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 Preface i

Clinical Manual for

Oral Medicine and Radiology
Clinical Manual for
Oral Medicine and
Radiology

Ravikiran Ongole MDS

Reader
Department of
Oral Medicine and Radiology
Manipal College of Dental Sciences
Mangalore

Praveen BN MDS
Associate Professor
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology
KLE Society’s Institute of Dental Sciences
Bengaluru

JAYPEE BROTHERS
MEDICAL PUBLISHERS (P) LTD.
New Delhi
Published by
Jitendar P Vij
Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd
B-3 EMCA House, 23/23B Ansari Road, Daryaganj
New Delhi 110 002, India
Phones: +91-11-23272143, +91-11-23272703, +91-11-23282021, +91-11-23245672,
Rel: 32558559, Fax: +91-11-23276490, +91-11-23245683
e-mail: [email protected]
Visit our website: www.jaypeebrothers.com

Branches
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Ahmedabad 380 015
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• “KAMALPUSHPA” 38, Reshimbag, Opp. Mohota Science College, Umred Road
Nagpur 440 009 (MS)
Phones: Rel: 3245220, Fax: 0712-2704275, e-mail: [email protected]

Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

© 2007, Ravikiran Ongole and Praveen BN

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher.
This book has been published in good faith that the material provided by authors is original. Every
effort is made to ensure accuracy of material, but the publisher, printer and authors will not be held
responsible for any inadvertent error(s). In case of any dispute, all legal matters are to be settled
under Delhi jurisdiction only.

First Edition: 2007

ISBN 81-8448-114-4
Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit
Printed at Gopsons Papers Ltd, Sector 60, Noida
 Dedicated
to
My Parents, Brother and Wife
—Ravikiran Ongole

and
My Parents, Wife and Daughter
—Praveen BN
 FOREWORD

I have great pleasure in writing to this foreword for the book

“Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology” by my students
Dr Ravikiran Ongole and Dr Praveen BN.
The authors have taken tremendous pains in preparing this
book, focusing attention on evaluation of various oral and facial
abnormalities as well as basic aspects of dental radiology. They
have maintained simplicity and readability that would help any
beginner and expert alike enjoy reading and understanding.
This book has been very thoughtfully divided into 2 parts—
Oral Medicine and Radiology, each of which has logical sequence
of sections. The book has the principle of “small things add to
perfection but perfection is not a small thing”. I congratulate
Dr Ravikiran and Dr Praveen for this fine contribution and wish
and hope the book finds the deserved use and popularity.

Dr Keerthilatha M Pai
Professor and Head
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology
Manipal College of Dental Sciences, Manipal
 FOREWORD

ORAL MEDICINE is a specialty that deals with study of diagnosis

and medical management of oral soft tissue diseases, facial
pain, oral diseases in medically compromised patients, diagnosis
of systemic diseases on the basis of their oral and dental
manifestations, and impact of systemic diseases on the tissues
of oral cavity.
Many books are available as text and reference in the
subject. However, there has been a need for a comprehensive
manual, detailing the ways and means of collecting scientific
information and its application in diagnosis and management of
Oral disorders.
I am sure the book “Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and
Radiology” fulfills the need to a large extent. To address these
shortcomings and with a view to helping students, Dr Ravikiran
Ongole and Dr Praveen Birur have taken up the task of writing
the manual.
The manual is specially prepared to help the students of
undergraduate studies in Dentistry. Emphasis is laid on step-by-
step examination protocol in the examination of each and every
part of tissues in the oral cavity.
I am sure this manual will be very useful and handy for day-
to-day reference in Oral Medicine, Diagnosis and Radiology.

Dr NS YADAV
Dean, Professor and HOD
Peoples College of Dental Sciences
Bhopal
 PREFACE

This manual is intended to provide insight into the realms of

the clinical aspects of Oral Medicine and Radiology to the student
entering dental clinics for the first time.
In India, undergraduate students begin to interact and
evaluate patients in the third year of the BDS curriculum. This
manual will help the student in understanding the patient’s
orofacial complaints and the subsequent step-by-step
examination of oral and paraoral structures. This manual also
serves as a ready-reckoner for private dental practitioners,
undergraduate and postgraduate students of dentistry.
The manual is made up of two sections, Oral Medicine and
Radiology.
The oral medicine section describes history-taking for regular
and special cases in great detail. It also prepares and sensitises
the student to the needs of patients with certain physical or
mental disabilities and individuals with underlying systemic
diseases. In addition, the manual also describes a step-by-step
clinical examination protocol for evaluating common orofacial
problems like dental caries, periodontal diseases, lymphadeno-
pathy, temporomandibular disorders, orofacial pain, oral
precancers and cancers, salivary gland disorders and maxillary
sinus diseases. The appendix contains a compendium of
commonly used medications in dental clinics, which will help
students and dental practitioners to use it as a ready reference
while prescribing medications to patients. A chapter on
management of common orofacial problems would help private
dental practitioners to manage common orofacial diseases.
The Radiology section deals with traditional imaging
techniques along with construction of the X-ray machine,
processing and interpreting radiographs, and specialised imaging
techniques of radiography. Detailed coverage of contrast
radiography such as arthrography and sialography, scintigraphy,
digital radiography and thermal imaging keeping in mind the
 xii Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

expanding horizons of the imaging modalities for the head and

neck region follows. The Appendix, at the end of the radiology
section, gives a list of pathologic conditions and their
characteristic radiographic appearances that is useful for viva-
voce examinations.
The specialty of oral medicine and radiology is a vast field
that cannot be captured or presented in one book without
adopting a perspective and making certain compromises in the
presentation of the content. In an effort to present this clinical
manual, a conscious decision was made to lean in favour of
keeping the content and presentation in-line with a manual.
The most pertinent and relevant information has been simplified
and presented.
We hope that this manual will help students of dentistry

Ravikiran Ongole
Praveen BN
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to our esteemed

teachers and guides Dr Keerthilatha M Pai, Dr PK Dayal and Dr
NS Yadav who have taught us the fundamentals of Oral
Medicine and Radiology.
We are greatly indebted to Dr Surendra Shetty and Dr
Prakash Tandur for their invaluable support and encouragement
rendered during the period of preparing this manual.
Our sincere thanks are due to Dr Balaji Rao for his constant
support, guidance and suggestions at every stage in the
preparation of this book.
We are grateful to our students who were the inspiring
force for making this manual a reality.
We appreciate the support and encouragement received
from the ever enthusiastic publishing team of Jaypee Brothers
Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
We are thankful to Dr Chaitra G Rao, Dr Chandu Nadig, Dr
Divya Reddy, Dr Jyotsna, Dr Kavitha, Dr Kaushal Dhawan, Dr Iti
Negi, Dr Sandeep Kasana, Dr Chiradeep Haldar and Dr Gurvinder
Kaur and for the help rendered during the preparation of the
manual.
Our heartfelt thanks to Dr Joanna (Ravikiran’s wife) for
painstakingly reviewing the proof and for the constructive
criticism and suggestions that helped in the preparation of the
manual.
Our deepest appreciation and gratitude to our patients,
some of who were terminally ill, for enduring pain and discomfort
in the hope of relief and cure. We hope that this clinical manual
will in some small way alleviate their suffering.
Above all our gratitude to our families for their affection,
unconditional support and encouragement.

Ravikiran Ongole
Praveen BN
 CONTENTS

SECTION-1 ORAL MEDICINE

1. Case History ............................................................. 3
2. Evaluation of Patients with Special Care Needs ....... 55
3. Evaluation of Gingival and Periodontal Diseases ....... 87
4. Evaluation of Pulp and Periapical Diseases ............. 104
5. Examination of Ulcers and Swellings of the
Orofacial Region .................................................. 120
6. Evaluation of Oral Precancers and Oral Cancers .... 138
7. Evaluation of Fractures of Maxillofacial Skeleton .... 163
8. Evaluation of Lymph Nodes of the Head and
Neck Region ........................................................ 177
9. Examination of Temporomandibular Joint ............. 195
10. Assessment of Orofacial Pain ............................... 213
11. Examination of Salivary Glands ............................. 226
12. Examination of Maxillary Sinus .............................. 238

SECTION-2 RADIOLOGY
13. X-ray Machine and Production of X-rays ............... 253
14. Radiation Hazards and Protection ......................... 269
15. Image Receptor Systems .................................... 293
16. Projection Techniques ......................................... 303
17. Processing Technique .......................................... 349
18. Radiographic Faults .............................................. 362
19. Normal Radiographic Anatomical Landmarks .......... 374
20. Interpretation of Radiographs .............................. 393
21. Specialized Imaging Techniques ........................... 405
Appendices
Oral Medicine ....................................................... 443
Radiology ............................................................. 531
Index ................................................................... 543
 1 Case History

The purpose of recording the patient’s history and conducting

a clinical examination is to arrive at a logical diagnosis to the
patient’s chief complaint and to institute a suitable treatment
plan. The clinical case history record is a permanent document
containing the findings of various examinations, the
interpretation of the data gathered, the treatment provided
and the nature of complications that were encountered. It is a
personal record and a legal document.
Case history is a planned, professional conversation between
the patient and the clinician in which the patient reveals his/
her symptoms, fears, or feelings to the clinician so that the
nature of the real or suspected illness and mental attitude to it
may be determined.
The path to managing the problem for which the patient
seeks consultation can be roughly divided into four steps
1. Recording the patient's history
2. General physical examination and local examination
3. Establishing a diagnosis
4. Formulating a suitable treatment plan

RECORDING THE PATIENT’S HISTORY

The primary objective of the “history taking” is to identify all
relevant information. Occasionally the patient might describe
non-contributory incidents in the history. It is the skilled oral
physician who can provide a certain direction to the answers
provided by the patient by using different types of questions.
 4 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Diagnostic Interview
Various types of questions that can be posed to a patient
during the diagnostic interview can be broadly classified as open
ended questions, closed ended questions and leading questions.
Open ended questions are usually asked at the beginning of
the history taking. These questions encourage the patient to
convey his/her problem.
For example: Why have you come to the hospital?
Closed ended questions help the clinician to obtain specific
information. These questions usually limit the answer of the
patient to a single sentence or just to a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.
For example: Do your gums bleed when you brush your teeth?
Leading questions generally have an answer within the
question. They help in bringing out a response from
unresponsive patient's and winning the confidence of
suspecting patient's.
However, leading questions when posed and if found
incorrect by the patient, the patient may lose confidence in
the oral physician.
For example: If there is a scar on the lower third of the face. A
clinician might ask, “I presume you had an accident couple of
years ago?”

GENERAL PHYSICAL EXAMINATION AND LOCAL

EXAMINATION
Once the historical database is gathered, objective signs are
recorded by a systematic examination.
Assessing the general health of the patient forms an
important step in arriving at a diagnosis and formulating a
treatment plan. The general health status of the patient can
help the oral physician to understand the nature of the patient’s
present illness. The extraoral examination is mainly focused at
examining the head and neck region and making a note of all
gross abnormalities. Intraoral examination specifically deals with
examining structures within the oral cavity in detail.
 Case History 5

Clinical Steps of Examination

The local examination both intraoral and extraoral are carried
out using the four steps of examination: Inspection, Palpation,
Percussion and Auscultation. Probing is considered another
effective examination technique as a part of palpatory
examination.

Inspection
A passive visualization of the lesion is referred to as Inspection.
The oral physician can carry out inspection when the patient is
resting on the dental chair. However a more active process of
inspection can be carried out by asking the patient to open
the mouth, protrude the tongue, clearing all the excess saliva,
etc. These steps may help in providing better visual access so
that detailed observations can be carried out. An intraoral mirror
can be used effectively to retract the cheeks, lips and tongue
and can even be used for indirect visualization of the structures
in maxillary arch. Examination of the contents of maxillary sinus
using transillumination is also considered a part of inspectory
examination.

Palpation
Palpation (examination by touch) helps the oral physician to
evaluate deep structures and the anatomic relationships that
are not visually apparent. The characteristics of the lesion such
as tenderness, consistency, scrapability, fixity, etc, can be
evaluated with palpation.

Methods of Palpation
Based on the anatomic location that is palpated several
techniques of palpation can be employed.
Bilateral palpation: In order to appreciate differences in
symmetrical structures, bilateral palpation can be employed.
Subtle abnormalities can be detected using this technique.
(For example: palpation of parotid gland, zygomatic arch) (Figure
1.1)
 6 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Figure 1.1: Bilateral palpation

Bidigital palpation: Two fingers are used to manipulate tissues

in order to evaluate masses within the tissue. This technique
of examination is generally used for thinner structures.
(examination of the lesions within the lip) (Figure 1.2).
Bimanual palpation: Palms of both the hands are used for
bimanual palpation. One hand is used to support the structures
from the outside, and the other hand is used to manipulate
tissue within the oral cavity. This technique helps to appreciate
deep lying structures. (Structures of the floor of the mouth
are best evaluated using bimanual palpation) (Figure 1.3).

