vol. 46, n.

° 3, septiembre-diciembre de 2024
ISSN impreso: 0120-0283 ISSN en línea: 2145-8553

Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia

Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks
thermochronology
Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus1, 2* ; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez3 ;
Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez4
1
Ingeniería de Rocas y Suelos S.A.S.; Medellín, Colombia. (*) [email protected]
2
Escuela de Ciencias Aplicadas e Ingeniería, Universidad EAFIT, Medellín, Colombia.
3
Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia.
[email protected]
4
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia. [email protected]

Abstract
Fission-track dating and thermochronology have been used to assess the low-thermal history of
some plutonic rocks intruded into the Antioquia Eastern Massif as defined by Gerardo Botero. These
techniques enable us to gain a better understanding of the orogenic process that shaped the northern
Colombian Central Cordillera. Samples were collected from the Antioqueño Batholith, Sonsón
Batholith, and the smaller igneous bodies: La Unión, San Diego, Altavista and Ovejas, all intruded
during the Late Cretaceous. Zircon fission track ages vary from 46.4±1.1 Ma to 64.0±1.3 Ma. Mean
track lengths are very homogeneous, with variations from 13.9±1.6 µm to 14.6±1.3 µm. The results
of thermal annealing modeling carried out with the AFTSolve program show three main segments: 1)
Significant decrease in temperature from 240°C to ~50°C in the middle to late Eocene at maximum
cooling rates of 50°C/Ma; 2) A period of thermal stability extending into the Middle Miocene; and
3) a final cooling segment through to surface temperature (20°C) at cooling rates of about 4°C/Ma.
Results were interpreted as coincident with the Pre-Andean (middle Eocene) and the Eu-Andean
(late Miocene-Pliocene) orogenies. This last pulse is related to the recent orogeny that exhumed
the analyzed samples, occurring between 3 and 5 Ma ago, interpreted as the maximum time for
the formation of the “Central Cordillera” erosion surface and its subsequent superimposed relief.
The intermediate quiescent period did not record the Oligocene Proto-Andean orogeny. The tectonic
phases produced episodes of uplift and denudational response at maximum rates of 2000 and
160 m/ Ma, respectively, using an assumed geothermal gradient of 25ºC/km.

Keywords: Morphogenesis; Andean orogeny; Antioqueño Plateau.

Levantamiento y denudación del Macizo Oriental Antioqueño (Colombia) a

partir de termocronología por huellas de fisión
Resumen
Hemos utilizado dataciones y análisis termocronológicos por huellas de fisión para evaluar la historia
del enfriamiento de algunas rocas plutónicas emplazadas en el Macizo Oriental Antioqueño definido
por Gerardo Botero. Estas técnicas permiten aproximarnos al entendimiento del proceso orogénico
que dio forma al actual segmento norte de la Cordillera Central de Colombia. Las muestras usadas
provienen del Batolito Antioqueño, del Batolito de Sonsón y de los stocks de La Unión, San Diego,

How to cite: Saenz-Mateus, E.A.; Paucar-Álvarez, C.G.; Restrepo-Álvarez, J.J. (2024). Uplift and denudation
of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology. Boletín de Geología,
46(3), 205-227. https://doi.org/10.18273/revbol.v46n3-2024009
205
 Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology

Altavista, Ovejas, todos emplazados durante el Cretácico tardío. Las edades en circones varían entre 46,4±1,1 Ma
y 64,0±1,3 Ma. Las longitudes medias de las trazas son muy homogéneas, con variaciones de 13,9±1,6 µm a
14,6±1,3 µm. Los resultados del modelado de recocido térmico realizado con el programa AFTSolve muestran tres
segmentos principales: 1) disminución significativa de la temperatura de 240°C a ~50°C en el Eoceno medio a tardío
a velocidades máximas de enfriamiento de 50°C/Ma; 2) un periodo de estabilidad térmica que se extiende hasta el
Mioceno medio; y 3) un segmento final de enfriamiento hasta la temperatura superficial (20°C) a velocidades de
enfriamiento de unos 4°C/Ma. Los resultados se interpretan como coincidentes con las orogenias Preandina (Eoceno
medio) y Euandina (Mioceno tardío-Plioceno). La última orogenia, que exhumó las muestras analizadas, se produjo
hace 3-5 Ma, edad que se interpreta como la máxima para la formación de la superficie de erosión “Cordillera
Central” y su relieve sobreimpuesto. El periodo de quiescencia intermedio no registró la orogenia Protoandina del
Oligoceno. Estas fases tectónicas produjeron episodios de levantamiento y respuesta denudativa a tasas máximas de
2000 y 160 m/Ma respectivamente, utilizando un gradiente geotérmico supuesto de 25ºC/km.

Palabras clave: Morfogénesis; Orogenia andina; Meseta antioqueña.

