Title:

Europe's Oldest Subterranean Structure? New Chronological and Structural Insights from
Dry-Stone Wall in the Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex, Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina

Original research Article

Author:
Dr. Sam Osmanagich, PhD
Founder and Principal Investigator
Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation
Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina
[email protected]
www.drsamosmanagich.com
ORCID iD: 0009-0009-7737-6480

Corresponding Author:
Dr. Sam Osmanagich

Abstract:

This study presents groundbreaking archaeological and geochronological findings from the
Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex in Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Through stratigraphic analysis and
precise radiometric dating, the article documents the existence of an intentionally constructed
dry-stone wall (Wall No. 1) located beneath undisturbed speleothem formations. Uranium-
Thorium dating of the stalagmite growing atop the wall yields a minimum age of 19,000 ± 1,000
years, while radiocarbon analysis of nearby speleothem layers provides a calibrated date of
26,200 ± 250 years BP. These results suggest that the tunnel system predates the Late Glacial
Maximum, making it one of the oldest verified subterranean human structures in Europe. The
presence of architectural continuity, sealed passages, and mineral deposits implies that the
tunnels were intentionally constructed and later abandoned or preserved. These findings
challenge conventional models of European prehistory and support the hypothesis of advanced
construction capabilities in the Upper Paleolithic era.

Keywords:
Bosnian pyramids, Ravne 3 tunnel complex, dry-stone wall, prehistoric construction, Visoko,
Uranium-Thorium dating, radiocarbon dating, speleothem chronology, subterranean
archaeology, European prehistory

1. Introduction

Subterranean architecture has historically been associated with Neolithic or later periods in
Europe, often attributed to ritual, habitation, or defensive purposes. However, recent findings
from the Ravne Tunnel Complex in Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina, (Figure 1) offer compelling
evidence of much earlier human activity—potentially extending the known timeline of
intentional underground construction in Europe by tens of thousands of years.

A key feature in this reassessment is the discovery of a prehistoric dry-stone wall within the
Ravne 3 Tunnel, part of a broader network of artificial passages. (1) (Figure 2-3) This wall is
situated beneath intact speleothems, including layered stalagmites, which were sampled for
absolute dating using two independent methods.

Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) dating of the overgrowing stalagmites yielded results of

approximately 19,000 ± 1,000 years, establishing a minimum age for the wall's construction—
since the wall had to be in place prior to the formation of these calcite deposits (2). Separately,
radiocarbon dating of a different stalagmite sample within the same tunnel section produced an
age of 26,200 years BP, further supporting the hypothesis of pre-LGM (Last Glacial Maximum)
activity (2) (Figure 4-9).

These results collectively suggest that both the cavities and dry-stone features predate the
Holocene epoch by a considerable margin. The preservation of architectural integrity, including
the wall’s deliberate alignment and construction using unbonded river pebbles, implies not only
human agency but also a degree of engineering awareness previously unattributed to Upper
Paleolithic communities in the region. (3).

Moreover, the Ravne 3 section forms part of a larger underground network displaying
architectural consistency, intentional curvature, stable microclimatic conditions, and notable
energetic anomalies—raising further questions about its original function(4,5). These attributes
demand a comprehensive reassessment of early human capabilities related to subterranean
construction, environmental management, and cognitive planning.

This study aims to integrate the latest chronometric, stratigraphic, and architectural data to
evaluate the hypothesis that Ravne 3 houses the oldest known man-made subterranean
structure in Europe, and to outline its implications for Paleolithic archaeology.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Site Overview: Ravne Tunnel Complex

The Ravne Tunnel Complex, located approximately 2.5 kilometers northeast of the Bosnian
Pyramid of the Sun in Visoko, is an extensive network of interconnected subterranean passages
believed to be artificial in origin. Excavations since 2006 have uncovered hundreds of meters of
dry-stone tunnels, ventilation chambers, ceramic megaliths, and subterranean water flows. The
Ravne 3 Tunnel, a recently opened lateral section, features a dry-stone wall partially sealed
beneath intact speleothem formations. This location serves as the primary focus of the present
study.

