Overall Topic: Electromagne c Induc on (EMI) - The phenomenon where an electromo ve force
(EMF), and hence poten ally a current, is induced in a conductor due to a change in the magne c
environment.
Page 1: Introduc on to Chapter 3 - Electromagne c Induc on
Concept: Revisits that sta onary charges create electric fields, and moving charges (currents)
create magne c fields. It then poses the ques on: can a magne c field produce an electric
field? Michael Faraday's 1831 discovery confirmed this: a varying magne c field can
generate an electric field.
Electromagne c Induc on (EMI) encompasses two phenomena:
1. Phenomenon I: Current induced in a conductor moving rela ve to magne c field
lines (Mo onal EMF).
2. Phenomenon II: Genera on of an electric field associated with a me-varying
magne c field (Induced Electric Field).
Learning Objec ves: Lists all topics to be covered in the chapter, from magne c flux and
Faraday's Laws to LC oscilla ons.
Page 2: Faraday's Experiments & Magne c Flux
Faraday's Experiments (Conceptual Introduc on):
o A bar magnet and a coil connected to a galvanometer.
o Observa on 1: No current if magnet and coil are sta onary rela ve to each other.
o Observa on 2: Current is induced if there's rela ve mo on.
o Observa on 3: Direc on of induced current depends on whether the magnet is
approaching or receding, and which pole is involved.
o Conclusion: Induced EMF (and current) depends on the rate of change of magne c
flux.
Magne c Flux (Φ<sub>B</sub>):
o Concept: A measure of the amount of magne c field passing through a given
surface. Analogous to electric flux.
o Formula (Uniform B, Flat Area A): Φ<sub>B</sub> = B ⋅ A = BA cosθ, where θ is the
angle between the magne c field vector B and the area vector A (normal to the
surface).
o Units: Weber (Wb). 1 Wb = 1 Tesla-meter<sup>2</sup> (Tm<sup>2</sup>).
o Max Flux: When B is perpendicular to the plane (θ=0°), Φ<sub>B</sub> = BA.
o Min/Zero Flux: When B is parallel to the plane (θ=90°), Φ<sub>B</sub> = 0. When
θ=180°, Φ<sub>B</sub> = -BA.
Page 3: Arbitrarily Shaped Surface & Illustra on 1
Magne c Flux (General Defini on):
o For an arbitrarily shaped surface or non-uniform field: Φ<sub>B</sub> = ∫ B ⋅ dA,
where dA is an infinitesimal area vector.
Illustra on 1: Flux through a rectangular loop near a long straight wire.
o Scenario: A rectangular loop (width 'a', length 'b') is placed near a long wire carrying
current 'I'. The nearest side of the loop is at distance 'c' from the wire.
o Concept Applied: The magne c field 'B' due to the long wire is non-uniform across
the area of the loop (B = μ<sub>0</sub>I / 2πx, where x is the distance from the
wire).
o Method:
1. Consider an infinitesimal strip of the loop of width 'dx' and length 'b', at a
distance 'x' from the wire. Area of strip dA = b dx.
2. The field B is constant over this thin strip and perpendicular to its area.
3. Flux through the strip dΦ<sub>B</sub> = B dA = (μ<sub>0</sub>I / 2πx) (b
dx).
4. Total flux is found by integra ng dΦ<sub>B</sub> from x = c to x = c+a.
Φ<sub>B</sub> = (μ<sub>0</sub>Ib / 2π) ln((c+a)/c) = (μ<sub>0</sub>Ib /
2π) ln(1 + a/c).
o Key Takeaway: Demonstrates calcula ng flux when B is not uniform over the area.
Shows flux decreases as the loop moves away (c increases).
Page 4: Illustra ons 2, 3, 4 - More Flux Calcula ons
Illustra on 2: Flux through a circle with radially varying B.
o Scenario: Magne c field B = (B<sub>0</sub>r) k (varies with radial distance 'r' from
z-axis). Calculate flux through a circle of radius 'a' in the x-y plane.
o Method: Divide the circle into infinitesimal concentric rings of radius 'r' and
thickness 'dr'. Area of a ring dA = 2πr dr. Flux dΦ = B dA = (B<sub>0</sub>r)(2πr dr).
Integrate from r=0 to r=a.