Introduction al., 2006; Restrepo et al., 2011; Villagómez et al.,

2011), intruded by intermediate to acidic Mesozoic
Twenty years ago, the master thesis “Fission track plutons (Aspden et al., 1987; Restrepo and Toussaint,
thermochronology and denudational response to 1990; Leal-Mejía, 2011). This massif represents the
tectonics in the north of the Colombian Central northern segment of the Tahamí allochthonous terrane
Cordillera” (Saenz, 2003), was written. A pioneering (Restrepo and Toussaint, 2020) bounded at the western
research for thermochronological studies in the flank by ultrabasic rocks with ophiolitic characteristics
Colombian Andes and a good starting point for many obducted during Triassic times (e. g., Aspden and
subsequent studies. This thesis was never published, McCourt, 1986; Bourgois et al., 1987; García-Casco et
but it has always been a reference for subsequent al., 2020; Ibáñez-Mejía et al., 2020), and limited to the
works, so we believe that its presence in this special east by the Chibcha Terrane of continental basement
bulletin is justified and pertinent. and oceanic sedimentary cover. Thin Cretaceous
marine sedimentary sequences and Neogene detritic
In recent years, there have been new and rocks overlie small areas of the metamorphic and
important contributions to the knowledge of both igneous basement. In Figure 2, we only show the
thermochronology and the exhumation of the area studied igneous bodies surrounded by the metamorphic
now called “Antioqueño Plateau” (e. g. Toro et al., basement and the other units.
2006; Montes-Correa, 2007; Restrepo-Moreno, 2009;
Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009; Villagómez-Díaz, This research was focused in the Late Cretaceous
2010; Noriega-Londoño, 2016; Noriega-Londoño intrusives (mainly granodiorites) of which we highlight
et al., 2020). Reading these articles is essential for the Antioqueño Batholith (Feininger and Botero, 1982),
understanding the evolution of ideas after this work. whose large area (7221 km2), geochronological and
In addition, new geochronological and geochemical geochemical variations suggest it is the superposition
data have contributed to the knowledge of geological of different magmas (Leal-Mejía, 2011). Their ages
evolution prior to the formation of the relief. For obtained through different methods, vary throughout
example, data provided by works such as those of the Late Cretaceous and even the Paleocene (e. g.,
Restrepo et al. (2011), Villagómez et al. (2011), Restrepo et al., 2007; Ordóñez et al., 2008; Leal-
García-Casco et al. (2020), Ibáñez-Mejía et al. (2020), Mejía, 2011; Villagómez et al., 2011). However, for
and others are fundamental to our understanding. practical purposes, in this research we will continue to
use the term Batholith.
Geological and Geomorphological Framework
Other intrusives studied include small stocks near
Geological Setting the Antioqueño Batholith, like Altavista, San Diego,
The study area is the Antioquia Eastern Massif (north Ovejas, La Unión, and Sonsón, all of them with Late
of the Colombian Central Cordillera), shown in Cretaceous ages (e. g., Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2001;
Figure 1, which is composed mostly of metamorphic Correa et al., 2006) except for the Sonsón Batholith
rocks originated in different pre-cretaceous episodes with Paleocene to Early Eocene ages (Leal-Mejía,
(e. g. Restrepo and Toussaint, 1982; Vinasco et 2011).

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Figure 1. Study area. After SIGAC (2017).

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Figure 2. Geological setting. Plutonic units studied (green color) surrounded by undifferenced metamorphic complex (gray color).

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 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Colombian Andes Uplift Local morpho-tectonic features

The great geological differences among the Colombian To understand the uplift and denudation events that have
cordilleras and their complex geotectonic evolution, affected the study area, it is also necessary to understand
as indicated by the exotic terranes theory, suggest a the “landscape registers” of the geological events.
non-homogeneous uplift of the Colombian Andes. For Antioquia Eastern Massif comprises mostly highlands of
example, the Eastern Cordillera exists as a continuous low relief, which can be recognized as different erosion-
emerged mountain range only from between 11.8 surface levels or etchplains separated by erosional scarp
and 12.9 Ma ago (e. g. Hoorn et al., 1995), whereas slopes and cut by deep canyons. The staggered relief of
sediments from an uplifted Central Cordillera have the northern Central Cordillera is a record of the uplift
been deposited only since Maastrichtian times (Van process, which can be subdivided into several rapid
der Hammen, 1958). In a complex compressive phases that generated the regional erosional scarp slopes
tectonic setting such as the Colombian Andes, several and some deep canyons (Page and James, 1981; Arias-
differential or “block uplifts” may have occurred, with López, 1995; Toro et al., 2007). Quiescent phases of
different intensities and timing. extremely low tectonic activity occurred in between the
uplift phases. These allowed erosion surfaces to develop
The main constraints on the paleogeographic along with etchplanation near sea level (Büdell, 1982 in
evolution of the Colombian cordilleras have been Migon, 2006).
provided by stratigraphic and paleontological studies,
especially palynology. Few radiometric data have This framework allows development of a landscape “relief
been used in the discussion, and geomorphologic stratigraphy” in which the main geomorphological features
features are poorly understood and have not been are associated with differential denudation processes
linked to the tectonic setting. that affect the surface in distinct way during episodes of
tectonic activity and quiescence. An approximation of the
The first published ideas on the Colombian Andean location of these features is shown in Figure 3 and their
orogeny (Oppenheim, 1941; Van der Hammen, main characteristics are described below.
1958), concern the stratigraphic studies of the
Eastern Cordillera. Van der Hammen concluded that Undefined remnants (pre S-I): The oldest flat erosive
tectonic “orogenetic movements” took place from remnants in the Antioquia Eastern Massif are small
the beginning of the Maastrichtian and continued at areas on the top of the highest mountains. They form
intervals during the Paleogene and Neogene. This a discontinuous belt over the western side of the study
gradually shaped the actual form and structure of the area at altitudes between 3000 and 3150 m. Traditionally
Colombian Andes. Table 1 shows the separate phases these have been interpreted as remnants of a poorly
and subphases into which Van der Hammen divides preserved etchplain, which has had prolonged exposure
the Andean orogeny from correlations between to denudation. Page and James (1981) called it Pre-
stratigraphic information and palynological analysis. Cordillera Central erosion surface or Pre-S-I and Arias-
López (1995) termed it Ancient Highland. However, due
Although the question remains open, as to whether to the differences in altitude between the isolated flat
Van der Hammen’s approaches are common to the areas and the high local tectonic activity, it is not clear
Central and Eastern cordilleras, subsequent regional whether they were all formed during the same quiescence/
evolution models (e. g., Irving, 1975; Restrepo and denudation morphogenetic episode. Thus, the name of
Toussaint, 2020) have introduced few variations to "Undefined Remnants" for this set of morphological units
Van der Hammen’s model. has been suggested (Rendón, 2003).
Table 1. Tectonic orogenic phases of the Colombian Andes as described by Van der Hammen.
Tectonic Phase Epoch Subphases
IV - Base of the Pliocene
III - Base of the Tortonian
Eu Andean Miocene and Pliocene
II - Base of the Middle Miocene
I – Base of the Lower Miocene
Proto Andean Base of the Upper Oligocene
II – Base of the Middle Eocene
Pre Andean Lower and Mid. Eocene
I – Base of the Lower Eocene