Probing
Most of the intraoral examination is carried out by probing.
Probing helps to detect carious lesions, estimate the amount
of periodontal destruction and to trace sinus tracts. Probing is
carried out using straight probes, explorers, periodontal probes
and in certain cases gutta-percha points can be used. (To trace
sinus tracts radiographically) (Figure 1.4).

Percussion
Percussion can be used in order to clinically assess if the tooth
in question has an acute periapical infection. The back end of
a mirror handle can be used for percussion.
 Case History 7

Figure 1.2: Bidigital Figure 1.3: Bimanual

palpation palpation

Figure 1.4: Guttapercha point

used for tracing sinus tract

The incisal or occlusal surface of the tooth is gently tapped

(it must be ensured that only the weight of the instrument
falls on the tooth) with the back end of the mirror handle kept
parallel to the long axis of the tooth. If the patient “winces”
then the tooth is said to be tender on vertical percussion and
signifies an acute periapical infection (Figure 1.5).
Alternatively the handle of the mouth mirror is placed
between the occlusal surfaces of the suspected teeth and
the patient is instructed to bite firmly over the handle of the
instrument (Figure 1.6). The tooth that is tender on horizontal
percussion (tapping the tooth gently with the handle of the
instrument kept perpendicular to the long axis of the tooth)
signifies pathology of the lateral periodontal ligament
(periodontal abscess) (Figure 1.7).
Percussion can also be used to identify teeth that are
ankylosed (fused) to the underlying bone. Normal teeth when
 8 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Figure 1.5: Vertical Figure 1.6: Biting on handle

percussion of instrument

percussed produce a dull note, whereas ankylosed teeth

produce a sharper resonant note.

Auscultation
In a dental setting auscultation is used to study the movements
of the temporomandibular joint. Bell-End of the stethoscope is
used to assess the joint sounds (Figure 1.8).

ESTABLISHING A DIAGNOSIS
Arriving at a diagnosis involves a systematic correlation of the
basic data collected by the oral physician. This basic data comes
from the history obtained from the patient, thorough general
physical assessment, detailed extraoral and intraoral examination
and then correlating them with the investigative reports.

Figure 1.7: Horizontal percussion Figure 1.8: Auscultation of

TMJ
 Case History 9

Based on the history and examination the clinician arrives

at a tentative diagnosis/provisional diagnosis/clinical impression
or a working diagnosis. This clinical diagnosis is further confirmed
with the investigative reports. The diagnosis that is arrived at
after investigations is referred to as final diagnosis. The treatment
is planned based on the final diagnosis.

FORMULATING A TREATMENT PLAN

Treatment planning forms the final aspect of the diagnostic
process. In order to plan an effective treatment modality for
the patient, the clinician should take into account the pertinent
facts from the history elicited from the patient and important
clinical findings obtained from the general physical examination
and the local examination and correlate those facts with the
investigations. The general health of the patient should also
be taken into consideration before an effective treatment is
planned.
While formulating treatment options for patient's with an
underlying systemic disease, care needs to be taken to evaluate
the effects of the dental treatment on the underlying disease.
The clinician can then refer the patient to his/her physician
with a referral letter, describing the dental treatment that is
planned. The consultant can be asked to comment on the
precautions that need to be taken during the dental procedure.
An effective treatment plan can be broadly grouped into six
continuous phases: Emergency Phase, Surgical Phase,
Prophylactic Phase, Restorative Phase, Corrective Phase and
Recall and Review.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR EXAMINING PATIENT'S IN A

DENTAL SETTING
1. Greet the patient and always check if you have the case
sheet of the right patient, this can be ensured by cross
checking the name of the patient and his/her age and
address.
10 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

2. It is advisable to have an attendant along with the patient,

however all communication needs to be done with the
patient (exceptions are in child patient's, mentally
challenged patient's, and patient's with hearing disabilities)
3. Position the dental chair so that the patient is comfortably
seated (special care needs to be taken in pregnant women
and patient's with spinal disorders)
4. The oral physician should ideally be seated to the right of
the patient and facing the patient. The ideal position would
be a 10 o’ clock or 11 o’ clock position (Figure 1.9).
5. Maintain a warm and dignified atmosphere.
6. Exhibit empathic interest in the patient’s systemic and oral
health.
7. Maintain eye contact and exhibit controlled facial
expressions
8. Promote the ability to view the patient’s problem from
his/her viewpoint.
9. Listen attentively to the patient; avoid being judgemental,
impatient or unsympathetic to the patient’s problem.
10. Use simple vocabulary while conversing with the patient;
avoid using slang and medical jargon as far as possible.
11. Use an interpreter when a language barrier exists.
12. Examine the patient under sufficient unobstructed light.
13. Follow universal precautions of care: use gloves and mouth
masks. Always use clean sterile instruments (Figure 1.10).
14. Drape the patient and avoid placing instruments/instrument
tray over the patient’s chest.
15. Avoid resting arms or hands over the patient's shoulder,
always maintain a comfortable distance from the patient.
16. Ensure that diagnosis of a disease should always be revealed
to the patient, and with only the patient’s consent the
patient’s attender should be informed (exceptions are child
patient's, mentally challenged patient's, and patient's with
hearing disabilities)
 Case History 11

Figure 1.9: Ideal seating Figure 1.10: Instruments

position
CASE HISTORY PROFORMA

Identifying data
Out Patient (O.P.) number
Name Date
Age Occupation
Sex Address
CHIEF COMPLAINT
HISTORY OF PRESENT ILLNESS
(mode of onset, duration, progress, aggravating/relieving factors, details of treatment
undertaken for the same and associated symptoms )
PAST DENTAL HISTORY
PAST MEDICAL HISTORY
Ask questions related to
a) CVS b) Respiratory c) GIT d) CNS e) Dermatology f) STD & Urinogenital g) HIV
related symptoms h) Medication side effects, Allergies etc. i) Psychiatry j) ENT
related problems k) any other
PERSONAL HISTORY
a. Diet
b. Marital Status
c. Habits
i. Tobacco
ii. Alcohol
iii. Drugs
iv. Oral Habits
d. Oral Hygiene Methods
FAMILY HISTORY
GENERAL PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
I. General
a. Gait Height
b. Build Weight

Contd....
12 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Contd....
c. Nourishment
d. Posture
e. Skin
f. Hair
g. Nails
h. Vital Signs
Temperature Respiration
Pulse Blood Pressure
i. Sclera
j. Conjunctiva
k. Pallor
l. Cyanosis
m. Clubbing
n. Oedema
II. Extraoral Examination (Head and Neck)
a. Face
b. Skin
c. Nose
d. Eyes
e. TMJ
f. Salivary Glands
g. Lymph Nodes (Head and Neck)
h. Others
INTRAORAL EXAMINATION
I. Hard Tissue Examination
a. Teeth Present
b. Missing Teeth
c. Dental Caries
d. Dental Caries with Pulpal Involvement
e. Root Stumps
f. Wasting diseases
g. Mobility
h. Occlusion
I. Deposits
j. Fractured Teeth
k. Others (hypoplasia, supernumerary teeth, malposition, etc,)
II. Soft Tissue Examination
a. Gingiva
b. Periodontal Pockets
c. Buccal Mucosa
d. Floor of the Mouth
e. Vestibule
f. Tongue
g. Lips
h. Palate
Contd....
 Case History 13

Contd....
i. Tonsils
j. Oropharynx

EXAMINATION OF THE LESION

Extraoral
a. Inspection
b. Palpation
c. Auscultation

Intraoral
a. Inspection
b. Palpation
c. Percussion

VITALITY TESTS

PROVISIONAL DIAGNOSIS

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

INVESTIGATIONS

FINAL DIAGNOSIS

TREATMENT PLAN

PROGNOSIS AND RECALL

CASE ANALYSIS

Identification Data
Out patient Number
Every patient who is examined for the first time is given an out
patient (OP) number. It helps in identification of the patient
and keeping track of the treatment carried out in other
specialties. Out patient number is an important consideration
in medicolegal cases and retrieval of the patient’s case sheet is
made simpler during his subsequent visits to the oral physician.

Name
Recording the name of the patient helps in identifying the
patient. Also referring to the patient by name helps in improving
the patient–physician relationship.
 14 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Age
There are certain disorders that are age related. Recording
the age of the patient will help the clinician to some extent in
the process of formulating a clinical diagnosis. Age is considered
as one of the important parameters while formulating a clinical
diagnosis. Another purpose of recording age is for calculating a
suitable dosage of the required drug.
For example:
1. At Birth: Congenital cleft lip and palate
2. 1st –2nd decades: Cherubism, fibro osseous lesions
3. Middle aged: Ameloblastoma, oral cancers
4. Old age: Degenerative osteoarthritis of the TMJ, oral cancers

Sex
In a female patient additional questions are to be included in
the diagnostic questionnaire, such as history of pregnancy,
nursing, use of oral contraceptive pills and menstruation history.
Certain diseases are common in either of the sexes.
For example:
Females: Lichen planus, Temporomandibular disorders
Males: Hemophilia, Oral cancer

Address
The complete postal address and phone number if any should
be recorded. It helps in communicating with the patient for
future consultations and conveying any information regarding
appointments. Address also gives the physician an insight into
the diseases prevalent in that geographical area. It may also
give an idea of the socioeconomic status of the patient.
For example: Dental fluorosis is common in certain parts of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan.
 Case History 15

Occupation
The occupation of the patient gives an insight into the working
environment of the patient and the occupational hazards that
the patient is prone to. Occupation of the patient also gives
an insight to his/her socio-economic status.
Tailors and beauticians usually have notching of the incisal
edges of upper teeth, as they tend to hold pins and sewing
thread with their teeth. Individuals working in acidic
environments tend to have erosion of teeth (Figure 1.11).
Orofacial problems seen in musicians may range from soft
tissue trauma to herpes labialis, dry mouth, severe proclination
of teeth and temporomandibular joint pain. Fiddler’s neck is a
common feature in violin players. The area on the left side of
the neck, where the violin rests, may reveal chronic dermatitis
and severe pain.
Musculoskeletal disorders because of poor posture, contact
dermatitis resulting from latex allergy and biomaterials, exposure
to contaminated blood leading to Hepatitis and HIV and
radiation hazards to unprotected personnel working in the
radiology department are some of the occupational hazards to
dental practitioners.

Chief Complaint
It is the description of the problem for which the patient seeks
treatment.

Figure 1.11: Notching of incisors

 16 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

It should be recorded in the patient’s own words and should

not be recorded in medical terminology unless told by the patient
in those terms.
For example:
Do not use the terms anterior, maxillary, etc, use front, upper
When multiple complaints are reported, they have to be noted
down in a chronological order.
For example:
Patient complains of pain in the right upper back tooth for the
past 1 week and swelling on the right side of the face for the
past 3 days.

History of Present Illness

It is a detailed description of the chief complaint.
The dentist should ask specific questions in order to elicit a
detailed description of the patient’s illness.
1. When was the problem first noticed? (duration in days,
weeks, months, years)
2. Mode of onset (sudden, gradual)
3. Aggravating factors
4. Relieving factors
5. Associated symptoms (fever, disturbed sleep, difficulty in
eating, drinking, etc.)
6. Did the patient consult any other physician? (details of
medication, investigations)
For example: If the chief complaint of the patient is about pain
in the lower right back tooth, then the history of the present
illness (pain) should be recorded as described below.
Patient complains of pain in the lower right back tooth for
the past one week. It was sudden in onset. The pain is localized
and throbbing in nature. Patient reports that the severity of
pain increases on consuming food and relieves on taking
medication, the nature of medication taken is not known.
Patient reports of disturbed sleep. Patient consulted a dental
practitioner and was advised removal of the offending tooth.
 Case History 17

Past Dental History

Previous history of oral surgical procedures, restorative
treatment, periodontal treatment, and orthodontic corrections
should be noted.
More importantly gathering information about the
procedures being eventful or uneventful is crucial. Ask specific
questions with regards to the procedure, which might influence
dental treatment
1. Was the extraction complicated?
i. Were you allergic to the local anesthetic? (skin rashes,
difficulty in breathing, perspiration)
ii. Did you have continuous bleeding after the extraction?
iii. Did the extraction wound take a long time to heal?
iv. Did you have seizures, syncope, etc, before, during or
after the procedure?
If the patient reports of an uncomplicated dental procedure,
then the past dental history can be recorded as follows:
H/O an uneventful removal of the lower right back tooth
3 years back.
H/O undergoing correction of malaligned teeth 5 years back
In the event that the patient’s previous dental treatment
was eventful, the history can be recorded as below:
H/O of an eventful removal of the lower right back tooth 3
years back. Patient reports of an epileptic attack during the
procedure.