Illustra on 3: Flux through a rectangle inside a current-carrying wire.
o Scenario: A long cylindrical wire (radius R) carries current I<sub>0</sub>. Calculate
flux through a rectangle (one side L along the wire's axis, other side R from axis to
edge).
o Concept Applied: Magne c field inside a cylindrical wire B =
(μ<sub>0</sub>I<sub>0</sub>r / 2πR<sup>2</sup>).
o Method: Consider an infinitesimal strip of length L and width dr at radial distance r.
dA = L dr. Flux dΦ<sub>B</sub> = B dA. Integrate from r=0 to r=R.
Illustra on 4: Flux with linearly varying B.
o Scenario: Magne c field B = (α + βx) k. Calculate flux through a rectangle in the x-y
plane bounded by x=0, y=0, x=a, y=b.
o Method: Consider an infinitesimal strip of width dx and length b. dA = b dx. Flux
dΦ<sub>B</sub> = B dA = (α + βx) b dx. Integrate from x=0 to x=a.
Page 5: Gauss's Law in Magne sm & Faraday's Laws of EMI
Gauss's Law in Magne sm:
o Statement: The net magne c flux through any closed surface is always zero (∮ B ⋅ dA
= 0).
o Reasoning: Magne c field lines are con nuous closed loops (they don't begin or
end). This implies there are no isolated magne c poles (monopoles).
Faraday's Laws of Electromagne c Induc on:
o Law 1 (Qualita ve): Whenever the magne c flux linked with a closed coil changes,
an induced EMF (and hence an induced current if the circuit is closed) is set up in the
coil.
o Law 2 (Dura on): This induced EMF (or current) lasts only as long as the change in
magne c flux con nues.
o Law 3 (Magnitude): The magnitude of the induced EMF is directly propor onal to
the rate of change of magne c flux linked with the circuit.
Mathema cally (magnitude): |ξ| ∝ |dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt|.
Page 6: Lenz's Law (Direc on of Induced EMF)
Lenz's Law: The direc on of the induced EMF (or induced current) is such that it opposes the
change in flux that produces it.
o This is the "nature" part of Faraday's Law and leads to the nega ve sign.
o Combined Formula (Faraday-Lenz): ξ = - dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt (for a single turn).
o For N turns: ξ = - N dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt.
Ways to Vary Flux (and induce EMF): Since Φ<sub>B</sub> = BAcosθ, EMF can be induced
by varying:
o (a) Magnitude of B with me.
o (b) Area A enclosed by the loop with me.
o (c) Angle θ between B and A with me.
Page 7: Lenz's Law & Conserva on of Energy, Illustra on 5
Lenz's Law in Accordance with Law of Conserva on of Energy:
o Concept: To induce a current, work must be done. When a magnet is moved
towards/away from a coil, the induced current creates a magne c pole on the coil
that opposes this mo on (e.g., N-pole approaches coil, coil's facing side becomes N-
pole, causing repulsion). The mechanical work done against this opposing force is
converted into electrical energy in the coil.
Illustra on 5: EMF induced in a loop near a wire with me-varying current.
o Scenario: Rectangular loop near a wire with current I(t) = a+bt (linearly increasing
current).
o Method:
1. First, find the flux Φ<sub>B</sub> through the loop due to current I. This is
similar to Illus. 1, but I is now I(t): Φ<sub>B</sub> = (μ<sub>0</sub>I(t)l /
2π) ln((s+w)/s).
2. Then, induce EMF using Faraday-Lenz: ξ = -dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt. Here, dI/dt
= b.
ξ = - (μ<sub>0</sub>bl / 2π) ln((s+w)/s).
o Direc on: Current I increases → inward flux increases. By Lenz's Law, induced
current must create an outward magne c field. For the loop, this means a counter-
clockwise current.
Page 8: Illustra ons 6, 7
Illustra on 6: EMF due to changing area (square to rhombus).
o Scenario: Square loop (side 'l') in uniform B, deformed into a rhombus over me Δt.
Angle changes area from A<sub>i</sub> = l<sup>2</sup> to A<sub>f</sub> =
l<sup>2</sup>sinθ.
o Method: Average EMF ξ = -B (ΔA/Δt) = -B (A<sub>f</sub> - A<sub>i</sub>)/Δt = B
l<sup>2</sup>(1-sinθ)/Δt.
o Direc on: If inward flux decreases (sinθ < 1), induced current must create an inward
field, so clockwise.