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Figure 3. Main morphogenetic unis on the Antioquia Eastern Massif. After Page and James (1981).

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 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Cordillera Central erosion surface (S-I): This feature tectonic movements. The Medellin-Porce River and
occurs as low and rounded flat-topped mountains Nus River canyons stand out in the study area. The
and hills which are wider and better preserved near former is especially interesting, since it contains a
the range axis. Page and James (1981) called it the peculiar tectonic anomaly (Hermelin, 1982) called
Cordillera Central erosion surface or S-I and Arias- Aburrá Valley, probably with an associated pull-apart
López (1995) the Intermediate Highland. These genesis (Rendón, 2003).
authors differ in their views about the pertinence of the
wide Rio Negro area to this surface. Page and James Fission-track Methods
(1981) considered that it corresponds to a different
etchplain (S-II), while Arias-López (1995) regarded Apatite Fission Tracks Analyses
it as part of the Intermediate Highland. Although we Fission track analyses have proved to be a successful
support the first theory, this question remains a matter and sensitive thermochronometer to reconstruct the
of debate among specialists. thermal histories of the geologic units studied. This
technique is widely known in the literature as AFTT
Rio Negro erosion surface (S-II): The Rio Negro or (Apatite fission track thermochronology) and reports
S-II erosion surface appears as accordant rounded and the trajectory of the sample between the time it passed
flat-topped hills dissected by short streams, located through the 110±10°C isotherm (normally the upper
200 to 400 m below the Cordillera Central erosion 4 km of the crust) and the surface. AFTT reveals
surface, and better preserved (Page and James, 1981). the magnitude and timing of each thermal episode.
Understanding of their nature and causes are the keys
Northeastern erosion surface: This etchplain was for any geological interpretation. Reheating over
defined by Arias-López (1995) in the northeast of the 120°C completely anneals the tracks, and the thermal
study area. He named it the Inferior Highland and history path shows information only about the last
divided it in three segments: Carolina-Gomez Plata, cooling. Overheating below 110°C can be detected,
Anorí, and Amalfi-Yolombó highlands. It forms flat although the accuracy of those trends is poorer than
to rounded hills at an altitude of about 1500 m, with in the case of simple cooling episodes (Gleadow and
eastward dip. Brown, 1999). Therefore, the AFTT records cooling
and quiescence episodes, most of which correspond to
Erosional scarp slopes: After each surface erosion tectonic disturbances and their denudational responses.
uplift, the denudation process began to act over it.
Denudation is initially more intense on the edges and Thermal histories modelling
gradually destroys the uplifted terrane to form a new Modeling of time-Temperature paths of five samples
erosion surface. While that process is being conducted, from the Antioqueño Batholith and one sample
an intermediate zone forms between the newly created from the Sonsón Batholith was carried out using the
surface and the older one. That zone is an erosional AFTSolve (version 1.2.2© 2001 Donelick Analytical,
scarp slope, at which there are deep streams, steep Inc. and Richard A. Ketcham) program which provides
slopes, and older remnants, among others features of thermal histories considering the variability of apatite
highly active denudation landscapes. In the study area fission tracks annealing kinetics (Carlson et al., 1999;
at least two of them can be recognized between the Donelick et al., 1999; Ketcham et al., 1999). To run
above noted erosion surfaces. it, for each grain used it was necessary to input: age,
standard deviation, track length, angle with the c-axis,
High-active erosion escarpments (Cauca and and Cl content.
Magdalena): The largest Colombian intermontane
streams are the Cauca River, which separates the The annealing model (multikinetic), the kinetic
Western and Central Cordilleras, and the Magdalena parameter (Cl), the modeling scheme (Montecarlo),
River, which divides the Central and Eastern the half segments (i. e., divisions of the t-T paths, 5),
Cordilleras. Between their axis and the erosion surface and the number of paths to generate randomly (30000)
edges there are intensive denudation flanks and erosion were selected. The AFTSolve program takes each
escarpments. candidate t-T path and generates its respective track-
length distribution, which is compared to the measured
Intermontane Canyons: Sharp and deep canyons cut the distribution. The goodness of fit was evaluated with
older erosion surfaces and the etchplain escarpments. the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) statistical test, which
This development is associated with denudation and determines the probability that a set of samples taken

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 Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology

randomly from the known distribution would have a 50%. The goodness of fit for the age (Age GOF) is
greater maximum separation from it on a cumulative determined in an analogous way, if the measured age
distribution function plot (an ordering of track lengths) and standard deviation describe a normal distribution.
than is observed for the sample distribution being Again, the limit of statistical precision is 50% (Age
tested. GOF=0.5).