Past Medical History

It is a description of significant or serious illnesses that the
patient has had as a child or as an adult.
The information recorded in the past medical history helps
the oral physician in assessing the over all health status of the
patient. This information will help the dentist to refer the patient
to a general physician for a consultation requesting for a work
up on the suspected systemic illness of the patient. Since,
dental treatment may alleviate or precipitate an existing systemic
condition.
 18 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

A note of all significant illnesses is made which might influence

the dental treatment.
1. Do you suffer from any medical problem (Cardiac,
Respiratory, Genitourinary, Nervous, Gastrointestinal,
Endocrinal or Psychiatric disorders)? If so, are you on regular
medication for the same?
In patient's who are not aware of their system status the
following list of symptoms can be asked
Cardiovascular system: Chest pain, palpitations, dyspnoea
Respiratory system: wheezing, chest pain, cough, and
haemoptysis.
Nervous System : Syncope, seizures, in-coordinate
movements.
Gastrointestinal system: Nausea, dysphagia, change in the
appetite, hematemesis, indigestion, constipation, diarrhea
and vomiting.
Genitourinary system: Increased frequency of urination,
nocturia, and heamaturia.
Endocrinal system: Polyuria, Polyphagia, Polydypsia,
intolerance to heat and cold, pigmentations, weight loss
or gain.
Psychiatric system: mood swings, emotional disturbances.
2. Were you ever hospitalized? If yes, a detailed description
of the illness for which you were hospitalized.
3. History of surgeries that required hospitalization, blood
transfusions.
4. Are you allergic to any kind of food or medications? If so,
the nature of the allergy
5. Are you pregnant (mention the trimester), a nursing
mother, on oral contraceptives?

Personal History
Questions pertaining to the diet, oral hygiene methods, marital
status and habits should be asked.
Diet: can be recorded as vegetarian diet or mixed diet. Excessive
use of sticky food and refined sugar should be specifically asked.
 Case History 19

Oral Hygiene methods: The following questions are asked.

i. Do you use your finger, toothbrush, dental floss or twigs
for cleaning teeth?
ii. Do you use tooth powder, paste, or any other material to
clean teeth?
iii. How many times in a day do you clean your teeth?
iv. Brushing strokes: horizontal, vertical, circular
Marital status: mention whether the patient is married or
unmarried.
Habits: ask for specific habits related to the use of tobacco,
alcohol, drug abuse and oral habits like thumb sucking, clenching
teeth, tongue thrusting, mouth breathing, etc.
Tobacco
Form of tobacco used (smoke, snuff, chewable)
Mention the number of times used per day and for how
many years has he seen using tobacco.
Where do you place the quid in the chewable form of
tobacco? Do you spit or swallow tobacco?
(Cigarette smoking can be quantified as pack years =
number of packs of cigarette smoked in one day multiplied by
the number of years the patient has been smoking)
Alcohol
Quantity and frequency of consumption.
Do you consume alcohol along with use of tobacco?
Since how many years have you been consuming alcohol?

Family History
Patient is asked about the health of other members of his/her
family. Specific questions related to genetic disorders, disease
that are hereditary and conditions that are generally found in
most members of the family living in an area endemic to a
condition are specifically asked. (Diabetes, hypertension, bleeding
disorders, fluorosis, etc.)
For example the family history can be recorded as below:
1. The patient’s family consists of the patient’s mother, wife/
husband and two children who are said to be apparently
healthy.
 20 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Or
2. The patient’s family consists of the patient’s mother who
is a diabetic, wife/husband and two children who are said
to have yellowish brown discoloration of teeth.
Certain conditions which are thought to be “familial diseases”
are: Diabetes mellitus, hypertensive vascular disease, rheumatoid
arthritis, osteoarthritis, epilepsy, psychosis, migraine, bleeding
diathesis, cancer, hereditary ectodermal dysplasia, Marfans
syndrome and Ehlers Danlos syndrome.

General Physical Examination

Gait (Manner of Walking)
The gait of the patient can be evaluated as the patient
enters the dental office.
Many of the gait abnormalities relate to neuromuscular
disabilities the cause of which may be as varied as traumatic
injuries to degenerative muscular disease. Certain forms of gait
are hemiplegic gait, ataxic gait, Parkinsonian gait, scissors gait,
foot drop gait and equine gait.

Height and Weight

They indicate the development and growth of an individual.
To evaluate whether the weight is proportional to the height
of an individual Quetlet body mass index is used. The normal
range of the index for men is 10-25 and 18-24 in women
(Figures 1.12A and B). Weight in kilograms
Quetelet body mass index (BMI) =
(Height in meters)2

Build
The build of the patient can be described as poorly built,
moderately built or well built. It can be roughly assessed based
on the muscle mass and skeletal frame of the individual. An
individuals build can also be grouped into: asthenic, sthenic,
hypersthenic and pyknic builds.
 Case History 21

Figures 1.12A and B: Weighing scale and height scale

Asthenic individuals appear lean and underweight as they

have a low bone and muscle mass.
Sthenic individuals are athletic in appearance. They have a
well proportioned muscle and bone mass.
Hypersthenic persons have thick muscular and heavy bone
structures.
Pyknic individuals appear heavy and rounded as they have
an enormous amount of body fat as compared to the amount
of bone and muscle mass.
Cachexia maybe defined as an abnormally low tissue mass
resulting from malnutrition or chronic debilitation.

Nourishment
The nourishment of an individual can be assessed by evaluating
the presence and distribution of body fat and muscle bulk. It
can be recorded as poorly nourished/malnourished, moderately
nourished and well nourished.
 22 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Posture
Some patient's may not assume a regular sitting or standing
posture. Generally these postures indicate pain that can be
caused by a regular posture or a limitation to assume a regular
posture. Disabilities from a past injury and arthritis are the most
common causes for assuming an abnormal posture. A slumping
posture is assumed by patient's with cardiopulmonary disease
in order to facilitate easy breathing.

Skin
The skin is examined for hydration, pallor, pigmentations, cyanosis
and skin eruptions.
Hydration: when the skin is pinched up using the index finger
and thumb, if a ridge is left behind then the skin is said to be
dehydrated (Figure 1.13).
Generalized pallor of the skin may be seen in severe Anemia;
however, pallor is best appreciated over the mucosal surfaces
like in the oral cavity and conjunctiva. Generalized yellowishness
of the skin is seen in jaundice. In cyanosis, skin and mucous
membranes acquire a bluish hue.

Hair
Human hair undergoes a periodic cycle of growth and shedding.
Generally 90% of the hair follicles are in the growing phase

Figure 1.13: Evaluation of hydration

 Case History 23

(anagen) and 10% are in the resting phase (telogen). During

the resting phase hair is shed.
A change in this ratio may result in an increased rate of hair
loss. The term alopecia is used to refer to loss of hair. A note
should be made whether the patient has partial or total alopecia
over the scalp and eye brows.
Partial alopecia is seen in xeroderma pigmentosum and
hereditary ectodermal dysplasia. Total alopecia can arise from
X-ray irradiation, chemotherapy, scalp ringworm and herpes
zoster infection. Severe anemia and hypothyroidism can cause
diffuse hair loss in women.
Hypertrichosis refers to an excessive growth of terminal
hair. It should not be used interchangeably with hirsutism, that
refers to growth of terminal hair in a female patient in a male
pattern.
Hirsutism is commonly seen in Asians. It is commonly seen
after menopause and frequently follows a familial pattern.

Nails
Examination of the nails and nail bed form an important part of
general physical examination. Variety of systemic conditions and
local causes produce nail abnormalities.
Epidermolysis bullosa and Lichen planus may cause
longitudinal ridging of nails and pterigium (overgrowth of cuticle
on the nail plate). Thick nails (Pachyonychia) may be seen in
psoriasis. Nail beds may reveal splinter hemorrhages in trauma,
bacterial endocarditis and psoriasis. Koilonychia (spoon shaped,
concave) nails are seen in iron deficiency anemia. Antimalarials
and antibiotics may discolor the nail.

Vital Signs
The vital signs are pulse rate, respiratory rate, body temperature
and blood pressure. These parameters are termed vital signs
because they provide immediate evidence of the patient’s
essential physiologic functions.
Pulse rate: Examination of pulse gives an idea of the heart
rate, cardiac rhythm, cardiac output and peripheral circulation.
 24 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

The radial, brachial, femoral and carotid pulse are generally

examined because of their accessibility owing to their locations
superficial to bone and dense
muscle. In a dental setting
the radial, brachial and carotid
pulse are easily examined.

Anatomic Locations of
the Pulse
Radial pulse: located on the
ventral aspect of the wrist,
proximal to the radial head
between the flexor carpi
radialis and brachiradialis
tendons.
Brachial pulse: located medial
to the biceps tendon in the Figure 1.14
antecubital fossa.
Carotid pulse: It is located medial to the sternocliedomastoid
muscle, inferior and medial to the angle of the mandible.
Examination of the pulse (Figure 1.14): Pulse is examined by
placing the tips of the index and middle fingers evenly over the
course of the artery. Excessive application of force might occlude
the artery thereby obscuring the pulse. Pulse is felt for 60
seconds and expressed as beats per minute. The normal pulse
rate for an adult is about 60 to 80 beats per minute. A pulse
rate above 100 beats per minute is referred to as Tachycardia
and below 60 beats per minute is referred to as Bradycardia.
Tachycardia is generally seen during periods of emotional stress,
after strenuous physical exercise, high fever, anemia,
hyperthyroidism and congestive cardiac failure.
Bradycardia or a low pulse rate is seen in hypothyroidism,
hypoadrenalism, convalescence, and secondary to medications
such as digitalis and quinidine. The maximum accepted safe
pulse rate in an individual after physical exercise is 200 beats
per minute minus the age of the patient in years.
 Case History 25

Temperature: In a dental office the oral body temperature

can be readily recorded. Make sure that the patient has not
smoked, or consumed hot or cold food at least ten minutes
prior to recording the oral temperature. Ensure that the
thermometer is thoroughly rinsed in an antiseptic solution and
mercury is shaken down before recording the temperature.
The thermometer is best placed in the lingual sulcus beneath
the tongue. Patient is advised to breathe through his nose
and keep his lips closed around the body of the thermometer.
The thermometer is taken out roughly after a minute and the
temperature is noted down. The normal body temperature in
an adult is about 98.60 Fahrenheit or 37oCentigrade.
Hypothermia less than 35oC or less than 95oF
Febrile greater than 37.2oC or greater than 99oF
Subnormal less than 36.6oC or less than 98oF
Hyperpyrexia greater than 41.6oC or greater than 107oF
Conversion of Fahrenheit to Celsius and vice versa
1. Celsius to Fahrenheit: oF = (oC × 9/5) + 32
2. Fahrenheit to Celsius: oC = (oF–32) × 5/9
The rectal temperature is about 0.5oC higher than the oral
temperature and the axillary temperature is approximately 0.2oC
lower than the oral temperature.
Respiratory rate: One respiratory cycle includes one full inspiration
and expiration. A rate of 12 to 20 breaths per minute is
considered normal for a healthy adult. Rapid breathing is referred
to as Tachypnea and is seen commonly in pyrexia.
Blood pressure: The systolic and diastolic blood pressure is
evaluated using a Sphygmomanometer.
Examination: (Figure 1.15) The patient is seated and his right
arm is placed on a table so that the elbow is supported and
the forearm is at the level of heart. The cuff is centered over
the brachial artery. The pressure cuff is wrapped snugly around
the upper arm with its lower border roughly one inch above
the elbow crease in the antecubital fossa. The patient’s radial
pulse is palpated and the cuff is inflated up to about 20 to 30
mm Hg above the point at which the pulse is no longer palpable.
The cuff is now deflated very gradually until the first pulse is
palpable. This is recorded as the systolic pressure. In this
technique the diastolic pressure cannot be evaluated.
 26 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Figure 1.15: Evaluation of blood pressure

The cuff is deflated and removed from the patient’s arm,

and then replaced and reinflated to the same maximum
pressure. Placing the diaphragm of the stethoscope over the
brachial artery just distal to the elbow crease, the clinician
deflates the cuff about 2-3 mm Hg per second until the first
sound appears. This first sound is recorded as the systolic
pressure.
The pressure in the cuff is further lowered until the sounds
disappear. This point is the diastolic pressure. However if the
cuff is applied too loosely, if it is not completely deflated before
applying, or if it is too small for the patient’s arm size, the
pressure readings will be faulty.
Hypertension is defined as having a Systolic Blood Pressure
of greater than or equal to 140 mm Hg or a Diastolic Blood
Pressure greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg.
Classification of Blood Pressure (National High Blood Pressure
Education Program, NIH publication)

Systolic Blood Pressure Diastolic Blood Pressure

(mm Hg) (mm Hg)

Optimal Less than 120 Less than 80

Normal Less than 130 Less than 85
High Normal 130-139 85-89
 Case History 27

HYPERTENSION

Staging Systolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure

(mm Hg) (mm Hg)

Stage 1 140-159 90-99

Stage 2 160-179 100-109
Stage 3 Greater than or equal to Greater than or equal to
180 110

Sclera
Examine the color of the sclera. In jaundice the sclera appears
yellowish and blue colored sclera is seen in Osteogenesis
imperfecta, Osteoporosis, fetal rickets, Marfan’s syndrome and
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. However blue colored sclera can also
be a normal finding in certain individuals.