Illustra on 7: Loop with varying radius.
o Scenario: Loop radius r(t) = r<sub>0</sub> + αt in uniform B.
o Method: Area A(t) = πr(t)<sup>2</sup> = π(r<sub>0</sub>+αt)<sup>2</sup>. Flux
Φ<sub>B</sub> = BA(t). EMF ξ = -dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt = -Bπ * 2(r<sub>0</sub>+αt)
* α.
o Direc on: Radius increases → Area increases → Inward flux increases (assuming B is
inward). Induced current opposes this by crea ng an outward field, so counter-
clockwise (figure likely implies B is inward for current to be clockwise as stated in
text if seen "from above").
Page 9: Illustra ons 8, 9
Illustra on 8: Rectangular loop moving away from a wire.
o Scenario: Loop (dimensions l, w) moves with velocity v away from a wire carrying
current I. Resistance R.
o Method 1 (Faraday's Law): Flux at distance 'y' (near side) is Φ<sub>B</sub>(y) =
(μ<sub>0</sub>Il / 2π) ln((y+w)/y). EMF ξ = -dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt = -
(dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dy)(dy/dt) where dy/dt = v.
o Method 2 (Mo onal EMF, using ξ = ∮(v x B)⋅dl):
EMF on near ver cal side (length l, distance y): Blv poin ng up.
EMF on far ver cal side (length l, distance y+w): B'lv poin ng up (where B' < B).
Net EMF ξ = lv (B(y) - B(y+w)).
o Both methods yield the same result. Induced current I = ξ/R.
Illustra on 9: Loop in a me-varying vector field.
o Scenario: Loop ABCA made of semicircles and a straight line in B = (i+j+k)e<sup>-
2t</sup>.
o Method:
1. Determine the area vector A of the loop. This might involve breaking it into
simpler shapes and summing their vector areas. Area of AB (y-z plane) is
(πα<sup>2</sup>/4)(-i). Area of BC (x-z plane) is (πα<sup>2</sup>/4)(-j).
Area of AC (x-y plane, triangle projected) is (a<sup>2</sup>/2)(+k). Add
these for A<sub>total</sub>.
2. Calculate flux: Φ<sub>B</sub> = B ⋅ A<sub>total</sub>.
3. Calculate induced EMF: ξ = -dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt. Induced current i =
ξ/R<sub>0</sub>.
Page 10: Illustra ons 10, 11
Illustra on 10: EMF in a rod moving parallel to a wire.
o Scenario: Rod of length 'l' moves with velocity 'v' parallel to a long wire carrying
current 'I'. Near end at distance 'r'.
o Method (Flux Swept): The rod sweeps an area d(Area) = (v dt) dx, if one considers
elements. Alterna vely, the area swept by the en re rod in me 't' is a rectangle.
Flux through area swept in me dt: dΦ<sub>B</sub> = B (l v dt) if B were uniform.
Here B varies with distance 'x' from wire. Flux swept by rod moving from r to r+v dt
or over area l*vt if calcula ng total flux over me 't'. More simply, this is a mo onal
EMF ξ = ∫(v x B)⋅dl. Along the rod, B is non-uniform. Field at element dx on rod at
distance x from wire B(x) = μ<sub>0</sub>I/2πx. EMF = ∫ Bv dl. For this orienta on,
EMF = v ∫<sub>r</sub><sup>r+l</sup> (μ<sub>0</sub>I/2πx) dx.
o The illustra on shows calcula ng flux through area swept in me t. Flux Φ = ∫ B dA =
∫<sub>r</sub><sup>r+l</sup> (μ<sub>0</sub>I/2πx) (vt dx). Then ξ = dΦ/dt. (dΦ/dt
evaluated by first integra ng wrt x, then diff wrt t) - actually vt is part of the Area, so
if you differen ate before, easier: dΦ/dt = v ∫ (μ<sub>0</sub>I/2πx) (l dx) is not it.
The integral should be over the rod itself (from r to r+l) for Bvdl.
o The illustra on simplifies: they define flux as func on of distance bar moved (x=vt).
Area of loop considered becomes one that grows.
o Solu on states: ξ = (μ<sub>0</sub>Iv/2π) ln((r+l)/r). This is the mo onal EMF
integrated.
Illustra on 11: Loop in field B(y,t).
o Scenario: Square loop (side l) in B = at<sup>2</sup>y k.
o Method: Field B varies with y and t.
1. Consider a strip of width l and height dy at posi on y. dA = l dy.
2. Flux through this strip dΦ<sub>B</sub> = B dA = (at<sup>2</sup>y) (l dy).
3. Total flux Φ<sub>B</sub> = ∫<sub>0</sub><sup>l</sup> (at<sup>2</sup>y l
dy) = at<sup>2</sup>l (l<sup>2</sup>/2).