2.2 Stratigraphic and Architectural Documentation

The dry-stone wall was analyzed for its morphological attributes, spatial orientation, and
material composition. The structure consists of rounded river pebbles, stacked in interlocking,
unmortared courses, indicative of intentional placement rather than natural accumulation. The
wall is situated approximately 4 meters from the current tunnel face and lies directly beneath
multi-layered stalagmitic deposits, some exceeding 20 cm in thickness.

Stratigraphic sequencing was conducted using photogrammetry, 3D scanning, and manual

field recording, enabling the creation of a high-resolution model of the wall-speleothem
relationship. Special attention was given to identifying contact points between anthropogenic
and speleogenic features to support chronological interpretation.

2.3 Absolute Dating Techniques

Two independent dating methods were employed to establish a terminus ante quem for the
wall’s construction:

• Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) dating was applied to intact stalagmites overgrowing the

upper stone layers. Samples were analyzed at the Gliwice Radiocarbon and U-Series
Laboratory (Poland). Results indicated a minimum age of 19,000 ± 1,000 years BP,
placing the wall’s construction during or before the late Upper Paleolithic period (2).
• Radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating was also conducted on calcitic stalagmite layers associated
with the same stratigraphic level, using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) techniques.
A sample returned a calibrated age of approximately 26,200 years BP, affirming that
speleothem development—and by implication, the cessation of wall activity—occurred
well before the onset of the Holocene(2).

Both sets of results are consistent with long-term microclimatic stability in the tunnel, as
evidenced by the well-preserved speleothems.

2.4 Structural and Material Analysis

A selection of stones from the wall was subjected to petrographic analysis using thin-section
microscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). These analyses confirmed the use of locally sourced
river cobbles, primarily composed of quartzite, sandstone, and schist. The consistent lithology
and standardized dimensions suggest intentional selection and transport, reinforcing the
hypothesis of human construction.

The architecture exhibits signs of load distribution awareness, including battering (slight
inward slope) and lateral support from surrounding fill. The dry-stone style observed in Ravne 3
is consistent with other parts of the Ravne Tunnel Complex but displays unique depth and
preservation relative to stratigraphic position.

2.5 Environmental Parameters

Ambient temperature, humidity, and air ionization levels were monitored throughout the
Ravne 3 corridor using standard field equipment. Conditions remained remarkably constant
(temperature ~12.5°C, RH ~95%), consistent with prior studies suggesting that the tunnel
complex was engineered or selected to optimize microclimatic stability (3,4,5). These factors
likely contributed to the preservation of both speleothems and dry-stone structures.

3. Results

3.1 Stratigraphic Context and Wall Construction

Excavations within the Ravne 3 tunnel corridor revealed a dry-stone wall approximately 80 cm
in height and extending over 2.3 meters in visible length, composed of uniformly shaped river
cobbles arranged without the use of mortar. The wall was found partially embedded within a
matrix of fine silty clay and speleothem deposits. The base layer of the wall was securely
anchored into the natural tunnel floor, while the upper courses showed compression from
overlying stalagmitic flowstone.

Photographic documentation and 3D scanning confirmed that speleothems developed in direct

superposition above the upper stone layer, demonstrating a clear post-construction chronology.
The uniformity of the speleothem layer atop the structure rules out later intrusive building
activity and affirms its stratigraphic integrity.

3.2 Radiometric Dating Results

Two independent dating methods provided consistent, corroborated estimates for the age of
overlying speleothems:

• Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) analysis yielded a calibrated age of 19,000 ± 1,000 years

Before Present, from a stalagmite adhering directly to the top surface of the wall stones
(2). This establishes a firm lower limit, indicating that the wall must have been
constructed prior to 19,000 years BP.
• A separate radiocarbon analysis of speleothem calcite (not associated with organic
material) conducted on a stalagmite sample returned a date of approximately 26,200
years BP (2). This result, while older than the U-Th data, further strengthens the case that
the tunnel cavity—and its anthropogenic modifications—predate the late glacial
maximum.