Conjunctiva
Conjunctiva is generally pale in
anemia, yellow in jaundice and
red in conjunctivitis.
Bulbar conjunctiva (lines the
eyeball) and Palpebral conjunc-
tiva (lines the upper and lower
eye lids) should be examined.
Palpebral conjunctiva of both
the lower and upper eyelids
should be evaluated. To examine
the palpebral conjunctiva of the
lower lid, it should be pulled
down and the patient is asked
to look up. To examine the
palpebral conjunctiva of the
upper eyelid, the upper lid is
everted and patient is asked to
look downwards. (Figure 1.16) Figure 1.16
 28 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Pallor
Pallor of the skin depends on the thickness of the skin and the
amount and quality of blood in the capillaries. The color of the
oral mucous membrane and the mucosa of the conjunctivae
give a better indication of the pallor.
Pale skin or mucous membranes can have various causes.
Shock and hemorrhage can cause a transient phase of pallor
however anemia can produce a persistent pallor.

Cyanosis
Cyanosis is the bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous
membranes as a result of reduced hemoglobin level in blood.
There are two types of cyanosis, central and peripheral
Central cyanosis : Imperfect oxygenation of blood because of
cardiac or lung disease
Features : generalized cyanosis, extremities are warm to touch,
tongue is the best site to check for cyanosis
Peripheral cyanosis : excessive reduction of oxyhemoglobin in
the capillaries when the flow of blood is slowed (exposure to
cold, venous obstruction or in heart failure).
Features: Cyanosed extremities are cold to touch, tongue is
unaffected.

Clubbing
Clubbing is characterized by thickening of the nail bed;
obliteration of the angle between nail base and adjacent skin
of the finger and the nail becomes convex, losing its longitudinal
ridges. The probable cause for clubbing has been thought to
be because of hypervascularity and opening of anastomotic
channels in the nail bed.
Schamroth’s window test is used to check for clubbing.
When the nails of two index fingers are placed in apposition,
there is a lozenge shaped gap, however in clubbing there is a
reduction in this gap. Conditions where clubbing is seen are
 Case History 29

Crohn’s disease, lung abscess,

ulcerative colitis, bronchiectasis,
infective endocarditis (Figures
1.17A and B).

Oedema
Oedema is a result of accumu-
lation of excess fluid within the
subcutaneous tissues. Oedema
may also be a feature of
cutaneous or subcutaneous
inflammatory reaction. Early A
morning oedema of the face may
be seen in acute nephritis,
dependent oedema may be seen
in congestive heart failure.
Oedema may be recognized by
the presence of glossy skin
surface over the swollen site
which pits on finger pressure.
Pitting oedema can be readily
B
demonstrated over the ankles
Figures 1.17A and B
and dorsal surface of the feet.

Extraoral Examination (Head and Neck)

Face
Gross asymmetries of the face are noted. In the absence of
any abnormality, the statement “The face is apparently
symmetrical” can be made. Diffuse swellings, traumatic injuries,
congenital deformities can contribute to asymmetry of the face
(Figure 1.18).

Skin
Presence of areas of altered pigmentation, scars, ulcers, sinuses,
and lacerations are noted (Figure 1.19).
 30 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

Figure 1.18 Figure 1.19

Nose
In a dental setting the external
surface of the nose and the nares
can be readily visualized. Deflected
nasal septum can also be exa-
mined. A saddle nose or depression
of the bridge of the nose is seen
in syphilis (Figure 1.20).

Eyes
Congenital abnormalities can
cause Hypertelorism (increased Figure 1.20
spacing between both the
eyes). Check for presence of
pallor, icterus, and conjunctivitis. Exophthalmoses (protrusion
of the eye ball) may be a sign of hyperthyroidism (Figure 1.21).

Temporomandibular Joint
Look for gross deviation of the mandible; note any clinically
evident masses over the TMJ. Palpate the joint, check for
 Case History 31

Figure 1.21

mouth opening, comment on tenderness on palpation, clicks

are to be recorded. Also note deviation of the mandible on
mouth opening.

Salivary Glands
Examine the major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular and
sublingual glands). Evaluate for enlargements, dryness of mouth
and the quantity and character of the secretions (watery,
purulent) from the respective orifices.

Lymph Nodes (Head and Neck)

Examine the lymph nodes of the head and neck region.
Comment on the site, size, number, consistency, tenderness
and fixity to the underling structures.

INTRAORAL EXAMINATION
Hard Tissues
Teeth Present
Make a note of the total number of teeth present. Record the
teeth present in FDI or Zigmondy Palmer system of
 32 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

nomenclature of teeth notation. Specifically examine for

presence of the third molars. If the third molars are partially
covered by a pericoronal flap then they can be recorded as
impacted teeth.
ZIGMONDY PALMER SYSTEM

DECIDUOUS DENTITION PERMANENT DENTITION

E D C B A A B C D E 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 56 7 8
E D C B A A B C D E 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 56 7 8

FDI (FEDERATION DENTAIRE INTERNATIONALE) SYSTEM

DECIDUOUS DENTITION PERMANENT DENTITION

55 54 53 52 51 61 62 63 64 65 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
85 84 83 82 81 71 72 73 74 75 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

ADA (AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION) SYSTEM OR

UNIVERSAL SYSTEM
In this system of nomenclature permanent teeth are numbered
from 1 to 32. Each tooth in the arch is given a single number. The
numbering of teeth begins with the upper right third molar and
ends with the lower right third molar (In a clock wise direction).
Deciduous teeth are named with alphabets (A to T) starting
from the upper right second molar and ending with the lower
right second molar (In a clockwise direction) (Figure 1.22).

Missing Teeth
Make a note of the teeth that are absent. (Ask the patient
the reason for loss of teeth; exfoliated as a result of mobility or
trauma; extracted following decay or trauma; congenitally
missing teeth).
Congenitally missing teeth: (Figure 1.23)
A total lack of tooth development is referred to as Anodontia.
Lack of development of one or more teeth is referred to as
Hypodontia and lack of development of six or more teeth is
termed as Oligodontia. Congenitally missing teeth should be
confirmed radiographically.
 Case History 33

Figure 1.22

Figure 1.23

Edentulous arches
In edentulous patients examine the alveolar ridge. Comment
on the shape (U shaped/V shaped); well formed or flabby ridges.
Examine for the presence of bony spicules, and tori. Palpate to
evaluate for tender areas on the alveolar ridge. Comment on
the palatal vault (shallow, deep).

Dental Caries
Record all the teeth that are carious. Describe the site of decay
(occlusal, proximal, buccal, lingual cervical, root surface).
The surfaces of teeth must be examined for chalky white
or dark discoloration or cavitation. These are signs of initial
decay of teeth. However, a “catch” experienced during probing
 34 Clinical Manual for Oral Medicine and Radiology

A: To evaluate for catch

B: Correct method for

detecting proximal caries

C: Incorrect method for

detecting proximal caries
Figures 1.24A to C

the surface of the tooth is a definitive evidence of decay (Figures

1.24A to C). Proximal caries are generally difficult to detect.
However, positioning the explorer tip interproximally and
directing pressure pulpally can help detect proximal caries. Dental
floss can also be used to detect proximal caries. Fraying of the
strands of the dental floss can indicate proximal caries.
Radiographs are generally the best ways to identify proximal
carious lesion (Figure 1.25).
 Case History 35

Figure 1.25

Dental Caries with Pulpal Involvement

Make a note of all teeth, which are extensively decayed with a
possible clinical suspicion of pulpal involvement. All such teeth
are to be percussed and any tenderness elicited should be
recorded.

Root Stumps
These are teeth with extensive carious lesions with barely or
no crown structure evident clinically (Figure 1.26).

Figure 1.26
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
in this, as in most things, we have run into excess. I cannot believe
that the largest steam yacht afloat, with all the luxury and cost that
upholsterers and cabinet-makers can devise, will ever give a man
who is fond of the sea and seafaring matters a tithe of the
gratification that a 100-ton sailing vessel will afford; one is a floating
hotel, the other is a floating cottage. I prefer the cottage.

The worry of maintaining discipline in a crew of forty or fifty men,

amongst whom there is sure to be one or two black sheep, the
smoke, the smell of oil, the vibration, the noise, even the monotony,
destroy pleasure. Personally, the game seems to me not worth the
candle.

Thirty or forty years ago, yachting men with their sixty or hundred
tonners went on year after year, fitting out, and cruising about the
coast, as part of their yearly life. When their vessel was wearing out,
they would sell her, and buy or build another; they seldom parted
with her for any other reason. Now a man builds a floating palace or
hotel at a fabulous cost; but as a general rule in about two years he
wants to sell her and to retire from yachting life.

A sailing vessel and a steamer are different articles; you get

attached to a sailing vessel as you do to anything animate, to your
horse, or your dog; but I defy anyone to get attached to a smoky,
oily steamer. There is an individuality about the sailing vessel; none
about the steamer.

When the seven wise men of Greece delivered the oracular dictum
that there were only two beautiful things in the world, women and
roses, and only two good things, women and wine, they spoke
according to their limited experience—they had never seen the new
type of racing yacht under sail. Of course the perfection of animate
beauty is represented by women, but certainly inanimate nature can
show nothing more beautiful than 'Britannia,' 'Navahoe,' 'Valkyrie,'
'Satanita,' their sails well filled, the sun shining on them, streaking
along twelve or thirteen knots an hour, apparently without an effort,
scarcely raising a ripple. And then a yacht is so exceedingly feminine
in her ways. One day everything goes right with her—she will not
only do all she is asked to do, but a great deal more than her
greatest admirers ever thought she could do: the next day
everything goes wrong with her—she will not do anything she is
asked, and indeed will not do what her admirers know she can do
without an effort.

Some women—I speak it with all respect—bear being 'squeezed'

and 'pinched,' they almost seem to like it, at any rate they don't cry
out; whereas others will cry out immediately and vigorously. So will
yachts.

The more you squeeze one vessel, the more you pinch her, the
more she seems to enjoy it. Squeeze another, pinch her into the
wind, and she lies down and calls out at once. The difference
between vessels in this respect is quite funny, and essentially
feminine.

Curiously enough, extremes meet; that is to say, if the pendulum

of taste or fashion goes very much over to one side, it is sure to go
over just as far on the other. Sailing yachts of 100, 200, 300 tons
have gone out of fashion, and leviathan steamers of 800, 1,000,
1,500 tons have taken their place; but at the same time that a taste
for immense steamers has driven moderate-sized sailing vessels out
of the field, a taste for small boats, 5-raters, 3-raters, ½-raters—I
don't quite understand their rating—has sprung up, and promises
almost to supplant the big steamers themselves.

I believe the increasing popularity of these swallows of the seas—

for turning, wheeling, skimming, doubling, as they do, I can
compare them to nothing else—is a very good omen for yachting;
they are expensive for their size and tonnage, certainly, but, after
all, their cost may be counted in hundreds instead of tens of
thousands. They have brought scientific boat sailing and racing
within the reach of hundreds who cannot afford big racing yachts;
and, moreover, the ladies join in these exciting contests, and of
course very often win. In endurance, and courage, and nerve, and
quickness, they are quite the equals of the other sex; and if they are
occasionally a little too pertinacious, a little too eager to win, and
don't always 'go about' exactly when the rules of the road require,
what does it signify? Who grudges them their little victory?

A flight of these sea swallows skimming over the course at Calshot

Castle, on a fine day with a good working breeze, is one of the
prettiest sights in the world.

Independently of the health-giving and invigorating influences

both to mind and body of a yachting life, it has advantages that in
my opinion raise it above any other sport, if sport it is to be called.
There is neither cruelty nor professionalism in yachting, except when
certain foolish snobs in sheer wantonness shoot the too-confiding
gulls that hover round the sterns of their yachts. There is no
professional element in yachting, I repeat, not even in yacht racing,
at least not enough to speak of, and it is an enormous advantage in
its favour that it brings one into contact with what I believe is
without doubt the best of our working population; for are not the
toilers of the sea workers in the very fullest sense of the word?

Yacht sailors, as a rule, are sober, honest, obliging, good-

tempered, original. During the many years I have yachted, I have
had crews from north, east, west, and south, and I have almost
without exception found them the same. A man must be hard to
please indeed, if, after a three or four months' cruise, he does not
part from his crew with regret, and with a sincere wish that they
may meet again.

Amongst yachting skippers, I have come across some of the most

honourable, trustworthy, honest men I have met in any class of life,
men who know their duty, and are always willing and anxious to do
it.
 The chief peculiarity of all the seafaring class that I have been
brought into contact with is their entire freedom from vulgarity. They
are obliging to the utmost of their power, but never cringing or
vulgar. The winter half of their lives is spent in fishing-boats, or
coasters, or sea voyages where they have to face dangers and
hardships that must be experienced to be realised. As a rule, they
are religious; and their preparations for the Sabbath, their washings
and soapings and brushings, show with what pleasure they welcome
its recurrence. Yacht minstrelsy, with its accordion, its songs of
twenty verses, its never-ending choruses, its pathos, is a thing of
itself. Some day perhaps some Albert Chevalier will make it
fashionable. Such as they are, I know no class of Englishmen
superior, if any be equal, to the sailors who man our yachts. Of
course there are sharks, or at any rate dog-fish, in all waters; but
where the good so immensely outnumber the bad, that man must
be a fool indeed who gets into wrong hands.