4. EMF ξ = -dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt = -(2atl) (l<sup>2</sup>/2) = -
al<sup>3</sup>t.
Page 11: Illustra ons 12, 13, 14
Illustra on 12: Current in a thick ring in B(t).
o Scenario: Ring (inner radius 'a', outer 'b', thickness 'h') in uniform B =
(B<sub>0</sub>t) k. Conduc vity ρ.
o Method:
1. Consider a thin elemental ring of radius 'r' and thickness 'dr'.
2. EMF induced in this elemental ring: ξ = (Area) (dB/dt) =
(πr<sup>2</sup>)B<sub>0</sub>.
3. Resistance of this elemental ring: dR = (resis vity * length) / (cross-sec onal
area) = (1/ρ * 2πr) / (h dr). Note: text uses conduc vity 'ρ', so resistance uses
1/ρ. So it should be R_element = (ρ<sub>resis vity</sub> * 2πr) / (h dr). If ρ
is conduc vity: dR = (2πr) / (ρ h dr).
4. Current through this element: di = ξ / dR. (Text approach treats each ring as
parallel resistor). This is current density then? No, current in the loop. The
diagram suggests they are considering it like parallel resis ve elements.
The problem assumes elements of the thick ring act like parallel paths for
current. The total current would be an integral of these currents. The
diagram implies current in each ring of thickness dr, these are concentric so
can't be parallel paths. Be er: Calculate the current density if E is uniform.
This illustra on's "Solu on" part seems to calculate 'di' as current in a single
thin ring then integrates to 'i'. The resistance uses ρ as resis vity, NOT
conduc vity.
o Correc on: Induced E-field E = (r/2)B<sub>0</sub>. Current density J = σE = ρE (if ρ
is conduc vity). Current in ring dr: dI = J dA = J(hdr).
o The solu on provided: considers a thin ring with resistance R=ρ(2πr)/hdr. Current in
this ring di = (induced EMF in this ring)/R. Then integrates. EMF
ξ=πr<sup>2</sup>B<sub>0</sub>. This current then flows through the rest of the
circuit (not isolated). The method of finding 'current induced in the loop' using
resis vity to determine current density or resistance of a specific segment is more
standard for thick objects. Solu on: di = (ξ_ring / R_ring) which is
(πr<sup>2</sup>B<sub>0</sub>) / ( (resis vity ρ * 2πr) / (hdr) ) = (ρB<sub>0</sub>h
/ 2) r dr. Integra ng this gives I. Text has ρ in numerator; their ρ is resis vity. di =
(B<sub>0</sub>r/2ρ)hdr is the result from the image which seems to imply E =
B<sub>0</sub>r/2 so J = B<sub>0</sub>r/(2ρ). Current is integral J (h dr).
Illustra on 13: Heat in coil with Φ(t).
o Scenario: Flux Φ = k(4-t<sup>2</sup>). Resistance R. Find total heat un l flux is zero.
o Method: Flux is zero when 4-t<sup>2</sup>=0 ⇒ t=2s. EMF ξ = -dΦ/dt = -k(-2t) =
2kt.
Instantaneous current i = ξ/R = 2kt/R.
Heat H = ∫<sub>0</sub><sup>2</sup> i<sup>2</sup>R dt =
∫<sub>0</sub><sup>2</sup> (2kt/R)<sup>2</sup>R dt.
Illustra on 14: Two coaxial loops, one moving.
o Scenario: Small loop (radius 'r') above large loop (radius 'R') at distance x. x >> R. x
increases at rate dx/dt = v.
o Method:
1. Field of large loop (current I) at distance x on its axis: B ≈
μ<sub>0</sub>IR<sup>2</sup> / (2x<sup>3</sup>) (since x>>R).
2. Flux through small loop: Φ<sub>small</sub> ≈ B * Area<sub>small</sub> =
[μ<sub>0</sub>IR<sup>2</sup> / (2x<sup>3</sup>)] * (πr<sup>2</sup>).
3. EMF ξ = -dΦ/dt. Since x changes with me, use chain rule: dΦ/dt =
(dΦ/dx)(dx/dt).