AFTSolve solutions present a best-fit t-T path with two Samples

envelopes, the wider envelope in green (acceptable
fit) contains all t-T paths that have a K-S of at least Nineteen samples from plutonic rocks were collected
0.05 (5%), and the second purple envelope (good fit) and analyzed. These were taken from insitu outcrops
marks the limit of statistical precision, containing all of roads and rivers to obtain non-altered material.
t-T paths that have a merit function value of at least Table 2 and Figure 2 show their position.

Table 2. Sample’s location.

Latitude Longitude
Code Geological body Description Altit. (m)
North East
Antioqueño Coarse-grained hornblende-biotite-granodiorite
AB-1 6º32’16’’ 75º04’43’’ 1025
batholith with phaneritic texture
Antioqueño Coarse-grained biotite-granodiorite with seriate
AB-2 6º33’12’’ 74º47’28’’ 980
batholith texture
Antioqueño Coarse-grained biotite-granodiorite with
AB-3 6º30’48’’ 74º54’48’’ 870
batholith phaneritic texture
Antioqueño Coarse-grained biotite-hornblende-granodiorite
AB-4 6º39’58’’ 75º13’31’’ 1850
batholith with seriate inequigranular and graphic textures
Antioqueño Coarse-grained biotite-hornblende tonalite with
AB-5 6º27’30’’ 75º18’18’’ 1280
batholith phaneritic texture
Antioqueño Coarse-grained hornblende-biotite granodiorite
AB-6 6º58’36’’ 75º26’13’’ 2100
batholith with seriate inequigranular texture
Antioqueño Coarse-grained biotite-granodiorite hiatal
AB-7 6º48’05’’ 75º13’15’’ 1027
batholith inequigranular texture
Coarse-grained biotite-hornblende
Antioqueño
AB-8 granodiorite with large grains, most of them of 6º44’14’’ 75º35’55’’ 2650
batholith
hypidiomorphic texture
Antioqueño Coarse-grained hornblende-biotite granodiorite
AB-9 6º24’40’’ 75º24’40’’ 1500
batholith Locally shows myrmekitic and flow textures
Antioqueño Coarse-grained biotite-granodiorite with seriate
AB-10 6º37’08’’ 75º09’24’’ 1050
batholith inequigranular texture
Coarse-grained hornblende granodiorite with
Antioqueño
AB-11 granophyric, local myrmekitic and graphic 6º02’41’’ 75º00’09’’ 1075
batholith
textures
Antioqueño Coarse-grained monzogranite with seriate
AB-12 6º13’31’’ 75º09’00’’ 1950
batholith inequigranular texture
Coarse-grained biotite-hornblende tonalite
Antioqueño
AB-13 Alteration is common as well as fractures due to 6º30’53’’ 75º24’53’’ 2200
batholith
weathering
Antioqueño Coarse-grained hornblende granodiorite with
AB-14 6º30’06’’ 75º13’35’’ 1900
batholith seriate grain distribution
Sonsón Coarse-grained hornblende-biotite granodiorite
SB-1 5º46’10’’ 75º18’05’’ 2250
batholith with phaneritic inequigranular texture

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 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Continued Table 2.
Latitude Longitude
Code Geological body Description Altit. (m)
North East
Coarse-grained biotite tonalite with alteration
US-1 La Unión Stock 5º56’00’’ 75º18’25’’ 2420
and tectonic texture
SD-1 San Diego Stock Pegmatitic hornblende gabbro 6º13’02’’ 75º33’38’’ 1850
Fine-grained granodiorite with inequigranular
AV-1 Altavista Stock 6º12’23’’ 75º40’13’’ 1840
texture
OS-1 Ovejas Stock Coarse-grained biotite-granodiorite 6º21’56’’ 75º36’16’’ 2450

Results with a value of 374.36±4.76, weighted according to

uncertainties on six individual z-values. Zircon ages
Zircons Fission Tracks dating are summarized in Table 3 as central ages (Galbraith
The external detector method for fission track dating and Laslett, 1993) with a ±1σ error. Information
was followed in this project. Analyses were made displayed in the tables also includes the densities of
using a geometry factor of 1/2, and the chi-squared the spontaneous (ρs), induced (ρi) and glass monitor
(x2) test was applied to determine the degree to which (ρM) tracks. Ns, Ni and NM are the number of tracks
individual grain ages belong to a simple population age counted. The software TrackKey version 4.1® (Dunkl,
(Galbraith, 1981). The ages were determined using the 2002), was used for data processing.
zeta (ζ) calibration method (Hurford and Green, 1983)

Table 3. Zircon Fission Track Ages.