These two results suggest that cavity formation and human structural activity occurred well
into the Upper Paleolithic period, making the Ravne 3 dry-stone wall potentially one of the
oldest subterranean architectural features currently known in Europe.

3.3 Morphology and Intentional Design

The Ravne 3 wall exhibits clear indicators of intentional design:

 • The stones were sorted by size, with larger stones placed at the base and smaller ones
above.
• A concave curvature facing the tunnel entrance was noted, suggestive of a retaining
function or symbolic demarcation.
• The wall’s alignment is consistent with previously mapped dry-stone structures in
other sections of the Ravne Tunnel Complex, suggesting shared construction principles or
cultural continuity.

Notably, no collapsed ceiling material or signs of natural rockfall were detected in direct
association with the wall, further distinguishing it from random geological formations.

3.4 Speleothem Preservation and Microclimate

The overlying speleothem layers were found to be dense, laminated, and well-preserved,
exhibiting characteristic stalagmitic banding and calcite purity. This quality of preservation is
consistent with the tunnel's stable temperature (~12.5°C) and high humidity (~95%), both of
which are conducive to long-term speleogenetic development. Ionization levels, while not
directly measured in this study, are known from adjacent sections to be elevated, supporting
hypotheses that the tunnel environment was deliberately selected or engineered for its
preservation qualities (1,3).

4. Discussion

4.1 Reassessing the Chronology of Subterranean Architecture in Europe

Radiometric analyses of the Ravne 3 Tunnel's dry-stone wall—specifically, uranium-thorium

dating indicating a minimum age of 19,000 ± 1,000 years BP and radiocarbon dating of
overlying stalagmitic material yielding 26,200 years BP—place the structure firmly within the
Upper Paleolithic period (2,3). These results predate the known emergence of underground
construction in Europe, traditionally associated with Neolithic and later societies.

For instance, the Menga dolmen in Spain, a massive subterranean megalithic tomb dated to the
5th millennium BCE, is considered one of the earliest known examples of underground
architectural planning in Neolithic Europe (6). Similarly, a 5,000-year-old paved cellar recently
excavated in Denmark provides additional evidence of complex subterranean construction during
the late Neolithic (7). However, the chronological evidence from Ravne 3 extends this timeline
significantly, suggesting that intentional subterranean engineering occurred during a period
typically defined by hunter-gatherer subsistence and symbolic cave art rather than built
environments.

4.2 Paleolithic Cave Art and Symbolic Behavior

Evidence from across Europe demonstrates that early humans possessed the capacity for
symbolic thinking and visual representation long before the Neolithic revolution. The El Castillo
Cave in Spain contains red disk paintings dated to at least 40,800 years ago using uranium-
series dating techniques (8). In Chauvet Cave, France, charcoal-based animal drawings have
been radiocarbon dated to between 32,000 and 30,000 years ago, making them among the oldest
known examples of representational art (9).

Recent uranium-thorium dating of cave art in La Pasiega, Maltravieso, and Ardales caves in
Spain has pushed the earliest known symbolic art back to over 64,000 years ago—before the
arrival of anatomically modern humans in Western Europe—thereby implicating Neanderthals as
the creators (19). This discovery alters the long-standing narrative about the cognitive and
cultural capacities of Paleolithic populations, both Neanderthal and early Homo sapiens.

4.3 Implications for Understanding Upper Paleolithic Societies

The Ravne 3 dry-stone wall, constructed and subsequently sealed beneath layers of calcite and
speleothem, implies purposeful activity within a subterranean context, demonstrating social
coordination and advanced spatial awareness during the Upper Paleolithic. Unlike natural cave
dwellings, which were passively occupied, the engineered nature of the Ravne wall—its
placement, dry-stone technique, and burial beneath calcified layers—indicates long-term
intention, maintenance, and environmental adaptation (1-3).