Page 12 (already covered up to Illus 14; this is Illus 15, 16 from page 12):
Illustra on 15: Solenoid and copper turn.
o Scenario: Long solenoid (n turns/length) with current i. Copper wire turn (area A,
density ρ', cross-sec onal area of wire A<sub>wire</sub>) around it. Current in
solenoid i changes at rate dI/dt.
o Method: B inside solenoid = μ<sub>0</sub>ni. Flux through copper turn Φ = B(Area
of turn) = μ<sub>0</sub>ni (πd<sup>2</sup>/4).
EMF induced in turn e = |dΦ/dt| = μ<sub>0</sub>n(πd<sup>2</sup>/4) |di/dt|.
Resistance of copper turn R = (resis vity ρ' * length of turn) / (cross-sec onal area
A<sub>wire</sub>). Here, ρ is density from which to calculate mass, and resis vity
for R needs to be specified. The provided answer (uses 4p/A, this p must be
resis vity, A is cross sec on of wire)
Illustra on 16: Square loop between two an -parallel current wires.
o Scenario: Square loop (side 'b') between two wires carrying same current 'I' in
opposite direc ons. Current I changes at rate dI/dt.
o Method:
1. Calculate flux Φ<sub>1</sub> due to wire 1 (similar to Illus. 1): integrate
from 'a' to 'a+b'.
2. Calculate flux Φ<sub>2</sub> due to wire 2 (current in opposite direc on):
integrate from 'a+d' to 'a+d+b'. Note B direc on. If both are into page, then
net Φ is Φ<sub>1</sub>+Φ<sub>2</sub>. If one is into, one out, then
Φ<sub>1</sub>-Φ<sub>2</sub>. Here currents are opposite so fields in
between might add or subtract based on geometry. The image suggests they
add up. (Wire 1 current up, Wire 2 current down -> field from 1 into page on
right, field from 2 into page on le ). The loop is to the right of wire 1 and le
of wire 2. This means both wires produce B into the page at the loop.
3. Net flux Φ<sub>net</sub> = Φ<sub>1</sub> + Φ<sub>2</sub>.
4. EMF ξ = -dΦ<sub>net</sub>/dt = -(d(Φ<sub>1</sub>+Φ<sub>2</sub>)/dI) *
(dI/dt).
o Direc on of Force: Determine induced current direc on via Lenz's Law. Then use F =
I(l x B) or a rac on/repulsion between wires and loop sides.
Page 13: Illustra on 17 - EMF in a Spiral Coil
Scenario: Plane spiral (N turns, outer radius 'a') in a uniform field B(t) =
B<sub>0</sub>sin(ωt) perpendicular to its plane.
o Method:
1. Consider an elemental circular strip of radius 'r' and radial width 'dr'.
2. Number of turns in this strip dN = (N/a) dr (assuming turns are uniformly
distributed radially).
3. EMF induced in one turn of radius r: ξ<sub>one turn</sub> = -d(B⋅Area)/dt =
-πr<sup>2</sup> (dB/dt) = -πr<sup>2</sup>B<sub>0</sub>ωcos(ωt).
4. EMF induced in the dN turns within the strip: dξ = ξ<sub>one turn</sub> *
dN = [-πr<sup>2</sup>B<sub>0</sub>ωcos(ωt)] * (N/a)dr.
5. Total EMF ξ = ∫<sub>0</sub><sup>a</sup> dξ.
o Result: ξ = -(1/3)Nπa<sup>2</sup>B<sub>0</sub>ωcos(ωt). Amplitude
ξ<sub>0</sub> = (1/3)Nπa<sup>2</sup>B<sub>0</sub>ω.
Page 14: Conceptual Note, Illustra on 18, Charge Induced
Conceptual Note: "Uniform field B = B<sub>0</sub>sinωt" means B is the same at all spa al
points at a given instant 't', but its value changes with me. It does NOT mean B varies
spa ally.
Illustra on 18: Square loop moving in a non-uniform field that depends on posi on.
o Scenario: Square loop (side 'a') moving with velocity v = βt j (velocity itself me-
dependent) in a field B = -B<sub>0</sub>(1+αy<sup>2</sup>)k (field varies with y).
o Method:
1. At any me t, the posi on of the lower edge of the loop is y(t) = ∫ v dt = ∫ βt
dt = (1/2)βt<sup>2</sup>. The upper edge is at y(t)+a.
2. Flux Φ through the loop: Since B varies with y, take a strip of length 'a' (into
the page for area, if that's width of loop) and height 'dy' at posi on y. Area
dA = a dy.