Spont. tracks Ind. tracks Glass monitor Central
P(x2)
Sample No. of crystals ρs ρi ρd age±1σ
Ns Ni Nd %
(105 cm-2) (105 cm-2) (104 cm-2) (Ma)
AB-1 20 30.81 9875 18.08 5795 15.28 6683 23.6 46.4±1.1
AB-2 16 54.88 9955 27.78 5039 15.28 6683 21.7 53.8±1.2
AB-3 21 38.03 5343 21.42 3009 15.28 6683 96.2 48.3±1.2
AB-4 19 35.35 13953 18.41 7266 15.28 6683 27.7 52.3±1.0
AB-5 23 35.64 7081 20.48 4070 15.28 6683 95.8 47.4±1.1
AB-6 14 50.26 20248 21.26 8566 15.28 6683 6.3 64.0±1.3
AB-7 19 47.20 11867 20.14 5064 15.28 6683 98.7 63.7±1.3
AB-8 20 54.74 10849 26.62 5277 15.28 6683 17.0 55.9±1.2
AB-9 21 46.03 18753 24.49 9979 15.28 6683 37.8 51.1±0.9
AB-10 21 33.10 10384 16.45 5160 15.28 6683 77.6 54.7±1.2
AB-11 13 51.11 6537 22.49 2876 15.28 6683 90.6 61.8±1.6
AB-12 16 56.17 9004 27.54 4414 15.28 6683 73.4 55.5±1.2
AB-13 20 40.93 8367 26.60 5437 18.85 7659 92.9 51.7±1.1
AB-14 20 43.15 11426 24.80 6566 15.28 6683 33.5 47.4±0.9
SB-1 22 44.77 15713 25.13 8822 15.28 6683 12.6 48.6±1.0
US-1 21 120.80 5643 56.70 2648 15.28 6683 24.8 58.0±1.7
SD-1 7 61.02 7121 28.05 3273 15.28 6683 36.3 59.3±1.5
AV-1 7 178.90 4151 103.40 2398 18.85 7659 13.6 58.5±2.0
OS-1 20 72.04 12088 34.22 5742 15.28 6683 98.1 57.3±1.2

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All zircon data pass the P(x2)-test at the 5% criterion, The analyses were made with an electron probe
indicating that the variability in the track count data microanalyser (EPMA) JEOL JXA-8800, using
is limited to the inherent variability of the fission carbon coating, accelerating voltage of 15 kV, probe
decay process. Nineteen samples have Paleogene ages current 2.5x10-8 A and a probe diameter of 20 μm.
ranging from 46.4±1.1 Ma to 64.0±1.3 Ma. Durango apatite was used as a standard to determine
the fluorine content, and chlorine-rich potassium
Thermal history analyses hastingsite from Ongul Island (Suwa et al., 1987)
Time-temperature (T-t) paths were generated for the six was used to determine the chlorine content. The other
representative samples shown in Figure 5 to Figure 10. major chemical components of the apatites were
They were generated between two constrained points: determined using synthetic standards. The results for
the present surface temperature at 20°C, and the zircon each sample are summarized in Table 4, showing the
fission track age, which has a closure temperature of average, maximum and minimum value in wt% for
240±50°C (e. g., Hurford, 1986). its major components, taking into account the generic
composition Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl).
For thermal history analysis, only the use of apatites is
applicable. Unfortunately, not all the samples contained Chlorine content (Cl wt%) was the kinetic parameter
enough confined tracks for the length measurements
employed to determine the difference in annealing
studies, only nine samples had suitable apatites for
resistance due to its negligible variations within
measurement. Of these, six samples were modeled.
samples; this can be appreciated in the CaO vs Cl
Chemical Composition: To determine the variability (Figure 4) variation diagrams. The kinetic population
of the annealing kinetics and evaluate the dependency used in each analysis is the arithmetic mean of
of single grain age and length distribution on the the individual measurements per sample. Fluorine
chemical variation, the chemical composition was contents are much greater than chlorine and display
determined both for each grain where a confined track wider variation.
was detected, and for each grain where the age was
calculated.

Table 4. Chemical composition of the analyzed apatites (wt%).

Sample # of Grains Na2O SiO2 Al2O3 CaO FeO Cl F P 2O 5 Total

Average 0.070 0.012 0.007 51.499 0.027 0.127 3.661 41.611 97.015
AB-1 60 Max 0.389 0.150 0.066 53.399 0.105 0.294 3.852 43.075 99.119
Min 0.009 0.000 0.000 48.406 0.000 0.086 3.485 39.504 93.071
Average 0.041 0.048 0.004 51.791 0.040 0.220 3.657 42.051 97.845
AB-6 83 Max 0.179 0.130 0.041 53.896 0.149 0.676 3.799 43.011 99.771
Min 0.000 0.000 0.000 49.668 0.000 0.151 3.476 39.984 93.636
Average 0.089 0.083 0.007 50.733 0.121 0.610 3.586 41.403 96.682
AB-7 82 Max 0.152 0.267 0.090 53.265 0.282 0.918 3.797 42.614 99.136
Min 0.029 0.000 0.000 48.063 0.013 0.413 3.303 38.511 91.992
Average 0.036 0.088 0.005 52.414 0.024 0.129 3.660 41.031 97.388
AB-9 52 Max 0.140 0.176 0.040 54.607 0.083 0.259 4.290 42.340 100.661
Min 0.000 0.000 0.000 48.325 0.000 0.019 2.601 37.228 90.274
Average 0.037 0.160 0.014 51.520 0.042 0.392 3.569 41.433 97.167
AB-13 92 Max 0.443 0.684 0.250 54.430 0.170 0.502 3.806 43.519 101.724
Min 0.000 0.007 0.000 44.911 0.000 0.210 2.758 35.036 84.129
Average 0.084 0.111 0.003 51.328 0.067 0.166 3.673 41.593 97.025
SB-1 73 Max 0.349 0.359 0.027 52.239 0.159 0.405 3.974 42.427 98.192
Min 0.010 0.000 0.000 48.507 0.000 0.092 3.112 39.395 93.178