To say there is no vulgarity in yachting is not true; there is; but it

is not amongst the men or among the skippers. And, after all, the
vulgarity one sometimes sees amongst yacht-owners does not go for
much; it amuses them and hurts nobody. If the amateur sailor
wishes to be thought more of a sailor than the sailor born, he soon
finds out his mistake, and when he gets into a good club subsides
into his proper position.

To those who are fond of the sea and of yachting, the yacht is the
most 'homey' of residences; everything is cosy, and comfortable, and
within reach; and the sensation of carrying your house and all its
comforts about with you is unique.

The internal economy of a yacht constitutes one of its greatest

charms. Your cook, with only a little stove for which a shore cook
would scarcely find any use, will send you up an excellent dinner
cooked to perfection for any number of guests; and the steward!
who can describe the work of a yacht's steward? I doubt whether
Briareus with his hundred hands could do more than a steward does
with two. At seven in the morning he is ashore for the milk, and the
breakfast, and the letters, and the flowers; he valets half a dozen
people, prepares half a dozen baths, brushes heaven knows how
many clothes, gets the breakfast, makes the beds, cleans the plate,
tidies the cabin, provides luncheon, five-o'clock tea, dinner, is always
cheerful, obliging, painstaking, and more than repaid if occasionally
he gets a petit mot of compliment or congratulation. When he ever
sleeps, or eats, I never can tell; and, far from grumbling at his work,
he often resents the assistance of any shore-going servant.

The introduction of steam launches has added very much to the

pleasures of yachting, and to my mind has greatly lessened the
advantages, if any, that steamers possess over sailing vessels. Every
vessel of 100 tons and over can now carry a steam launch, big or
small, at the davits, or on deck. You sail from port to port, or loch to
loch, in your sailing vessel, and when you have found snug
anchorage, you 'out kettle' and puff away for as long as you like,
enjoying the pleasure of exploring the rivers and creeks and
neighbouring objects of interest. Everywhere this is delightful, at
Plymouth, at Dartmouth, at Falmouth, the Scilly Isles, at St. Malo,
and perhaps especially in Scotland.

To my mind, the West Coast of Scotland is, par excellence, the

happy cruising grounds of yachtsmen. I know of none like it—the
number and variety of the lochs, the wild grandeur of some, the soft
beauty of others, the mountains, the rocks, the islands, the solitude,
the forests, the trees.

Oh! the Oak and the Ash, and the bonny Ivy tree,
They flourish best at home in the North Countrie.

The heather, especially the white, the ferns, the mosses, the wild
flowers, the innumerable birds and fish, the occasional seals and
whales, the wildness of the surroundings, all combine to give it a
charm that is indescribable. I have seen on the coast of Skye a
whale, thirty or forty feet long, jump clean out of the water three or
four times, like a salmon. Anchored close under a cliff in Loch Hourn,
and happening to look up, I met the wondering eyes of a hind
craning over the edge of the cliffs, and staring right down on the
yacht. Go the world over, you will nowhere find so much varied
beauty, above or below, on land or sea, as on the West Coast of
Scotland.

Nobody can explore or appreciate the beauty of the Scotch lochs

without a 'kettle.' It spoils one's pleasure to keep a boat's crew
pulling for eight or ten hours in a hot sun, and therefore, if you have
no steam launch, many expeditions that promise much interest and
pleasure are abandoned; but with your kettle and a man, or a man
and a boy, you don't care how long you are out or how far you go.
This to my mind is the most enjoyable combination of sails and
steam—a comfortable sailing vessel, schooner or ketch for choice, to
carry you from port to port, and a steam launch for exploration
when you get there.

The accommodation of a sailing vessel is, on a rough calculation,

double the accommodation of a steamer of the same tonnage. The
Earl of Wilton, Commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, had a
schooner of 200 tons, and after sailing in her many years he
decided, as so many others have done, to give up sailing and take to
steam. To obtain exactly the same accommodation that he had on
board his 200-ton schooner, he had to build a steamer, the 'Palatine,'
of 400 tons. Of course in an iron steamer of 400 tons the height
between decks is very much greater than in a wooden schooner of
200 tons. Also the cabins are larger, but there are no more of them.

I think many people have erroneous ideas of the cost of yachting.

Yacht racing, especially in the modern cutters of 150 or 170 tons, is
very expensive. The wear and tear of spars and gear is incredible. I
believe that in the yachting season of 1893 H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales's vessel the 'Britannia' sprang or carried away three masts;
and some of his competitors were not more lucky. Then racing
wages are very heavy: 10s. per man when you lose, and 20s. when
you win, with unlimited beef, and beer, &c., mount up when you
have a great many hands, and the new type of racer, with booms 90
feet long, requires an unlimited number; when you look at these
boats racing, they seem actually swarming with men. In addition to
10s. or 20s. to each man, the skipper gets 5 per cent. or 10 per
cent. of the value of the prize, or its equivalent.

So that a modern racing yacht with a crew of 30 men may, if

successful, easily knock a hole in 1,000l. for racing wages alone, to
say nothing of cost of spars, and sails, and gear, &c. Of course, in
comparison with keeping a pack of hounds, or a deer forest, or a
good grouse moor, or to pheasant preserving on a very large scale,
the expense of yacht racing even at its worst is modest; but still in
these days 1,000l. or 1,500l. is an item.

But yachting for pleasure, yacht cruising in fact, is not an

expensive amusement. The wages of a 100- to a 200-ton cutter or
schooner will vary from 50l. to 100l. a month at the outside, and the
wear and tear, if the vessel and gear are in good order, is very
moderate; and undoubtedly the living on board a yacht is infinitely
cheaper than living ashore.

Thirty to forty pounds, or as much as fifty pounds, a week may

easily go in hotel bills if there is a largish party. Half the sum will
keep a 100- or 150-ton yacht going, wages, wear and tear, food, &c.,
included, if you are afloat for three or four months. Certainly for a
party of four or five yachting is cheaper than travelling on the
Continent with a courier and going to first-class hotels. Travelling on
the Continent under the best conditions often becomes a bore; the
carriages are stuffy and dusty, the trains are late, the officials are
uncivil or at least indifferent, the hotels are full, the kitchen is bad,
and you come to the conclusion that you would be better at home.
Now, on board a yacht you are never stuffy or dusty, the
accommodation is always good, everyone about you is always civil,
anxious for your comfort, the kitchen is never bad, and you cannot
come to the conclusion that you would be better at home, for you
are at home—the most cosy and comfortable of homes!
 The yachting season of 1893 will always be a memorable one. The
victory of H.I.M. the German Emperor's 'Meteor' for the Queen's Cup
at Cowes; the victorious career of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales's
'Britannia' and the 'Valkyrie'; the series of international contests
between the 'Britannia' and 'Navahoe,' with the unexpected victory
of the latter over the cross-Channel course; and, finally, the gallant
attempt of Lord Dunraven to bring back the cup from America, make
a total of yachting incidents, and indeed surprises, that will last for a
very long time. The victory of the 'Meteor' in the Queen's Cup was a
surprise: it was more than a surprise when the 'Navahoe' beat
'Britannia' to Cherbourg and back in a gale of wind. I don't know
that it was a matter of surprise that the Americans kept the Cup; I
think, indeed, it was almost a foregone conclusion. In yachting, as in
everything else, possession is nine points of the law, and a vessel
sailing in her own waters, with pilots accustomed to the local
currents and atmospheric movements, will always have an
advantage. Whether the 'Vigilant' is a better boat than the 'Valkyrie,'
whether she was better sailed, whether her centreboard had
anything to do with her victory, I cannot say. But there is the result:
that the 'Vigilant' won by seven minutes, which, at the rate they
were sailing, means about a mile.

It would appear that the Americans are still slightly ahead of us in

designing yachts for speed, but they are not nearly as far ahead of
us as they were forty years ago. I remember the first time the
'America' sailed at Cowes in 1851. I could not believe my eyes. It
was blowing a stiff breeze, and whilst all the other schooners were
laying over ten or twelve degrees, she was sailing perfectly upright,
and going five knots to their four. It was a revelation—how does she
do it? was in everybody's mouth. Now we are much more on an
equality. The 'Navahoe,' a beautiful vessel, one of the best, comes to
England and is worsted: the 'Valkyrie,' a beautiful vessel, also one of
the best, goes over to America and is worsted.

The moral I think is 'race at home in your own waters.' I do not

believe much in international contests of any kind, gravely doubting
whether they do much to promote international amity.

It is a familiar sight to see H.R.H. the Prince of Wales taking part

in yacht racing, but 1893 was the first occasion, in an English yacht
race at any rate, that the Kaiser donned his flannels and joined
personally in the contest. I suppose there is no monarch who is so
dosed with ceremony and etiquette as the Emperor of Germany.
What a relief, therefore, it must be to him to put aside the cares of
monarchy for a whole week, and sit for hours in two or three inches
of water, hauling away at the mainsheet as if his life depended on it,
happy as the traditional king, if, when he has gone about, he finds
he has gained six feet on his rival!

But beyond all this—the heartiness, the equality, the good feeling,
the absorbing interest that attends yacht racing and yacht cruising—
there are some very interesting questions that suggest themselves in
connection with the great increase of speed lately developed by the
new type of racing yachts.

There is no doubt whatever that whereas the Pleasure Fleet of

England is progressing and improving every year, and is a subject of
congratulation to everyone concerned with it—designers, builders,
and sailors—the Business Fleet, the Royal Navy, is the very reverse:
not only has it not improved, but it appears to have been going
steadily the wrong road; and instead of being a joy to designers and
sailors, it is confusion to the former, and something very like dismay
to the latter.

In James I.'s time the fleet was not held in very high estimation. It
was said of it that 'first it went to Gravesend, then to Land's End,
and then to No End,' and really that appears to be its condition now.
Whilst yachts are developing all the perfections of the sailing ship,
our ironclads seem to be developing most of the imperfections of the
steamship.
 Whilst our yachts can do anything but speak, our ironclads can do
anything but float. Of course this is an exaggeration; but
exaggeration is excusable at times, at least if we are to be guided by
the debates in Parliament. At any rate, it is no exaggeration to say
they are very disappointing. If they go slow, they won't steer. If they
go fast, they won't stop. If they collide in quite a friendly way, they
go down. One sinks in twelve minutes, and the other with difficulty
keeps afloat. In half a gale of wind, if the crew remain on deck, they
are nearly drowned; if they go below, they are nearly asphyxiated.

They have neither stability nor buoyancy. But this does not apply
to English ironclads alone. French, German, Italian, American, are all
the same. Some of these monsters are fitted with machinery as
delicate and complicated as a watch that strikes the hours, and
minutes, and seconds, tells the months, weeks, and days, the
phases of the moon, &c. &c. Some of them have no fewer than
thirty to thirty-five different engines on board. If the vessel
containing all this wonderful and elaborate machinery never left the
Thames or Portsmouth Harbour, all well and good, very likely the
machinery would continue to work; but to send such a complex
arrangement across the Atlantic or the Bay in winter seems to me
contrary to common sense.

The biggest ironclad afloat, a monster of 13,000 tons, in mid

ocean is, after all, only as 'a flea on the mountain'; it is nothing; it is
tossed about, and rolled about, and struck by the seas and washed
by them, just as if it were a pilot boat of 60 tons. It is certain that
the concussion of the sea will throw many of these delicate bits of
machinery out of gear: in the 'Resolution' in a moderate gale the
engine that supplied air below decks broke down; the blow that sank
the unfortunate 'Victoria' threw the steering apparatus out of gear,
so that if she had not gone down she would not have steered; more
recently still the water in the hydraulic steering apparatus in a ship
off Sheerness froze, so that she could not put to sea. If such
accidents can happen in time of peace, when vessels are only
manœuvring, or going from port to port, what would happen if two
13,000-ton ships rammed each other at full speed? Is it not almost
certain that the whole thirty-five engines would stop work?

We have, I suppose, nearly reached the maximum of speed

attainable by steam; have we nearly reached the maximum
attainable by sails? By no means. When Anacharsis the younger was
asked which was the best ship, he said the ship that had arrived safe
in port; but even the ancients were not always infallible. The
'Resolution' did not prove she was the best ship by coming into port;
on the contrary, she would have proved herself a much better ship if
she had been able to continue her voyage. What we want in a man-
of-war, as far as I understand the common-sense view of the
question, is buoyancy, speed, handiness, and the power of keeping
the seas for long periods.

Racing cutters of 150 to 170 tons are now built to sail at a speed
that two years ago was not dreamt of. Where a short time since the
best of them used to take minutes to go about, they now go about
in as many seconds. The racing vessels of the present day will reach
thirteen or fourteen knots an hour, and sail ten knots on a wind;
with hardly any wind at all they creep along eight knots. They do not
appear to be able to go less than eight knots; double their size, and
their speed would be immensely increased.

