the
principle and the end of a happy life”. For them, change in the universe happens by chance, by the
movement of atoms.

Stoicism defines life as the interaction of God (the active principle) and nature (the passive
principle). To enjoy life man must live a life of abstinence - shun passions, desires, sentiments,
affections.

Existentialism defines life as the blind impulsive will to live. It is the irrational and spontaneous
actions that express life in its fullness. For them life is actions that proceed from undiluted, raw
forms.

For Charles Darwin, life is actualized by survival instincts.

Life for Nietzsche is the manifestation of raw instincts like ruthlessness, display of strength, war
and destruction.

For Sigmund Freud, life is when man is controlled by instincts(libido) and not reason. Life is to be
created by man, man that is driven and controlled by passion. For him, man’s reasoning is limited.

Freedom is a basic condition of human existence. Life is bonded with freedom thus man cannot
abandon it. Life is a tabula rasa, a blank slate, a fresh canvas on which man is free to paint
whatever, that is how to design his destiny.

Man’s awareness of his passions, instincts, strength, et cetera is a connotation of his freedom.
Man’s life and existence is inseparable from freedom which is not acquired but structured into
him.

With life comes freedom, and freedom is closely followed by choices. Choices actualize freedom.
Decisions must be consciously taken so as to impact one’s generation. As a man that exists, man
cannot choose not to choose. Refusal to choose is a choice in itself.

Life is full of anguish which is as a result of man’s reflections on life’s questions that defies any
satisfactory solution. For instance, “what is the meaning and purpose of man’s existence?”, “is
man’s existence a necessity or gratuitous?”, “is the universe aware of my existence?”, - These are
questions still lacking answers. Pascal says as he considers the duration of life, sees himself as a
speck; hence he is frightened.

J.P. Sartre sees man’s anguish as a result of the enormity of freedom and it’s inescapable
responsibility. Sartre says man is abandoned to himself and his freedom in the vast universe with
no help from anywhere. This is the reason for his pain.

Life is defined by limiting factors of human existence. He is thrown into existence without
requesting. He is lost to his past and not sure of his future, yet he is compelled to assume
responsibility.

Life is characterized by finitude. Man’s enormous freedom is limited, for his choice of one action
limits him from another action. Life is defined by death and decay, disappointments, sickness,
disease, sorrow, etc.

Life is defined by man’s powerlessness in the face of the forces of nature. Man is thus carrying
within him an emptiness all life-long. The superman attitude of man is an attempt at filling the
gap.

For St. Augustine, this emptiness is what is responsible for man’s search for the invisible God.

Heidegger defines death as that which confers uniqueness and meaning on human existence. With
death in perspective, man aspires to achieve, to conquer, to make a mark before his exit.

From the moment of birth, man is old enough to die. Death is a way of life for man, he is a being-
towards-death, living every moment of his life towards his death. Death is the final cord that gives
the melody of life meaning.

Sartre defines death as a meaningless absurdity that robs human existence of all meaning. Man’s
coming into being is absurd but much more is his death. Death for him is the door that leads man
to the realm of non-being.

AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

The Egyptians

The Egyptian civilization was developed (had a university, writings seen in caves, embalmed the
dead, constructed pyramids, preserved grains, etc.) Students from Greece and Asia attended Egypt’s
university. The first medical doctor of repute is traced to Egypt, and lived around 2900 B.C.

The concepts “supreme good”, “man know thyself” are translations of Egyptian phrases inscribed on
temple doors. The postulation of Empedocles about the primary substance in creation is said to have
been arrived at in Egypt before his birth.

Ruch and Anyanwu insist Egypt (North Africa) was not Africa in old times but part of the
Mediterranean, Greece and Rome. Inhabitants of Egypt were fair skinned people. Egypt was a trade
route hence she enjoyed most of other people’s cultures – education, socials, economy, etc.

Philosophy in Africa

What is Philosophy - reflection, solving problems, answering knotty questions.

Who philosophizes – humans.

What is the content of philosophy - metaphysics, ethics, logic, epistemology.

Who are the inhabitants of Africa – humans, with inferiority complex.

How did philosophy start in the West – primitive, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary
periods.

Must philosophy be by indigenes – Descartes, Thales, Hegel, Russell, St. Augustine, Tempel, etc.

Methodologies

 Sage philosophy: when men of wisdom propound theories to explain the existence of the
world, the presence of man in the world, essence of morality, etc.

 Ethno-philosophy: the projection of the beliefs and values of a people through the existing
culture.

 Nationalist agitations: Nkrumah’s Consciencism, Senghor’s negritude, Azikiwe’s welfarism,

etc.

Constraints against African Philosophy

 Illiteracy: no record of critical thinking and solutions reached.

 Education: one’s educator projects his culture in teaching to the disadvantage of the pupil –
if both are not from same culture. (assimilation, indirect rule, etc)

 Language: expresses culture. English language cannot adequately express African

expressions.

 Scorers/decision makers: Guinness book of records, FIFA, WHO, UNICEF, (westerners and
their representatives make decisions)

 Inferiority complex: Africans see everything from overseas as good substitutes for hers.
(salutation, dressing, food, job structure)

 Wrong mentality of leaders/the led: Government represent her well, provide all amenities,
acquisition for posterity, lead forever, etc.

LOGIC

Logic is from the Greek word “logos” interpreted “word”.