The wall’s discovery contributes to a growing body of evidence that early societies demonstrated
complex planning and possibly ritualized behavior. The co-occurrence of underground
engineering with symbolic cave art suggests that the Paleolithic period may have involved a
broader spectrum of cultural activity than previously acknowledged. Rather than marking the
beginning of complex social behavior in the Neolithic, the findings from Ravne 3 and other
contemporaneous sites imply a gradual evolution of symbolic and architectural knowledge 6-11).

5. Conclusion

The discovery of a dry-stone wall sealed beneath calcite layers and stalagmites in the Ravne 3
Tunnel Complex, Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina, marks a pivotal contribution to the study of
early human engineering. Radiometric dating results from both U-Th analysis (19,000 ± 1,000
years BP) and radiocarbon analysis (26,200 BP) of overlying speleothems challenge existing
models of subterranean construction in prehistoric Europe [1–3].

This structure—clearly anthropogenic in design—predates known examples of Neolithic

subterranean architecture by many millennia. When considered alongside the symbolic cave art
traditions from Chauvet, El Castillo, and La Pasiega [6–8], the wall in Ravne 3 offers compelling
evidence of intentional activity, spatial planning, and possibly ritualized behavior during the
Upper Paleolithic. Such activity reflects a level of cognitive and cultural complexity not
previously attributed to this era’s populations.

Moreover, the site contributes to a growing body of research suggesting that Paleolithic
humans—and potentially even earlier hominin groups—engaged in deliberate environmental
modifications, not merely for shelter or subsistence, but potentially for symbolic, functional, or
social purposes. This expands our understanding of prehistoric lifeways and demands a
reconsideration of the linear progression model that situates “advanced” engineering and
planning exclusively in post-Neolithic contexts [4,5,9].

Future multidisciplinary research—including micromorphological analysis, paleoenvironmental

reconstruction, and comparative architectural studies—is essential to confirm these preliminary
interpretations. Nevertheless, the Ravne 3 dry-stone wall stands as Europe’s most ancient known
engineered subterranean feature to date, offering a rare glimpse into the technical and cultural
capacities of Paleolithic societies.

References

1. Osmanagich, S. (2025). A New Class of Subterranean Dry-Stone Structures: River-

Pebble Walls in the Ravne Tunnel Complex, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Journal of
Environment and Biological Science, J Environ Biol Sci. Vol.1 No.1: 05. LINK
2. Osmanagich, S. (2025). Establishing Deep Time: Multi-Method Dating of Archaeological
and Speleological Features in the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids. Geoinfor Geostat: An
Overview 13:3. LINK
3. Osmanagich, S. (2025). Archaeological Stratigraphy and Environmental Analysis of the
Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex (Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina): Evidence from Multi-Period
Artifacts, Radiometric Dating, and Energetic Microclimate Data. Acta Scientific
Environmental Science 2.1: 68–96. LINK
4. Osmanagich, S. (2025). Ravne Tunnels as a Regenerative Environment: Scientific
Measurements and Human Testimonials. Acta Scientific Medical Sciences 9.6: 122–133.
LINK
5. Osmanagich, S. (2025). Environmental Ionization in Enclosed Geospheres: Comparative
Study of Global and Local Measurements (2018–2025). J Adv Arti Int Eng & Techn 1:
24. LINK
6. Bahn, P. G. (2012). The First Artists: In Search of the World’s Oldest Art. Thames &
Hudson. LINK
7. Pettitt, P. (2021). The Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial. Routledge. DOI:
10.4324/9780203813300
8. Pike, A. W. G., Hoffmann, D. L., García-Diez, M., et al. (2012). U-Series Dating of
Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in Spain. Science, 336(6087), 1409–1413. LINK
9. Clottes, J. (2003). Return to Chauvet Cave: Excavating the Birthplace of Art. Thames &
Hudson. LINK
10. Berenguer, J. (2004). La Pasiega Cave and the Paleolithic Graphic Symbolism of
Northern Spain. Antiquity, 78(300), 653–665. LINK
11. Scarre, C. (Ed.). (2013). The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of
Human Societies (3rd ed.). Thames & Hudson. LINK
Acknowledgment

The author expresses deep gratitude to the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun
Foundation for its ongoing support, funding, and logistical facilitation of field research and
excavations in the Ravne Tunnel Complex. Special thanks are extended to the team of local and
international experts, researchers, and volunteers, whose dedication and collaborative efforts
have made the investigation of these subterranean structures possible.