3. Φ = ∫<sub>y(t)</sub><sup>y(t)+a</sup> B(y) (a dy) =
∫<sub>y(t)</sub><sup>y(t)+a</sup> B<sub>0</sub>(1+αy<sup>2</sup>) a
dy. Integrate this.
4. The given solu on does: Flux through strip dΦ =
B<sub>0</sub>(1+αr<sup>2</sup>) ldr, then integrates from 0 to y. So it
means loop itself is growing with upper edge at 'y'. Here 'r' is integra on
variable for y, 'l' is width 'a'.
5. Then, EMF ξ = -dΦ/dt using chain rule since y is a func on of t. dy/dt = βt.
o The solu on shown for flux Φ=B<sub>0</sub>l(y+αy<sup>3</sup>/3) suggests it's
the flux for a loop from y=0 to current y, and l is the width. This implies 'a' in the
problem descrip on is the moving height 'y'.
Charge Induced in a Circuit:
o From ξ = -N dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt and I = ξ/R = dq/dt.
o dq = (ξ/R)dt = -(N/R) dΦ<sub>B</sub>.
o Integra ng gives total charge flown: Δq = -(N/R) ΔΦ<sub>B</sub>.
o Key Point: Induced charge depends on the net change in flux, not the rate or how
fast the change occurs (as long as it does).
Page 15: Illustra on 19 - Calcula ng Induced Charge
Scenario: Square loop (side L, resistance R) at distance L from a wire. Current in wire I(t) = (1-
αt)I<sub>0</sub> for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1/α, and I(t)=0 for t > 1/α.
o Method to find total charge:
1. Ini al flux (t=0, I=I<sub>0</sub>): Φ<sub>i</sub> =
(μ<sub>0</sub>I<sub>0</sub>L / 2π) ln((L+L)/L) =
(μ<sub>0</sub>I<sub>0</sub>L / 2π) ln(2). (Using formula from Illus. 1 with
c=L, a=L, b=L).
2. Final flux (t ≥ 1/α, I=0): Φ<sub>f</sub> = 0.
3. Total charge Δq = -(1/R)(Φ<sub>f</sub> - Φ<sub>i</sub>) =
(1/R)Φ<sub>i</sub> = (μ<sub>0</sub>I<sub>0</sub>L / 2πR) ln(2).
o Direc on of current (part a): I(t) decreases with me → B (inward flux) decreases. By
Lenz's Law, induced current tries to oppose this decrease by crea ng its own inward
flux → Clockwise current.
Pages 16-18: "Test Your Concepts - I" - These are problem statements applying the above concepts.
Page 19: Mo onal EMF - Rod Moving in Uniform B
Concept: When a conduc ng rod moves in a magne c field, an EMF is induced across its
ends.
Deriva on:
1. Charges (e.g., free electrons) in the rod experience a magne c force F<sub>m</sub>
= q(v x B).
2. This force causes charges to accumulate at the ends of the rod, crea ng an electric
field E inside the rod.
3. Charge accumula on stops when the electric force F<sub>e</sub> = qE balances the
magne c force F<sub>m</sub>. So, qE = qvB (if v, B, length 'l' are mutually
perpendicular). Thus, E = vB.
4. The poten al difference (EMF) across the ends is ξ = El = Blv.
Polarity: The end towards which posi ve charges are pushed by v x B becomes the higher
poten al end.
Page 20: Mo onal EMF - General Angle, Equivalent Ba ery
Rod moving at an angle:
o If velocity v is not perpendicular to rod length l or field B:
EMF ξ = Blv<sub>⊥</sub> = Blvcosθ, where v<sub>⊥</sub> is the component of v
perpendicular to B and to l if B is ⊥ to l. Or, more generally, the effec ve length is the
component perpendicular to v and B.
o The expression ξ = (v x B) ⋅ l is used if l is treated as a vector along the rod.
Integra on form is ξ = ∫(v x B)⋅dl.
Fleming's Right Hand Rule: Determines direc on of induced conven onal current (or
posi ve charge movement). Thumb (mo on), Forefinger (Field), Middle finger (Current).
Mo onal EMF as an Equivalent Ba ery: A rod moving with mo onal EMF acts like a ba ery
with:
o EMF = ξ
o Internal resistance = resistance of the rod itself.
o Important: Inside this "source," conven onal current flows from the lower poten al
end to the higher poten al end.