Now if thirteen and fourteen knots can be got out of a vessel of

170 tons, and seventeen knots out of one double her size, what
speed might you fairly expect to get out of a racing vessel of 10,000
tons? Rather a startling suggestion certainly; but, if carefully
examined, not without reason.

We have nothing to guide us as to the probable speed of a racing

vessel of that size. Time allowance becomes lost in the immensity of
the question.

I see no reason why a vessel of 10,000 tons, built entirely for

speed, should not, on several points of sailing, go as fast as any
torpedo boat, certainly much faster than any ironclad. Her speed,
reaching in a strong breeze, would be terrific; and if 'Britannia,'
'Navahoe,' 'Valkyrie,' 'Vigilant,' and vessels of that class can sail ten
knots on a wind, why should not she sail fifteen? She would have to
be fore and aft rigged, with an immense spread of canvas, very high
masts, and very long booms; single sticks would be nowhere; but
iron sticks and iron booms can be built up of any length and any
strength, and with wire rigging I see no limit to size. Such a vessel
amply provided with torpedoes of all descriptions, and all the
modern diabolisms for destroying life, would be so dangerous a
customer that no ironclad would attack her with impunity. Of course
there would occasionally be conditions under which she would be at
a disadvantage with ironclads; but, on the other hand, there are
many conditions under which ironclads, even the best of them,
would be under enormous disadvantages with her. She could
circumnavigate the globe without stopping. I believe her passages
would be phenomenal, life on board would be bright and healthy,
she would be seaworthy, able to keep the seas in all weathers, easily
handled, no complicated machinery to fail you at the moment when
you were most dependent on it; and then what a beauty she would
be! Why, a fleet of such vessels would be a sight for gods and men.
We have sailing vessels of 3,000 and 4,000 tons, four-masted,
square-rigged; they are built for carrying, not for speed, but even
they make passages that to the merchant seaman of a hundred
years ago would appear incredible.

I probably shall not live to see the clumsy, unwieldy, complicated,

unseaworthy machines called ironclads cast aside, wondered at by
succeeding generations, as we now wonder at the models of
antediluvian monsters at the Crystal Palace; but that such will be
their fate I have no doubt whatever. For our battleships we have
gone back to the times of knights in armour, when men were so
loaded with iron that where they fell there they remained, on their
backs or their stomachs, till their squires came to put them on their
legs again. I am certain that neither the public, nor the naval
authorities of the world, realise what an ironclad in time of war
means—positively they will never be safe out of near reach of a
coaling station. Suppose—and this is tolerably certain to happen—
that when they reach a coaling station they find no coal, or very
possibly find it in the hands of the enemy. What are they to do?
Without coal to steam back again, or to reach another station, they
will be as helpless as any derelict on the ocean: a balloon without
gas, a locomotive without steam, a 100-ton gun without powder,
would not be so useless as an ironclad without coal.

But what has all this to do with yachting? it may be asked. Well, it
is the logical and practical result of the recent development of speed
in sailing vessels. It positively becomes the question whether racing
sails and racing hulls may not, in speed even, give results almost as
satisfactory as steam, and in many other matters results far more
favourable.

Of course the model of the racing yacht would have to be altered

for the vessel of 10,000 tons. Vessels must get their stability from
beam and from the scientific adjustment of weights, not merely from
depth of keel—the Channel would not be deep enough for a vessel
that drew twenty fathoms; but this change of design need not affect
their speed or their stability very much.

In the introduction to the Badminton Library volumes on Yachting,

a great deal might be expected about the national importance of the
pastime as a nursery for sailors, a school for daring, and all that sort
of thing. But I think all this 'jumps to the eyes'; those who run may
read it. I have preferred to treat the question of yachting more as
one of personal pleasure and amusement than of national policy;
and besides, I am sure that I may safely leave the more serious
aspects of the sport to the writers whose names are attached to the
volumes.

For myself, after yachting for nearly a quarter of a century, I can

safely say that it has afforded me more unmixed pleasure than any
other sport or amusement I have ever tried. Everything about it has
been a source of delight to me—the vessels, the skippers, the crews,
the cruises. I do not think I have ever felt dull or bored on a yacht,
and even now, in the evening of life, I would willingly contract to
spend my remaining summers on board a 200-ton schooner.
 CHAPTER II

OCEAN CRUISING
By Lord Brassey, K.C.B.

I fear that I can scarcely hope to contribute to the present volume

of the admirable Badminton Series anything that is very new or
original. Although my voyages have extended over a long period,
and have carried me into nearly every navigable sea, I have for the
most part followed well-known tracks. The seamanship, as practised
in the 'Sunbeam,' has been in conformity with established rule; the
navigation has been that of the master-ordinary.

It would be hardly fair to fill the pages of a general treatise with

autobiography. As an introduction, however, to the remarks which
follow, my career as a yachtsman may be summarised in the most
condensed form.

VOYAGES

Twelve voyages to the Mediterranean; the furthest points reached

being Constantinople, 1874 and 1878; Cyprus, 1878; Egypt, 1882.

Three circumnavigations of Great Britain.

One circumnavigation of Great Britain and the Shetland Islands, in

1881.

Two circumnavigations of Ireland.

 Cruises with the fleets during manœuvres, in 1885, 1888, and
1889.

Voyages to Norway, in 1856, 1874, and 1885. In the latter year Mr.
Gladstone and his family were honoured and charming guests.

Voyages to Holland, in 1858 and 1863.

Round the World, 1876-77.

India, Straits Settlements, Borneo, Macassar, Australia, Cape of

Good Hope, 1886-87.

England to Calcutta, 1893.

Two voyages to the West Indies, 1883 and 1892, the latter
including visits to the Chesapeake and Washington.

'Sunbeam,' R.Y.S. (Lord Brassey).

Canada and the United States, 1872.

 The Baltic, 1860.

In 1889 the 'Sunbeam' was lent to Lord Tennyson, for a short

cruise in the Channel. The owner deeply regrets that he was
prevented by Parliamentary duties from taking charge of his vessel
with a passenger so illustrious on board.

The distances covered in the course of the various cruises

enumerated may be approximately given:—

Distances sailed: compiled from Log Books

Year Knots Year Knots Year Knots Year Knots

1854 150 1864 1,000 1874 12,747 1884 3,087
1855 250 1865 2,626 1875 4,370 1885 6,344
1856 2,000 1866 4,400 1876 1886
37,000 36,466
1857 1,500 1867 3,000 1877 1887
1858 2,500 1868 1,000 1878 9,038 1888 1,175
1859 2,300 1869 1,900 1879 5,627 1889 8,785
1860 1,000 1870 1,400 1880 5,415 1890 8,287
1861 800 1871 5,234 1881 5,435 1891 1,133
1862 3,200 1872 9,152 1882 3,345 1892 11,992
1863 900 1873 2,079 1883 13,545 1893 8,500

Total, 1854-1893, 228,682 knots.

I turn from the voyages to the yachts in which they were

performed, observing that no later possession filled its owner with
more pride than was felt in the smart little 8-tonner which heads the
list.

Date Name of yacht Rig Tonnage —

1854-
Spray of the Ocean Cutter 8 —
58
Cymba (winner of Queen's Cup Fife of Fairlie's
1853 " 50
in the Mersey, 1857) favourite
1859-
Albatross 118 —
60
1863- Auxiliary
Meteor 164 —
71 schooner
1871- Dan Hatcher's
Muriel Cutter 60
72 favourite
1872 Eothen S.S. 340 —
1874- Auxiliary
Sunbeam 532 —
93 schooner
1882-
Norman Cutter 40 Dan Hatcher
83
Camper and
1891 Lorna " 90
Nicholson (1881)
1892-
Zarita Yawl 115 Fife of Fairlie (1875)
93
Yachts hired
1885 Lillah Cutter 20 —
1863 Eulalie " 18 —
1873 Livonia Schooner 240 Ratsey (1871)

The variety of craft in the foregoing list naturally affords

opportunity for comparison. I shall be glad if such practical lessons
as I have learned can be of service to my brother yachtsmen. And,
first, as to the class of vessel suitable for ocean cruising. As might be
expected, our home-keeping craft are generally too small for long
voyages. Rajah Brooke did some memorable work in the 'Royalist'
schooner, 45 tons; but a vessel of 400 tons is not too large to keep
the sea and to make a fair passage in all weathers, while giving
space enough for privacy and comfort to the owner, his friends, and
the crew. Such vessels as the truly noble 'St. George,' 871 tons, the
'Valhalla,' 1,400 tons, and Mr. Vanderbilt's 'Valiant,' of 2,350 tons (Mr.
St. Clare Byrne's latest production), cannot be discussed as
examples of a type which can be repeated in ordinary practice.
Yachtsmen have been deterred from going to sufficient tonnage by
considerations of expense. When providing a floating home of
possibly many years, first cost is a less serious question than the
annual outlay in maintaining and working.

A cruise on the eastern seaboard of North America, where the

business of coasting has been brought to the highest perfection,
would materially alter the prevailing view as to the complements
necessary for handling a schooner of the tonnage recommended.
The coasting trade of the United States is carried on in large
schooners, rigged with three to five masts. All the sails are fore and
aft. In tacking, a couple of hands attend the headsheets, and these,
with a man at the wheel, are sufficient to do the work of a watch,
even in narrow channels, working short boards. The anchor is
weighed and the large sails are hoisted by steam-power. The crews
of the American fore-and-aft schooners scarcely exceed the
proportion of one man to every hundred tons of cargo carried. For a
three-masted schooner of 400 tons, a crew of twelve working hands
would be ample, even where the requirements of a yacht have to be
provided for. In point of safety, comfort, speed in blowing weather,
and general ability to keep the sea and make passages, the 400-ton
schooner would offer most desirable advantages over schooner
yachts of half the tonnage, although manned with the same number
of hands.

It is not within the scope of my present remarks to treat of naval

architecture. The volumes will contain contributions from such able
men as Messrs. G. L. Watson, who designed the 'Britannia' and
'Valkyrie,' and Lewis Herreshoff, whose 'Navahoe' and 'Vigilant' have
recently attracted so much attention. I may, however, say that my
personal experience leads me to admire the American models, in
which broad beam and good sheer are always found. In 1886, I had
the opportunity of seeing the International Race for the America
Cup, when the English cutter 'Galatea' (Lieut. Henn, R.N.), with a
sail-area of 7,146 feet, and 81 tons of ballast, sailed against the
American sloop 'Puritan,' with 9,000 square feet of sail-area and 48
tons of ballast. On this occasion, the advantages of great beam,
combined with a shallow middle body and a deep keel, were
conspicuously illustrated. The Americans, while satisfied with their
type, do not consider their sloops as seaworthy as our cutters. The
development which seems desirable in our English building was
indicated in a letter addressed to the 'Times' from Chicago in
September 1886:—
 Avoiding exaggerations on both sides, we may build up on the solid keel of
an English cutter a hull not widely differing in form from that of the typical
American sloop. It can be done, and pride and prejudice should not be
suffered to bar the way of improvement. The yachtsmen of a past generation,
led by Mr. Weld of Lulworth, the owner of the famous 'Alarm,' were not slow to
learn a lesson from the contests with the 'America' in 1851. We may improve
our cutters, as we formerly improved our schooners, by adaptations and
modifications, which need not be servile imitations of the fine sloops our
champion vessels have encountered on the other side of the Atlantic.

After the lapse of seven years, we find ourselves, in 1893, at the

termination of a very remarkable year's yachting. The new
construction has included H.R.H. the Prince of Wales's yacht, the
'Britannia,' with 23 feet beam, Lord Dunraven's 'Valkyrie,' Mr. Clarke's
'Satanita,' and the Clyde champion 'Calluna,' all conspicuous for
development of beam, combined with the deep, fine keel which is
our English substitute for the American centreboard. These vessels
have proved doughty antagonists of the 'Navahoe,' brought over by
that spirited yacht-owner, Mr. Caryll, to challenge all comers in British
waters.

Thus far as to sailing yachts. Though the fashion of the hour has
set strongly towards steam-propelled vessels, the beautiful white
canvas, and the easy motion when under sail, will long retain their
fascination for all pleasure voyaging. It is pleasant to be free from
the thud of engines, the smell of oil, and the horrors of the
inevitable coaling. Owners who have no love for sailing, and to
whom a yacht is essentially a means of conveyance from port to port
and a floating home, do well to go for steam. The most efficient and
cheapest steam yacht is one in which the masts are reduced to two
signal-poles, on which jib-headed trysails may be set to prevent
rolling. As to tonnage, the remarks already offered on the
advantages of large size apply to steamers even more than to sailing
yachts. When space must be given to machinery, boilers, and
bunkers, the tonnage must be ample to give the required
accommodation. The cost of building and manning, and the horse-
power of the engines, do not increase in proportion to the increase
of size. The building of steamers for the work of tramps has now
been brought down to 7l. per ton. I would strongly urge yacht-
owners contemplating ocean cruising to build vessels of not less
than 600 tons. Let the fittings be as simple and inexpensive as
possible, but let the tonnage be large enough to secure a powerful
sea-boat, with coal endurance equal to 3,000 knots, at ten knots,
capable of keeping up a fair speed against a stiff head wind, and
habitable and secure in all weathers.