The author is particularly grateful to the field technicians, geologists, and tunnel mapping teams
for their meticulous documentation and data collection, as well as to the laboratory personnel
involved in chronometric testing and sample analysis. The tireless commitment of all those
working on-site—under often demanding conditions—has contributed significantly to the
discoveries presented in this study.

Statements

Funding:
This study was fully supported by the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun
Foundation, a non-profit organization. No external grants from public, commercial, or non-
governmental sources were received.

Conflicts of Interest:
The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval and Research Permits:

All archaeological work was conducted under legal permits issued by the Ministry of Culture of
Zenica-Doboj Canton, Bosnia-Herzegovina. The project was carried out by the Archaeological
Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, operating as a registered NGO with full
approval from the Ministry of Justice of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Artifact preservation and
classification were conducted in collaboration with the Visoko City Museum, which serves as
the official custodian of recovered materials.

Data Availability:
Data supporting the findings of this study—including dating reports, stratigraphic logs, and
tunnel schematics—are available upon reasonable request and are archived at the Foundation’s
scientific office in Visoko.
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Geographical context of the study area.

The main map displays Bosnia-Herzegovina within the central Balkan Peninsula, highlighting its
position relative to neighboring Mediterranean and Southeastern European countries (Source:
GISGeography.com). The satellite image inset locates the town of Visoko in central Bosnia,
situated within the Dinaric Alps and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Source: Google
Earth, Landsat/Copernicus; Image date: 13 December 2015). The Visoko Valley hosts the Ravne
Tunnel Complex, the primary focus of this study.
Source: Osmanagich S (2025) A New Class of Subterranean Dry-Stone Structures: River-Pebble
Walls in the Ravne Tunnel Complex, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Journal of Environment and
Biological Science, J Environ Biol Sci. Vol.1 No.1: 05.
Figure 2. First dry-stone wall discovered in the ‘Ravne 3’ tunnel.
This dry-stone structure composed of stacked river pebbles, was uncovered in 2019 during
systematic excavation led by field archaeologist MA Amna Agić. The wall appears embedded in
compact tunnel fill, with a calcified stone mass visible to the left. The discovery provided the
first physical confirmation of intentional closure features within Ravne 3.
Source: Osmanagich S (2025) A New Class of Subterranean Dry-Stone Structures: River-Pebble
Walls in the Ravne Tunnel Complex, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Journal of Environment and
Biological Science, J Environ Biol Sci. Vol.1 No.1: 05.

Figure 3. Architectural profile of Dry-stone Wall 1 in the Ravne 3 tunnel

Detailed cross-sectional drawing of the first dry-stone wall discovered in the Ravne 3 tunnel,
showing its position relative to the open tunnel space, infill, and surrounding Ravne
Conglomerate. The structure is built from stacked river pebbles and sealed behind a rubble
backfill, interpreted as intentional tunnel closure. Drawing by field geologist Richard Hoyle,
2019.
Source: Osmanagich S (2025) A New Class of Subterranean Dry-Stone Structures: River-Pebble
Walls in the Ravne Tunnel Complex, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Journal of Environment and
Biological Science, J Environ Biol Sci. Vol.1 No.1: 05.

Figure 4. Stalactites and stalagmites in an undisturbed section of the Ravne 3 tunnel.

This image shows an active speleothem formation zone within the Ravne 3 tunnel system.
Stalactites can be seen descending from the conglomerate ceiling, while stalagmites are visible
rising from the compact tunnel floor, indicating prolonged periods of water percolation and
calcite deposition. Such formations develop slowly over centuries or millennia in stable
underground microclimates, providing important clues to the long-term undisturbed nature of the
environment.