Page 21: Illustra ons 20, 21 - Mo onal EMF
Illustra on 20: Rod segment with vector v and B.
o Scenario: Rod between (1,1,1)m and (3,3,3)m. l = (2i+2j+2k)m. v = (i-2j+k) m/s. B =
(4i+2j-k) T.
o Method: Use scalar triple product: ξ = B ⋅ (l x v). First calculate l x v, then dot product
with B. (Or ( v x B) ⋅ l ).
Illustra on 21: Rod moving in non-uniform B.
o Scenario: Rod OA of length 'l' along y-axis, one end at origin. Moves with velocity v =
v<sub>0</sub>i. Field B = B<sub>0</sub>(1 + y<sup>2</sup>/l<sup>2</sup>)k.
o Method:
1. Consider an infinitesimal element 'dy' of the rod at posi on 'y'.
2. Mo onal EMF across this element dξ = (B at y) * v<sub>0</sub> * dy. (Since
B, v<sub>0</sub>, dy are mutually ⊥).
dξ = [B<sub>0</sub>(1 + y<sup>2</sup>/l<sup>2</sup>)] v<sub>0</sub> dy.
3. Total EMF is the integral of dξ from y=0 to y=l.
Page 22: Illustra on 22, Induced EMF in a Loop by Changing Area
Illustra on 22: Connector on a parabolic wire in uniform B.
o Scenario: Wire bent as y=kx<sup>2</sup>. Connector (rod) starts at apex (0,0) and
slides "transla on wise" (presumably meaning the connector maintains its
orienta on, e.g. horizontal, and moves upwards with acc. a). The ques on implies
the EMF in the connector due to its mo on on the parabolic wire.
o The illustra on explana on is complex and depends on interpreta on. If it's
mo onal EMF of connector: Length of connector L<sub>conn</sub> = 2x = 2√(y/k).
Velocity v<sub>y</sub>. EMF ξ = B * L<sub>conn</sub> * v<sub>y</sub>. (Assuming
v<sub>y</sub> is the relevant velocity component).
o The solu on in image uses dΦ = B(2x)dy and ξ = |dΦ/dt| = B(2x)(dy/dt) where
v=dy/dt. This suggests the changing area of the loop formed by the parabola and the
connector.
EMF in a Loop by Changing its Area:
o Scenario: Straight conductor CD (length l) slides with velocity v on a U-shaped rail in
uniform B (into page).
o Concept: Area of loop A = lx (if x is distance moved). Rate of change of area dA/dt = l
(dx/dt) = lv.
o EMF (Faraday): ξ = -dΦ<sub>B</sub>/dt = -B (dA/dt) = -Blv.
o Direc on (Lenz): As rod moves right, area increases, inward flux increases. Induced
current creates outward field → counter-clockwise.
o Mo onal EMF Approach: EMF in rod CD is Blv (higher poten al at C).
o Note on capacitor: If rail ends in capacitor, current I=dQ/dt = d(Cξ)/dt. Current flows
only if ξ (and thus v) changes (i.e., accelera on).
Page 23: Illustra on 23 - Loop Entering/Leaving a Field Region
Scenario: Rectangular loop (length l, width w, resistance R) moves with constant speed 'v'
through a region of uniform B (width 3w).
Analysis:
o Flux Φ<sub>B</sub> vs. x (posi on of right edge):
1. x < 0 (entering region): Φ<sub>B</sub> = Blx (linearly increasing from 0 to
Blw).
2. w ≤ x ≤ 3w (fully inside): Φ<sub>B</sub> = Blw (constant).
3. 3w < x < 4w (exi ng region): Φ<sub>B</sub> = Bl[w - (x-3w)] = Bl(4w-x)
(linearly decreasing from Blw to 0).
o EMF ξ vs. x:
1. Entering: ξ = -Blv (constant, counter-clockwise current).
2. Fully inside: ξ = 0 (no change in flux).
3. Exi ng: ξ = +Blv (constant, clockwise current).
o External Force F<sub>ext</sub> vs. x (to maintain constant v):
F<sub>ext</sub> is needed to counteract magne c (Lorentz) force F<sub>m</sub> =
IBl = (ξ/R)Bl = (B<sup>2</sup>l<sup>2</sup>v/R).
1. Entering: F<sub>ext</sub> = (B<sup>2</sup>l<sup>2</sup>v/R) to the right.
2. Fully inside: F<sub>ext</sub> = 0.
3. Exi ng: F<sub>ext</sub> = (B<sup>2</sup>l<sup>2</sup>v/R) to the right.
Page 24: Illustra on 24 - Sliding Rod Connected to Two Resistors
Scenario: Conduc ng rod (length l) slides with speed 'v' on parallel rails. Two resistors
R<sub>1</sub> and R<sub>2</sub> form two separate loops with the rod. Uniform B into
page.