Deck-houses are a great amenity at sea, but the conventional

yacht skipper loves a roomy deck, white as snow, truly a marvel of
scrubbing. Considerations of habitability at sea are totally
disregarded by one who feels no need for an airy place of retirement
for reading and writing. The owner, seeking to make life afloat pass
pleasantly, will consider deck cabins indispensable.

There remains a third and very important type for ocean cruising,
that of the sailing yacht with auxiliary steam-power. The 'Firefly,'
owned by Sir Henry Oglander, the pioneer in this class, suggested to
the present writer a debased imitation in the 'Meteor,' 164 tons.
About the same date somewhat similar vessels were brought out,
amongst others by Lord Dufferin, whose earliest experiences under
sail had been given to the world in 'Letters from High Latitudes.' All
will remember the never-varying announcement by a not too
cheering steward, on calling his owner, in response to the inquiry,
'How is the wind?' 'Dead ahead, my lord, dead ahead!'

The 'Sunbeam' was launched in 1874;

following in her wake, the 'Chazalie,'
1875, 'Czarina,' 1877, and the 'Lancashire
Witch,' 1878, appeared in rapid
succession. The 'Lancashire Witch' was
bought by the Admiralty for a surveying
vessel, as being especially adapted to the
'Sunbeam'—midship section. requirements of that particular service.
The 'St. George,' 831 tons, launched
1890, is an enlargement and improvement on her predecessors
already named. She does credit to her owner, Mr. Wythes; the
designer, Mr. Storey; and the builders, Messrs. Ramage. The
'Sunbeam,' as the first of this class, has been a great success. She
was designed by Mr. St. Clare Byrne, M.I.N.A., as a composite three-
masted topsail-yard screw schooner, constructed at Birkenhead, and
launched in 1874. The following table gives the leading details:—

Material of hull Iron frame, teak skin

Length of hull 159 feet, over all 170 feet
Beam 27 ft. 6 in.
Depth of hold 13 ft. 9 in.
Displacement in tons 576 tons
Draught 13 ft. 6 in.
Registered tonnage 227 tons
Engines, compound By Laird, of Birkenhead
Horse-power 70 nominal, or 350 indicated
Stowage of coals in bunkers 70 tons
Sail area 9,200 square yards
Weight of port anchor 12 cwt. 2 qr.
" starboard anchor 12 cwt. 1 qr. 6 lbs.
1
Size of cable on board 1- /16
inch bower cables
" new cable on shore 1-2/16
Stowage of water:
Fore tanks 6½ tons
After tanks
Reserve tanks 5½
4 "
"
} total, 16 tons
Lead ballast 75 tons
Speed in fine weather 9 knots
Average consumption of coal daily 6 tons

Dimensions of Spars

— Length Diam.
Fore ft. in.
Foremast, from deck to masthead 69½ —
Below deck 14½ —
Total 84 19½
 Top and topgallant-mast 45 12
Fore-yard 50½ 12
Topsail-yard 42½ 9
Topgallant-yard 33 7
Fore-gaff 29½ 7
Fore-boom 33¾ 9
Main
Mainmast from deck to masthead 74 —
Below deck 14½ —
Total 88½ 19
Main-topmast 422/3 9½
Main-gaff 29¾ 7½
Main-boom 35½ 8¾
Mizen
Mizenmast from deck to masthead 78½ —
Below deck 7½ —
Total 86 18½
Mizen-topmast 43½ 9½
Mizen-gaff 33 9
Mizen-boom 52¾ 13½
Jibboom, length 49 ft. 9 in., diameter 9½ inches
Bowsprit " 21 ft. 9 in. " 17½ inches (outside knighthead)

It may be interesting to give some general account of the

'Sunbeam's' performances at sea.

In making the voyage round the world in 1876-77 the total

distances covered were 15,000 knots under sail and 12,800 knots
under steam. The best run under steam alone was 230 knots. The
most successful continuous performance was on the passage from
Penang to Galle, when 1,451 knots were steamed in a week, with a
daily consumption of 4-¼ tons of coal. The best runs under sail,
from noon to noon, were 298 and 299 knots respectively. The first
was on the passage from Honolulu to Yokohama, sailing along the
16th parallel of north latitude, and between 163° and 168° 15' east.
The second was in the Formosa Channel. The highest speed ever
attained under sail was 15 knots, in a squall in the North Pacific. On
28 days the distance under sail alone has exceeded, and often
considerably exceeded, 200 knots. The best consecutive runs under
sail only were:—

1. Week ending August 13, South Atlantic, in the south-east

trades, wind abeam, force 5, 1,456 knots.

2. Week ending November 19, South Pacific, south-east trades,

wind aft, force 5, 1,360 knots.

3. Four days, January 15 to 18, North Pacific, north-east trades,

wind on the quarter, force 5 to 9, 1,027 knots. The average speed in
this case was 10.7 knots an hour.

The following were the average speeds of the longer passages:—

Days at Total Distance under Daily

——
sea Distance steam average
miles miles miles
1. Cape Verdes to Rio 18 3,336 689 185
2. Valparaiso to
72 12,333 2,108 171
Yokohama
3. Simonosaki to Aden 37 6,93 4,577 187

On a later voyage to Australia, the total distance covered was

36,709 knots, 25,808 under sail and 10,901 under steam. The runs
under sail included thirty-nine days over 200 knots, fifteen days over
240, seven days over 260, and three days over 270. The best day
was 282 knots. Between Port Darwin and the Cape the distance
covered was 1,047 knots under steam, and 5,622 knots under sail.
The average speed under steam and sail was exactly eight knots. In
the fortnight, October 13 to 27, 1887, 3,073 knots, giving an average
speed of nine knots an hour, were covered under sail alone, with
winds of moderate strength. Balloon canvas was freely used.

On returning from the voyage just referred to, the boilers of the
'Sunbeam' (which are still at work, after nineteen years' service)
required such extensive repairs that it was recommended to remove
them and to replace with new. Hesitating to take this step, we went
through two seasons under sail alone, the propeller being
temporarily removed and the aperture closed. In 1889 a voyage was
accomplished to the Mediterranean under these conditions. Making
the passage from Portsmouth to Naples, in the month of February,
we covered a total distance of 2,303 miles from port to port in ten
days and four hours. The same good luck with the winds followed us
in subsequent passages to Messina, Zante, Patras, and Brindisi,
during which we steadily maintained the high average of ten knots.
On the return voyage down the Mediterranean, the results were very
different. As this novel experiment in running an auxiliary steam
yacht under sail alone may be of interest, a few further details may
be added.

The average rate of speed for the distance sailed through the
water was approximately 6.4 knots. The total number of days at sea
was 44. On 23 days the winds were contrary. On 21 days favourable
winds were experienced. With much contrary wind and frequent
calms the distances made good on the shortest route from port to
port averaged 123 miles per day.

For the total distance of 3,020 miles from Portsmouth to Brindisi,

touching at Naples, Messina, Taormina, Zante, and Patras, with fresh
and favourable breezes, the distances made good on the shortest
route averaged 201 miles per day.

On the passage down the Mediterranean, from Brindisi to

Gibraltar, calling at Palermo and Cagliari, against persistent head
winds, and with 60 hours of calm, the distance made good from port
to port was reduced to 67 miles a day.

Homewards, from Gibraltar, against a fresh Portuguese trade, the

distance made good rose to an average of 122 miles through the
water per day, the average rate of sailing being 6-¼ knots. From a
position 230 miles nearly due west of Cape St. Vincent to Spithead,
the 'Sunbeam' covered the distance of 990 miles in six days, being
for the most part close-hauled.

Total distances Distances Time Fair

—— Calms
port to port sailed under way winds
miles miles days hrs. days hrs. hours
Portsmouth to Naples 2,200 2,303 10 4 9 0 11
Naples to Brindisi (calling at
Messina, Taormina, Zante, 820 841 5 0 4 0 16
and Patras)
Brindisi to Palermo 400 638 5 6 0 7 13
Palermo to Cagliari 224 353 3 19 — 11
Cagliari to Gibraltar 730 1,188 10 5 2 2 37
Gibraltar to Portsmouth 1,175 1,457 9 16 6 0 8
Total 5,549 6,780 44 2 21 9 96

In the course of the voyage numerous gales of wind were

experienced, viz.: on February 12, a severe mistral, on the passage
from Minorca towards Naples; March 28, heavy gale from westward
off Stromboli; April 9 and 10, gale from S.W. at the mouth of the
Adriatic; April 17, gale from S., off south coast of Sardinia; April 29
and 30, gale from W., off Almeria.

On the days of light winds and calms, balloon topmast staysails, a

jib-topsail, and an extra large lower studsail, were found most
valuable in maintaining the rate of sailing.

In ordinary cruising I find that, as a general rule, one-third of the

distance is covered under steam, and that upon the average we
make passages at the rate of 1,000 miles a week. The consumption
of coal is very moderate. For a voyage round the world, of 36,000
miles, the coal consumed was only 325 tons.
 'Sunbeam,' R.Y.S. Designed by St. Clare Byrne, 1874.

If I were dealing with the question of rig, with the long experience
gained on the 'Sunbeam,' I should decidedly adopt the barque rig. In
confirmation of this opinion, it may be interesting to note that when
H.M. brig 'Beagle' was under the command of Captain FitzRoy, R.N.,
for a lengthened service in the Straits of Magellan and the coasts of
South America, the mizenmast was stuck through the skylight of the
captain's cabin, an arrangement which, while of service to the ship,
was not unnaturally a source of discomfort to the captain. In making
passages in the Trades, with light winds on the quarter and the
usual swell, fore-and-aft sails are constantly lifting, while sails set on
fixed yards keep asleep. They draw better, and there is no chafe. I
have found great advantage from the use of large studding-sails,
made of light duck. This material was highly esteemed when it was
first brought out. In modern practice a combination of silk and hemp
furnishes a greatly superior material for the huge spinnakers, of
4,000 square feet, carried by the 'Navahoe' and 'Valkyrie.' The new
balloon sails can no longer be called canvas. They may more
accurately be described as muslin.

I will not attempt a recital of nautical adventures in the present

chapter; but a few experiences may be briefly described. The worst
passage I ever made was in the 'Eothen,' s.s., 340 tons, in 1872,
from Queenstown to Quebec, touching at St. John's, Newfoundland.
On August 14 we put to sea deeply laden, with bunkers full, and 15
tons of coal in bags on deck. In this condition we had 2 ft. 9 in. of
freeboard. On the second day out we encountered a summer gale.
Shortly after it came on, we shipped a sea, which broke over the
bow and filled us up to the rail. At the same time the engineer put
his head above the engine-room hatch, and announced that, the
bearings having become heated, he must stop the engines. For a
short time we were in danger of falling off into the trough of the
sea. It was a great relief when the engines once more slowly turned
ahead. In the mid-Atlantic, we encountered a cyclone, passing
through the calm but ominous centre into a violent gale from the
north-west, which lasted twenty-four hours. We were battened down
and suffered considerable discomfort. Fortunately, no heavy sea
broke on board as we lay to under double-reefed main storm-trysail,
the engines slowly turning ahead. Two days later we encountered
another sharp gale, in which the barometer fell to 29.14°. Happily it
soon passed over. After this third gale we had a change of wind to
the eastward, and, pushing on, with all sail set, we reached St.
John's in thirteen days from Queenstown, with four inches of water
in the tanks, two tons of coal in the bunkers, the decks leaking in
every seam, cabins in utter disarray, and a perfect wreck aloft and
on deck. After leaving St. John's, where we had confidently hoped
that the worst was over, we encountered a hurricane off Cape Race,
which exceeded in violence anything that had been experienced in
these waters for many years. We lay to for three days, and when the
storm abated put into the French island St. Pierre, almost exhausted.
It was an unspeakable relief when we entered the St. Lawrence.

The lesson to be drawn from my voyage in the 'Eothen' is obvious.

It is a great mistake to attempt to cross the stormiest ocean in the
world in a steam yacht of such small size. For ocean steaming much
more tonnage and power are necessary.