214 Boletín de Geología - vol. 46, n.° 3

 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Figure 4. Harker diagram showing variation of Cl according to CaO (wt%).

Thermal history modeling: The thermal history figures Determination of the denudation rates: According
are schematically complemented with U-Pb zircon with the local geotectonic history, the non-linear thermal
ages of 82±8 to 98±27 Ma for the Antioqueño Batholith histories of the samples (Figure 5 to Figure 10) are a
(Ordóñez-Carmona and Pimentel, 2001) and 73±9 direct consequence of the denudation and uplift processes
to 55.8±1.0 Ma for the Sonsón Batholith (Ordóñez- that affected the study area. Estimation of denudation
Carmona et al., 2001; Leal-Mejía, 2011). An additional rates based on apatite fission track thermochronology
constraint is given by K/Ar-biotite ages for samples is a long-term approach. A complete study to define
AB-7, AB-13, and SB-1. Samples from the same sites rates of erosion and uplift requires interdisciplinary
as those in this study were dated with that method, research that also would include tectonics, stratigraphy,
yielding respective ages of 70.6±3.1 Ma to 80.8±3 Ma geomorphology, geophysics, low- temperature
(Botero-Arango, 1963; Pérez-Ángel, 1967). These thermochronometers (e. g. as cosmogenic rays) and
data were recalculated using constants of Steiger and numerical modeling. The solutions presented herein are
Jager (1977). K/Ar-biotite dating represents a closure only a part of such work.
temperature of 300±50°C (Hurford, 1986).
Conversion of cooling rates to denudation rates requires
Modeling of the six samples (Figure 5 to Figure 10) knowledge of the geothermal gradient over time and the
generated segmented time-temperature histories of geological environment in which the samples cooled.
similar shapes, characterized by marked decrease in Denudation rates are here calculated from the ratio Cooling
temperature at the beginning of the cooling path, a rate/Geothermal gradient, which provides a long-scale
stage of thermal stability, and final cooling until the solution for the different segments of the cooling paths
surface temperature. These paths have been derived revealed by the apatite fission track annealing model.
of homogeneous mean-track lengths, which vary
from 13.9±1.6 µm to 14.6±1.3 µm, ss shown in the No information on heat flow or temperature variations with
histogram that accompanies each of the cooling curves. depth is available for the study area, therefore a sensitivity
Characteristics of the model generated for each sample analysis was performed. Table 5 lists the denudation rates
are described below. calculated according to the different geothermal gradients
that could be expected (20, 25, 30 and 35°C/km).

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 Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology

Figure 5. T-t path for sample AB-1.

Figure 6. T-t path for sample AB-6. Here the software did not find an area of good fit.

216 Boletín de Geología - vol. 46, n.° 3

 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Figure 7. T-t path for sample AB-7.

Figure 8. T-t path for sample AB-9.

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 Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology

Figure 9. T-t path for sample AB-13.

Figure 10. T-t path for sample SB-1.

218 Boletín de Geología - vol. 46, n.° 3

 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Table 5. Denudation rates according to the geothermal gradient.

Stages of constant cooling Denudation rate (m/Ma)
Sample Beginning End Cooling rate Using Using Using Using
(Ma) (Ma) (°C/Ma) 20°C/km 25°C/km 30°C/km 35°C/km
46.4 43 50.0 2500 2000 1667 1429
43 34 3.1 155 124 103 89
AB-1 34 22 0 0 0 0 0
22 12 2.0 100 80 67 57
12 5 0.3 15 12 10 9
64 48 11.5 575 460 383 329
48 41 2.6 130 104 87 74
AB-6 41 17 0 0 0 0 0
17 5 1.1 55 44 37 31
5 0 0 0 0 0 0
63.7 53 5 250 200 167 143
53 35.5 2.3 115 92 77 66
AB-7 35.5 32 25.4 1270 1016 847 726
32 12 0.1 5 4 3 3
12 3 2.7 135 108 90 77
51.1 37 11.0 550 440 367 314
AB-9 37 9 1.4 70 56 47 40
9 0 2.7 135 108 90 77
51.7 43 23.4 1170 936 780 669
43 34 1.7 85 68 57 49
AB-13 34 20 0 0 0 0 0
20 8 0.8 40 32 27 23
8 3 4.0 200 160 133 114
48.6 38 18.0 900 720 600 514
38 27 1.2 60 48 40 34
SB-1
27 12 0 0 0 0 0
12 4 2.1 105 84 70 60