Analysis:
o EMF: Rod acts as a source with EMF ξ = Blv (same poten al difference across both
R<sub>1</sub> and R<sub>2</sub>).
o Currents:
Through R<sub>1</sub>: I<sub>1</sub> = ξ/R<sub>1</sub>. Direc on by
Lenz (le loop area decreasing or based on vXB, it's clockwise).
Through R<sub>2</sub>: I<sub>2</sub> = ξ/R<sub>2</sub>. Direc on by
Lenz (right loop area increasing or based on vXB, it's counter-clockwise).
o Total current in rod: I<sub>rod</sub> = I<sub>1</sub> + I<sub>2</sub> (assuming
appropriate current direc ons based on polarity of mo onal EMF).
o Total Power dissipated: P = I<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup>R<sub>1</sub> +
I<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup>R<sub>2</sub> = ξ<sup>2</sup>(1/R<sub>1</sub> +
1/R<sub>2</sub>).
o Applied Force: F<sub>ext</sub> = F<sub>m</sub> = BI<sub>rod</sub>l =
B(I<sub>1</sub>+I<sub>2</sub>)l, opposite to magne c force, to maintain constant
'v'.
Page 25: Illustra ons 25, 26 - Ring on Rails, Bar Sliding Down
Illustra on 25: Ring sliding on rails.
o Scenario: Light uniform ring (diameter d, resistance λ per unit length) slides with
velocity 'v' on two parallel rails. Uniform B.
o Analysis: The ring can be thought of as two semicircles in parallel.
EMF across each "diameter equivalent" is ξ = Bvd (effec ve length 'd').
Resistance of each semicircle r<sub>semi</sub> = λ(πd/2).
These two are in parallel, so R<sub>eq</sub> = r<sub>semi</sub>/2 =
λπd/4.
Total current from "source" I = ξ/R<sub>eq</sub> = Bvd / (λπd/4) = 4Bv/πλ.
Current in each semicircle i' = I/2 = 2Bv/πλ.
Force needed to pull: Each semicircle experiences a force F<sub>semi</sub>
= Bi'd. Total force F<sub>ext</sub> = 2F<sub>semi</sub> = 2B(2Bv/πλ)d =
4B<sup>2</sup>vd/πλ.
Illustra on 26: Bar sliding down ver cal rails under gravity.
o Scenario: Metallic bar (mass m) slides down ver cal rails separated by L. Connected
by R<sub>1</sub> (top) and R<sub>2</sub> (bo om). Uniform horizontal B.
Terminal velocity 'v'. Powers in R<sub>1</sub>, R<sub>2</sub> given.
o Analysis (at terminal velocity):
Mo onal EMF ξ = BLv. E is at lower poten al, F at higher.
Current through R<sub>1</sub>: I<sub>1</sub> = ξ/R<sub>1</sub>. Current
through R<sub>2</sub>: I<sub>2</sub> = ξ/R<sub>2</sub>.
Total current in bar I = I<sub>1</sub>+I<sub>2</sub> (flowing upwards,
from E to F).
Magne c Force F<sub>m</sub> = BIL (upwards, by Fleming's le -hand or
right-hand rule logic).
At terminal velocity, F<sub>m</sub> = mg ⇒ BIL = mg.
Power in R<sub>1</sub>: P<sub>1</sub> =
I<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup>R<sub>1</sub> =
ξ<sup>2</sup>/R<sub>1</sub> (Given 0.76W).
Power in R<sub>2</sub>: P<sub>2</sub> =
I<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup>R<sub>2</sub> =
ξ<sup>2</sup>/R<sub>2</sub> (Given 1.2W).
Solve system of equa ons: From P<sub>1</sub>, P<sub>2</sub>, find
ξ/R<sub>1</sub>, ξ/R<sub>2</sub> rela onships. Use I = ξ/R<sub>1</sub>
+ ξ/R<sub>2</sub>. And mg = BL(ξ/R<sub>1</sub> + ξ/R<sub>2</sub>) =
BLξ(1/R<sub>1</sub> + 1/R<sub>2</sub>).
This gives enough equa ons to find v, R<sub>1</sub>, R<sub>2</sub>.