It is the study of words that make up a statement, sentence, a discourse, etc. E.G.

“I am going to the market”.

Logic is the “vehicle” with which man moves from one idea to another and expresses himself
adequately.

E. g. I enjoy taking care of children, therefore I am going to be a pediatrician.

Logic is concerned with the aim of clarifying arguments, distinguishing good reasoning from bad
reasoning.
Logic is the science of valid reasoning. E.g. farm tools do not include stethoscope, slide rule, mirror,
but tractor, rake, hoe, cutlass etc.

Components of Logic

Inferences: are conclusions arrived at from arguments termed premises. E.g All men are mortals,
(premise1)

Adamu is a man. (premise2)

Therefore, Adamu is a mortal. (inference/conclusion.)

A sentence is tagged proposition in logic.

Relevance of Logic

 Logic guides the human mind in arriving at truth.

 It helps man to engage in a consistent reasoning pattern.

 It helps man to express himself with clarity, precision and certainty.

 Helps to detect faulty reasoning patterns.

 Helps to correct inadequacies in the presentations of others.

Fallacies

A fallacy is an inference made based on an illogical conclusion. A fallacy is making a conclusion with
an intent to deceive.

Types of Fallacies

According to Aristotle there are two types of fallacies:

 Formal fallacy is a formal reasoning pattern with errors.

Informal fallacy is that which is concerned with the content or facts employed in the argument.
These are made up of two types:

 Fallacies of ambiguity are arguments that employ words that change meaning as the
argument progresses.

 Material fallacies sometimes called fallacies of irrelevance are arguments that deliberately
avoid the issue at hand. Ignoring the Question (Argumentum ad Hominem): is when the
point of discussion is intentionally avoided and the person’s character or circumstance is
attacked.

 E.g. Theresa May is not the right candidate for the post of P.M. in U.K

 Because she does not have a child.

Argumentum ad Populum

This involves arguments that are made to involve the emotions of people. It is also called the
“bandwagon fallacy”. It is often employed by politicians, advertisers and propagandists to win the
emotions of their audience instead of arguing to prove their points.
Wise men bank with UBA

Every right thinking person knows that my argument is correct.

Everybody will agree with me.

LG, life’s good.

Join the winning side.

Argumentum ad Verecundiam

This fallacy is committed when one cites an authority in an attempt to sway his audience to either
refute or accept an idea or argument.

The person’s only reason for reaching his conclusion is because “so and so” said it and not because
he has thought about it thoroughly and reached the same conclusion as the person in question.

The stock exchange market is going to boom next year because Prof. Wole Soyinka said so.

Argumentum ad Misericrodian

This fallacy attempts to sway a person by appealing to his emotions. It is common in Law Courts and
when a person is to face sanctions. Examples are:

He stole the money because he lost his father last year.

The mother will die if she hears that he has been rusticated from the university.

He was deformed from birth.

He has never seen the four walls of a school.

Petito Principii

This fallacy comes to bear when the same statement is used both as premise as well as conclusion.
Sometimes the conclusion is accorded a truth in order for one of the premises to be accepted as
truth. e.g.

Atheists are all ignorant,

How are you sure?

Because the Bible says so.

Fallacies of Oversimplification

Faulty generalization: is the fallacy committed when what is observed in an individual is equated to
all others in a group. E.g.

All Ibadan indigenes are uneducated.

False Dilemma

This fallacy occurs when only two alternatives to an issue is presented and made to appear as if that
is all that are available. E. g.

It’s either you write this exam now or never.

Statistical Fallacies

Occur when statistics that are guessed or made up are presented as if they are authentic, or
approximations are presented as if they are precise, etc.

Fallacies of Ambiguity

These are arguments that are formulated with words or phrases or sentences that are vague. These
are intentionally used to confuse and deceive the hearer.

Fallacy of Equivocation

is in place when a word with more than one meaning is used giving rise to confusion.

- better is the end of a thing,

- death is the end of life,

- therefore, death is better than life.

- Every writer needs a pen,

- animals are kept in pens,

- therefore, every writer needs a place for animals.

Amphiboly

This fallacy arises from careless use of grammar. It is when a whole statement, contrasted with words
has more than one meaning. It is the use of words awkwardly or loosely.

- I met the king riding his horse,

- he was looking tired,

- I offered him a bottle of coke.

Fallacy of Accent

Is common in speech. It occurs when a word is stressed instead of another, thereby making a
prohibited item to be permissible.

E.g.

-we can get rid of the Gibeonites,

-we signed an agreement with them,

-They deceived us into it,

-we can kill them then.

Composition

Is when properties that are applicable to individuals are applied to a group.

E.g.
 - Babangida is a “maradona”,

- All leaders from Niger state are “maradonas”.

- Ojukwu was a leader, Azikiwe was a leader, All Igbo men are leaders.

Division

Is the opposite of composition. It is when the attributes of a group are conferred on the individuals.
e. g.

-- All Igbos are businessmen and women.

- All Yorubas serve their soup and swallow together in one bowl.

- All Niger Delta indigenes are militants.

Reification

Is the attempt to make descriptive qualities into real objects. E.g.

- The sunrise is “beautiful”.

- The sunset is “fiery”.

Note: Read on how to detect fallacies, how to avoid committing fallacies, types of sentences in logic,
and laws guiding logic and their types.