Discussion ages are not dependent on surface processes such as

denudation or block faulting.
Interpretation of Zircon FT ages
All Zircon FT dates show statistical homogeneity Instead, it is apparent that the younger ages are in the
and can be interpreted as cooling ages, indicating the center of the body, and ages increase gradually toward
time at which the sample passed through its closure the edges of the pluton, as shown in Figure 12 from a
temperature, estimated to be about 240°±50°C (e. g., simple linear interpolation done by the Surfer software,
Hurford, 1986). with the equal age band. This suggests that the zircon
fission track ages are linked to normal conductive heat
The Antioqueño Batholith occupies most of the loss of the Antioqueño Batholith, following a radial
study area, and the 14 ages determined range from pattern from inside outwards, between early Paleocene
46.4±1.1 Ma to 64.0±1.3 Ma. A plot of these data and middle Eocene. This relaxed setting could result
against their present altitude (Figure 11) shows that from two causes: a tectonically undisturbed quiescent
there is no relationship between the zircon FT ages and period or a slow and homogeneous surface uplift of the
topographic position of the samples. Therefore, these mountain range during those times.

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 Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology

For the other plutons studied, statistical homogeneity Zircon FT ages of the Ovejas (57.3±1.2 Ma), San
of the data and topographic independence of the ages Diego (59.3±1.5 Ma), Altavista (58.5±2.0 Ma) and La
is also clear. The zircon FT age of 48.6±1.0 Ma for the Union (58.0±1.7 Ma) stocks are similar, with values
Sonsón batholith is the youngest of the studied plutons. close to the average age of the Antioqueño Batholith.
That sample was collected from the northern edge of Interpretation in terms of cooling ages is difficult, since
the pluton, and thus could represent the endpoint of the small size of these units would permit faster heat
the zircon fission track decay system of that unit. This loss relative to the main Antioqueño Batholith body.
date supports that the Sonsón Batholith is somewhat
younger than the Antioqueño Batholith (Ordóñez-
Carmona et al., 2001; Leal-Mejía, 2011).

Figure 11. Variation of zircon FT age relative to the elevation of the sample.

Figure 12. Distribution and variation of zircon FT ages in the Antioqueño Batholith.

220 Boletín de Geología - vol. 46, n.° 3

 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Interpretation of the thermal history modeling a quiescent period that allowed subsidence and marine
The t-T paths generated herein (Figure 5 to Figure 10) transgression. During the late Eocene, these sites received
are strongly linked to those orogenic phases, especially sediments from the Central Cordillera (e. g., Anderson,
to those which occurred during the middle Eocene, late 1972), until interruption by the Oligocene uplift (proto-
Miocene, and Pliocene. The Oligocene phase (proto- Andean orogeny).
Andean) was not captured by the apatite fission track
thermochronology modeling probably because the The middle Miocene and Pliocene epochs are times of
intensity and duration of that episode was insufficient to major uplift phases in the building of the Colombian Andes
affect the track length distribution, or simply because the and other regions of the world. One of the peaks of the
uplift produced in the study area during Oligocene was Eu-Andean orogeny coincides with the major worldwide
negligible. Paleogeographic models at that time (e. g., NH3 hiatus dated at 12.9 to 11.8 Ma (Keller and Barron,
Villamil, 1999) suggest stronger southern uplift and 1987), and with dramatic paleogeographic changes in the
northern collapse of the Central Cordillera. The study history of the northern Andes (e. g., Hoorn et al., 1995).
area is located near the midway point; thus, the second Other peaks could support the idea for final closure of the
explanation may be more appropriate. In any case, it must Panama isthmus between 7 and 3.1 Ma (Duque-Caro,
be emphasized that apatite AFTT is an isolated tool that 1990). The Eu-Andean orogeny is well represented in the
should be used in conjunction with many other disciplines generated cooling paths; however, this case, there is no
to derive accurate models for the Andes development. trend in relation with the deformation front (Figure 13).

For all t-T paths generated, the stronger cooling episode Implications for the local geomorphology
shows marked coincidence with the pre-Andean The late Miocene to Pliocene Eu-Andean orogeny
orogeny, which reached its climaz in the middle Eocene. brought all samples to the surface temperature (20°C)
This uplift caused a pronounced regional angular between 5 and 3 Ma according to the best-fit line.
unconformity in the Magdalena Valley and Eastern However, considering the 50% goodness of fit (the
Cordillera, with an important decrease in the regional limit of the statistical precision), exhumation could
accommodation space (e. g., Duque-Caro, 1980). The have occurred after the last 11 Ma. These ages can be
presence of isolated pockets of molasse units in the interpreted as maximums for the formation of the current
Magdalena Valley (such as the Pocará and Hoyón geomorphological features of the Antioquia Eastern
Formations) derived from the Central Cordillera suggest Massif.
an accelerated uplift rate of this Cordillera during the
middle Eocene orogenic event (Villamil, 1999). The late Miocene-Pliocene ages determined here
contradict those proposed by Page and James (1981).
Eastward migration of the Eastern Cordillera depocenter Based on indirect extrapolations of 14C and paleomagnetic
during the middle Eocene suggests that the deformation data combined with geomorphological observations,
front of the orogeny propagated eastward, affecting the those authors suggest a late Oligocene or early Miocene
western regions more abruptly than the eastern side age for the S-I erosion surface.
(Villamil, 1999). The t-T paths modeled also confirm this
observation. A plot of the cooling paths from west to east The prolonged period of stability between the late Eocene
shows that the western samples cooled earlier than the and the middle Miocene revealed by the cooling paths,
eastern ones. Figure 13 clearly shows such migration must have allowed a prolonged planation. The resultant
in relation to the climax of the pre-Andean phase. The erosion surface after that planation was uplifted during
westernmost sample (AB-6) was affected by an earlier the Eu-Andean orogeny and was destroyed by the
pulse before the orogenic peak, whereas the easternmost intense climatic and tectonic activity which followed.
sample (AB-7) registered the uplift almost 15 Ma later. The question if the highest geomorphologic expressions
The relation among these samples is only erosive, as they that crop out in the study area (termed here undefined
belong to the same tectonic block and lack intervening remnants) were formed during that planation period, or
faults that could obscure the analysis. if they are the result of isolated uplifted blocks, must
be solved with additional information, problem also
After the pre-Andean orogeny, the sedimentary record addressed by Noriega-Londoño et al. (2020).
of the Magdalena Valley and Eastern Cordillera record