The heaviest gale ever experienced by the 'Sunbeam' was off

Flamborough Head, in 1881. I embarked at Middlesbrough on the
evening of October 13, intending to sail for Portsmouth at daybreak
on the following morning; but, finding the wind from the south and
the barometer depressed, our departure was deferred. At 9 a.m. the
barometer had fallen to 28.87°, but as the wind had changed to
W.N.W., and was off shore from a favourable quarter, I determined
to proceed to sea. We were towed down the Tees, and as we
descended the river I conferred with the pilot as to what we might
anticipate from the remarkable depression in the barometer. He was
of opinion that a severe gale was at hand, that it would blow from
the north-west, and that there was no reason for remaining in port.
The tug was accordingly cast off at the mouth of the Tees, and we
made sail. Foreseeing a storm, topmasts were housed, boats were
secured on deck, and we kept under close-reefed canvas, setting the
main and mizen jib-headed trysails, double-reefed foresail and
forestay-sail, and reefed standing jib. As the day advanced no
change took place in the weather. The wind blew strongly, but not
with the force of a gale, and the sea was comparatively smooth.
Meanwhile the barometer continued to descend rapidly, and at 2 p.m.
had fallen to 28.45°. As nothing had yet occurred to account for this
depression, my sailing-master remarked that it must have been
caused by the heavy showers of rain which had fallen in the course
of the morning. I knew from former experiences that it was not the
rain, but the coming storm, that was indicated by the barometer. It
had needed some resolution to quit the mouth of the Tees in the
morning, and at mid-day, when we were off Whitby, a still greater
effort was required to resist the temptation to make for a harbour.
No further incidents occurred until 3 p.m., when we were nearing
Flamborough Head. Here we were at last overtaken by the long
impending storm. Looking back to the north-west, over the
starboard quarter, we saw that the sea had suddenly been lashed
into a mass of white foam. The hurricane was rushing forward with a
velocity and a force which must have seemed terrible to the fleet of
coasting vessels around us. Before the gale struck the 'Sunbeam' our
canvas had been reduced to main and mizen trysails and reefed
standing-jib; but even with the small spread of sail, and luffed up
close to the wind, our powerful little vessel careened over to the fury
of the blast until the lee-rail completely disappeared under water—
an incident which had never previously occurred during all the
extensive voyages we had undertaken. Such was the force of the
wind that a sailing vessel near us lost all her sails, and our large gig
was stove in from the tremendous pressure of the gunwale against
the davits. We took in the jib and the mizen-trysail, and, with our
canvas reduced to a jib-headed main-trysail, were soon relieved of
water on deck. For an hour and a half we lay-to on the starboard
tack, standing in for the land below Burlington Bay. We were
battened down, and felt ourselves secure from all risks except
collision. The fury of the wind so filled the air with spoon-drift that
we could not see a ship's length ahead, and in such crowded waters
a collision was a far from impossible contingency. At 6 p.m. we
thought it prudent to wear, so as to gain an offing during the night,
and gradually drew out of the line of traffic along the coast. At 9 p.m.
the extreme violence of the hurricane had abated, and we could see,
through occasional openings in the mist, the masthead lights of
several steamers standing, like ourselves, off the land for the night.
At midnight the barometer was rising rapidly, and the wind gradually
settled down into a clear hard gale, accompanied by a heavy sea,
running down the coast from the north.

At 6 a.m. we carefully examined the dead reckoning, and, having

fixed on an approximate position, we determined to bear away,
steering to pass in mid-channel between the Outer Dowsing and the
Dudgeon, through a passage about ten miles in width. We were
under easy sail; but, under the main-trysail, double-reefed foresail,
staysail, fore-topsail, and reefed jib, we scudded at the rate of
eleven knots. A constant look-out had been kept from aloft, and at
10 a.m., having nearly run the distance down from our assumed
position when we bore away to the north end of the Outer Dowsing,
I established myself in the crosstrees until we should succeed in
making something. After a short interval we saw broken water
nearly ahead on the port bow. We at once hauled to the wind,
steering to the south-west, and set the mizen-trysail. The lead
showed a depth of three fathoms, and we were therefore assured
that we had been standing too near to the Outer Dowsing. The
indications afforded by the lead were confirmed by sights, somewhat
roughly taken, and by the circumstance of our having shortly before
passed through a fleet of trawlers evidently making for the Spurn. In
less than an hour after we had hauled to the wind we found
ourselves in the track of several steamers. At 3 p.m. we made the
land near Cromer, and at 5.30 we brought up in the Yarmouth
Roads, thankful to have gained a secure shelter from the gale.

In connection with this experience, it may be remarked that, as a

general rule, our pleasure fleet is over-masted. We are advised in
these matters by sailmakers, who look to the Solent and its
sheltered water as the normal condition with which yachtsmen have
to deal. When we venture forth from that smooth and too-much
frequented arm of the sea into open waters, our vessels have to
pass a far more severe ordeal, and they do not always come out of it
to our satisfaction. Many are compelled to stay in harbour when a
passage might have been made in a snugly rigged yacht.

One of the longest gales experienced in the 'Sunbeam' was on the

passage from Nassau to Bermuda, in November 1883. The gale
struck us south of Cape Hatteras, on November 25, in latitude
31.54° N. The north-east wind gradually subsided, and we pushed
on, under steam, for Bermuda at 7 knots. The head sea increased,
but no change took place in the force or direction of the wind from 8
p.m. on the 25th till 4 a.m. on the 27th. Meanwhile, the barometer had
gradually fallen to 29.82°, giving warning for a heavy gale, which
commenced at north-by-east, and ended on November 30, at 4 p.m.,
with the wind at north-west. We lay-to on the 27th, under treble-
reefed foresail and double-reefed mainsail, shipping no water, but
driving to the south-east at the rate of at least one knot an hour. On
the 28th we decided to try the 'Sunbeam' under treble-reefed
foresail and mainsail, double-reefed fore-staysail and reefed mizen-
trysail. With this increased spread of canvas we were able to make
two knots an hour on the direct course to Bermuda, and to keep
sufficient steerage way to luff up to an ugly sea. The behaviour of
the vessel elicited the unqualified approval of our most experienced
hands. Bad weather quickly brings out the qualities of seamen. Our
four best men relieved each other at the wheel, and it was due in no
small degree to their skill that, in a gale lasting three days, no heavy
sea broke on board. I need not say that all deck openings were
secured, especially at night, by means of planks and canvas. Our
situation might perhaps excite sympathy, but we had no cause to
complain. Meals could not be served in the usual manner, but by
placing every movable thing on the floor of the cabins and on the lee
side, and by fixing ourselves against supports, or in a recumbent
position, we were secured against any further effects of the force of
gravity, and did our best to enjoy the novelty of the situation. On the
30th the wind veered to the north-west, and the weather rapidly
improved. The sea turned gradually with the wind, but for many
hours we met a heavy swell from the north-east.

An acquaintance with the law of storms had proved invaluable on

this occasion. There is no situation in which knowledge is more truly
power, none in which, under a due sense of the providential care of
Heaven, it gives a nobler confidence to man, than at sea, amid the
raging of a hurricane. Mr. Emerson has truly said, 'They can conquer
who believe they can. The sailor loses fear as fast as he acquires
command of sails, and spars, and steam. To the sailor's experience,
every new circumstance suggests what he must do. The terrific
chances which make the hours and minutes long to the mere
passenger, he whiles away by incessant application of expedients
and repairs. To him a leak, a hurricane, a waterspout, is so much
work, and no more. Courage is equality to the problem, in affairs, in
science, in trade, in council, or in action. Courage consists in the
conviction that the agents with which you contend are not superior
in strength, or resources, or spirit, to you.'

As a specimen of a dirty night at sea, I give another extract from

the log-book. During our voyage round the world in 1876-77, after
leaving Honolulu for Japan, as we approached Osima, on January
26, we were struck by a tremendous squall of wind and rain. We at
once took in the flying square-sail, stowed the topgallant-sail and
topsail, reefed the foresail and mizen, and set mainsail. At 6 p.m., the
wind still blowing a moderate gale, the mizen was double-reefed. We
pursued our way through a confused sea, but without shipping any
water. All seemed to be going well, when, at 8 p.m., shortly after I
had taken the wheel, a sudden squall heeled us over to the
starboard side, where the gig was hung from the davits outboard. At
the same time a long mountainous wave, rolling up from the
leeward, struck the keel of the gig and lifted it up, unshipping the
fore davit, and causing the boat to fall into the boiling sea, which
threatened at every instant to dash it to pieces. We at once brought
to. A brave fellow jumped into the boat and secured a tackle to the
bows, and the gig was hoisted on board and secured on deck intact.
It was a very seaman-like achievement. A heavy gale continued
during the night, and at 2 a.m., on the 27th, we met with another
accident. The boatswain, a man of great skill and experience, was at
the wheel, when a steep wave suddenly engulfed the jibboom, and
the 'Sunbeam,' gallantly springing up, as if to leap over instead of
cleaving through the wave, carried away the spar at the cap. This
brought down the topgallant-mast. The jibboom was a splendid
Oregon spar, 54 feet long, projecting 28 feet beyond the bowsprit. It
was rigged with wire rope, and the martingale was sawn through
with the greatest difficulty.

The record of personal experiences must not be further prolonged.

To the writer yachting has been to some extent part of a public life,
mainly devoted to the maritime interests of the country. To conduct
the navigation and pilotage of his vessel seemed fitting and even
necessary, if the voyages undertaken were to be regarded in any
sense as professional. There is something pleasant in any work
which affords the opportunity for encountering and overcoming
difficulties. It is satisfactory to make a headland or a light with
precision after a long run across the ocean, diversified perhaps by a
heavy gale. To be able to thread the channels of the West Coast of
Scotland, the Straits of Magellan, the Eastern Archipelago, the
labyrinths of the Malawalle Channel of North-East Borneo, or the
Great Barrier Reef of Australia, without a pilot is an accomplishment
in which an amateur may perhaps take legitimate pleasure.
 To the yachtsman who truly loves the sea, it will never be
satisfactory to remain ignorant of navigation. Practice of the art is
not a relaxation. It demands constant attention, and is an
interruption to regular reading. It may imply a considerable amount
of night-work. On the other hand, the owner who is a navigator can
take his proper place as the commander of his own ship. All that
goes on around him when at sea becomes more interesting. He is
better able to appreciate the professional skill of others. The
confidence which grows with experience cannot be expected in the
beginning. The writer first took charge of navigation in 1866, on a
voyage up the Baltic. It was a chequered experiment. In the Great
Belt we ran ashore twice in one day. In making Stockholm we had to
appeal to a Swedish frigate, which most kindly clewed up her sails,
and answered our anxious enquiries by writing the course on a
black-board. On the return voyage to England we struck the coast
some sixty miles north of our reckoning. Such a history does not
repeat itself now.

It is not in books or at the library table that the art of the seaman
can be acquired. Quickness of eye, nerve, promptitude of judgment,
are the indispensable gifts, which must be gained by long and varied
experience at sea. The seamanship required in a gale of wind on the
open ocean, the seamanship displayed in sailing matches in over-
sparred yachts, sailed mainly in smooth waters, and the seamanship
called for in pilotage waters not previously visited, and especially at
night, are different branches of a wide profession. There is a skill of
a very high order in docking an Atlantic liner at Liverpool. There is a
skill of a different but equally high order in knocking huge ironclads
about in fleet-exercising at sea. There is a skill in bringing the
Channel steamers alongside the pier at Dover. The skill of every
description of nautical specialist will never be combined in one
individual. There is some risk that the more careful the navigator, the
less dashing the same man may be as a seaman.

I must not conclude without some reference to the most attractive

cruising grounds. To begin near home, the Seine, the Meuse, the
coast of Holland, the Baltic, the coast of Norway, the grand West
Coast of Scotland, the East Coast of England (a cruising ground too
much neglected by yachtsmen), and the Channel are all favourite
haunts of mine. Going further afield, in my own case nothing was
more satisfactory than a voyage along the East Coast of North
America, in which every river was ascended to the head of the
navigation for sea-going vessels. Certain parts of the Mediterranean
offer a perfect cruising ground for the winter months. Most suitable
waters for yachting are those bounded by the Straits of Gibraltar on
the west and the Balearic Islands on the north-east. Here the mistral
of the Gulf of Lyons is not felt. The Spanish coast offers many places
of shelter and many points of interest. In westerly winds keep to the
eastward of Cape de Gata; in north-easterly winds to the westward.
There is another charming cruising ground between Corsica and the
Italian coast, as far north as Spezia, and south down to Civita
Vecchia. Sicily is admirable for yachting. A weather shore can be
always made upon its beautiful coasts. In the spring or autumn the
Archipelago and eastern side of the Adriatic can be confidently
recommended. In the winter months the West Indies are a most
perfect cruising ground. It will be well to make Barbados the landfall,
then run to Trinidad, proceeding thence to Grenada, and following
on from island to island down to Jamaica. The return voyage should
be by Havana, and thence to a port in the United States, and by an
ocean liner home, or by the Bahamas, Bermuda and the Azores to
England. The Pacific, Japan and Eastern Archipelago will well repay
those who can give the time required for such distant voyages.

Lastly, let no yachtsman speak contemptuously of the Solent. It is

no exaggeration to say that if the splendid natural breakwater of the
Isle of Wight were removed, half the tonnage of yachts under the
British flag would disappear. The Solent offers a sufficient space of
sheltered water for all but the very largest yachts to manœuvre in
conveniently. Breezes are seldom wanting, and the shores of the
Wight are most pleasing. In this miniature ocean many have formed
tastes for the sea which have led to more ambitious voyages. The
estuary of the Clyde merits equally high praise, but the puffs off
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