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 Uplift and denudation of the Antioquia Eastern Massif (Colombia) from fission-tracks thermochronology

Figure 13. Relation between the generated t-T paths and the orogenic phases.

222 Boletín de Geología - vol. 46, n.° 3

 Edgar Alland Saenz-Mateus; Carlos Guillermo Paucar-Álvarez; Jorge Julián Restrepo-Álvarez

Comparison with subsequent work late Miocene to Pliocene orogenic phase. The western
The data obtained in this study are in reasonable samples cooled before the eastern ones during this well-
agreement with two subsequent studies. Initially, using identified orogenic phase, showing a clear eastward
the same fission track methodology in Toro et al., migration of the deformation front. This migration is
2007, for whom the last uplift of the northern sector of evident in the stratigraphic record.
the central Cordillera would be the kinematic response
to the regional NWSE thrust, product of the Panama- The samples were most likely exhumed between
Costa Rica Microplate and the Caribbean Plate 3 and 5 Ma ago, although we must accept some
interaction with the Andean Block, which according statistical probability associated with the method up to
to their results began around 7 Ma, with a maximum 11Ma. This data represents the maximum age for the
activity between 3.6 and 3.1 Ma. Later, using apatite formation of the landscape as it was denuded to place
(U–Th)/He thermochronology (Restrepo-Moreno et the samples on surface; in other words, the Central
al., 2009) reveal two strong cooling events, one from Cordillera erosion surface and its superimposed relief
41 Ma to 49 Ma and the other between 21 Ma and were formed after this time.
25 Ma. AHe data provide an average erosion rate of ∼
0.04 mm/yr for the last 25 million years. Erosion rates Acknowledgments
during the exhumation pulses were in the order of ∼
This research is part of the author Edgar Saenz’s thesis
0.2–0.4 mm/yr.
for his master’s degree in science and engineering
– geosciences, obtained at Shimane University of
Special attention should be directed to tectometamorphic
Matsue, Japan. This project was conducted with the
events that may affect the thermochronometers and
support of the Japan-IBD scholarship program, and the
that are being reported by new data. For example, the
supervision of all academic activity was carried out by
morphotectonic paroxysm near the Oligo-Miocene
Professor Hiroto Ohira. I am deeply thankful to him
transition reported by Restrepo-Moreno et al. (2009)
for his guidance, lessons, comments, and constructive
and Noriega-Londoño et al. (2020). Additionally,
criticism.
exhumation might be understood as due to differential
behavior between the blocks; for Noriega-Londoño et
My acknowledgements to all the staff of the
al. (2020) is key the role of the Espiritu Santo Fault in
Geosciences Department of Shimane University,
the Antioquia Eastern Massif.
especially to Dr. Shigeru Iizumi and Dr. Akira Takasu.
My deepest gratitude to Dr Barry Roser, who made
Conclusions
essential suggestions.
The obtained Zircon FT dates show statistical
homogeneity and independence from surface processes. I thank Dra. Gloria Toro access to using the laboratory
Therefore, these data are interpreted as cooling ages, facilities at EAFIT, and for her assistance and guidance
meaning the time at which the sample evaluated passed during the first steps of the laboratory work.
through its closure temperature, estimated to be about
240°±50°C. Zircon ages range from 46.4±1.1 Ma to This research was born from the Fission Tracks
64.0±1.3 Ma. seed planted at the Universidad Nacional Medellín
by professors José Maria Jaramillo and Jorge Julián
The time-temperature cooling paths show strong Restrepo. Together with Carlos Paucar we did one of
correlation with the orogenic phases that built the the first undergraduate thesis on the subject (Paucar
Colombian Andes, especially to those occurred during and Saenz, 1995) under the direction of J.J. Restrepo
the middle Eocene (Pre-Andean), and late Miocene and that was the beginning of this project.
to Pliocene (Eu Andean). An Oligocene phase (Proto-
Andean) was not identified by this tool. The main tectonic Finally, thanks to Professor Sergio Restrepo who
phase that affected the study area occurred between the encouraged us to submit this article and contributed to
middle and late Eocene. After that, the present surface our knowledge of advances in the Central Cordillera
remained awfully quite close to the surface at that time thermochronology.
(less than 1 km), until unroofing occurred during the

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