Sam Osmanagich. “Archaeological Stratigraphy and Environmental Analysis of the Ravne 3

Tunnel Complex (Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina): Evidence from Multi-Period Artifacts,
Radiometric Dating, and Energetic Microclimate Data". Acta Scientific Environmental Science
2.1 (2025): 68-96.
Figure 5.

Conical stalagmites in Ravne 3 tunnel, with S002 prepared for Uranium-Thorium dating.
The upper image shows the conical stalagmites S001 and S002 located on the tunnel floor of
Ravne 3, identified for radiometric analysis. In the lower panels, stalagmite S002 is shown in
detail: it has been sectioned vertically to extract a clean carbonate sample from the basal layer,
necessary for U-Th dating. The laminar growth patterns are clearly visible, indicating
continuous calcite deposition. This dating method was employed to help establish a minimum
age for undisturbed tunnel sedimentation and ceiling integrity.

Osmanagich, S. “Archaeological Stratigraphy and Environmental Analysis of the Ravne 3

Tunnel Complex (Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina): Evidence from Multi-Period Artifacts,
Radiometric Dating, and Energetic Microclimate Data". Acta Scientific Environmental Science
2.1 (2025): 68-96.
Figure 6. Stalagmites S001 and S002 Discovered in Tunnel Ravne 3

Two cone-shaped stalagmites (S001 and S002) were found at the same stratigraphic level in
Tunnel Ravne 3. These speleothems were sampled for geochronological analysis to help estimate
the tunnel’s minimum age.

Stalagmite S001 was dated using radiocarbon (C-14) analysis and yielded an apparent age of
26,200 ± 250 years, although this result is likely distorted due to the presence of "dead carbon"
from dissolved carbonate ions in the conglomerate bedrock. The base of the stalagmite was not
dated, meaning the true age may be greater.

Stalagmite S002 was dated using Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) ICP-MS analysis, yielding a more
reliable age of 5,900 ± 300 years, as U-Th dating is unaffected by carbonate contamination in
the same way as radiocarbon methods.

Despite their proximity and similar morphology, the large discrepancy in the results highlights
methodological differences and challenges with speleothem dating. The U-Th age for S002
serves as a minimum age for the cessation of human activity in that area of the tunnel.

Sam Osmanagich. “Archaeological Stratigraphy and Environmental Analysis of the Ravne 3

Tunnel Complex (Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina): Evidence from Multi-Period Artifacts,
Radiometric Dating, and Energetic Microclimate Data". Acta Scientific Environmental Science
2.1 (2025): 68-96.
Figure 7. Radiocarbon Analysis of Samples from Tunnel Ravne 3: Laboratory Procedures
and Results

This table presents the radiocarbon dating results obtained for multiple samples collected from
the Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex in Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina. The analyses were conducted by
the Laboratory for Radiocarbon Dating, Institute of Environmental Geochemistry,
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv.

Laboratory Methods and Approach:

The conventional radiocarbon dating method was employed, based on liquid scintillation
counting of benzene samples. The laboratory procedure involved the following steps:

• Sample Preparation: Organic and carbonate materials were sought in each sample.
• Thermal Destruction (Vacuum Pyrolysis): Samples were subjected to vacuum
pyrolysis at 250°C for three hours to release measurable carbon. If residual charred
carbon was visually detected, it indicated the presence of organic matter.
• Chemical Conversion: In cases of carbonate presence, chemical reactions were applied:
o CO₂ was liberated through acid destruction.
o CO₂ was then reacted with lithium to form lithium carbide.
o Lithium carbide was further processed into acetylene and then into benzene (C +
Li → Li₂C₂ → C₂H₂ → C₆H₆).
• Measurement: Radiocarbon content was determined by measuring radioactivity within
the benzene samples using liquid scintillation counting.
Results Overview:

• Samples C2-018 and C2-025 initially showed no datable organic carbon through
pyrolysis. However, carbonate acid destruction allowed the production of benzene and
successful radiocarbon dating:
o Sample C2-018 (sandstone-like material) produced a relatively higher benzene
yield.
o Sample C2-025 (pressed clay-like material) produced less benzene.
• Sample C2-024, interpreted as a possible bird bone fragment, contained no measurable
organic carbon and could not be dated.
• Stalagmite sample S001 was carefully stratified into layers (A, B, and C). Carbon
analysis was conducted separately for external and internal sections:
o Layer A and Layers B+C were individually processed and dated.
o Additional cross-sections were taken for precision, producing multiple protocol
results.

Radiocarbon Dating Results (summarized in Table):

The results indicate a complex chronology for the tunnel, with radiocarbon dates ranging from
the late Upper Paleolithic (26,200 years BP) to more recent Holocene periods (ca. 3,000–4,000
years BP). These findings suggest multiple phases of use and environmental changes within the
Ravne 3 system.

Source: Osmanagich S (2025) Establishing Deep Time: Multi-Method Dating of Archaeological

and Speleological Features in the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids. Geoinfor Geostat: An
Overview 13:3.

Lab No. Description Benzene (g) pMC (%) Age (years BP)
3729 S001 Layers 1.3853 64.5 3520 ± 50
(B+C)
3730 S001 Layers 0.694 72.9 2540 ± 50
(A)
3732 S001 Layers 1.2285 61.7 3880 ± 55
(C)
3733 S2-018 1.3183 68.3 3070 ± 50
3734 S001 Layers 1.0192 3.8 26200 ± 250
(B) A
3735 S2-025 0.149 26.7 10625 ± 300
 Замовник (Customer) Foundation "Archaeological park ”Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun"
Зразок(Sample): Sample S001 (layer B, top) (carbonate)
Код лабораторії (lab code) IHME-3734

Маса бензолу (benzene mass) 1,0192 грам (g)

Час вимірювання (counting time) 3000 хвилин (minutes)
Швидкість лічення проби (Sample 0.87 CPM
count rate)
Фон (імп./хв.) (Background count 0.506 CPM
rate)
Ефективність реєстрації (counting 73,51% Процент (percent)
efficiency) :
Радіовуглецева дата (Radiocarbon 26200 ± 250 BP
date)

Калібрована дата (Calibrated date) -

Michael G.Buzinny

[email protected],
http://c14.kiev.ua

Figure 8. Uranium-Thorium Dating of Stalagmites from Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex

This figure presents the results of U-series dating of stalagmite samples collected from the Ravne
3 Tunnel Complex in Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina. The analyses were performed using
uranium-thorium (U-Th) isotopic dating methods, a technique particularly well suited for
dating calcium carbonate formations such as stalagmites.

Laboratory Methods and Facilities:

• Chemical Processing: After thermal decomposition of organic matter, a ^233U–^236U–

^229Th spike was added to each sample. The samples were then dissolved in nitric acid,
and uranium and thorium were chemically separated from the carbonate matrix using
chromatographic extraction with TRU-resin.
• Laboratories Involved:
o U-series Laboratory of the Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy
of Sciences (Warsaw, Poland) conducted the chemical separations.
 o Institute of Geology of the Czech Academy of Sciences (CAS) (Prague, Czech
Republic) conducted the isotopic measurements using a double-focusing sector-
field ICP mass spectrometer (Element 2, Thermo Finnigan MAT).

All measurements were corrected for background radiation and chemical blanks. Standard
reference materials and blank samples were run in parallel with the test samples to ensure
analytical accuracy.

Dating Results:

• Sample US001 (from a lower stalagmite layer) was dated to 19,000 ± 1,000 years BP.
• Sample S008, analyzed with the same method, yielded an age of 15,000 ± 1,000 years
BP.
• An additional stalagmite sample, S002, yielded a U-Th age of 5,900 ± 200 years BP.
This sample had previously been dated using radiocarbon methods, which produced
divergent results due to the "dead carbon" effect commonly associated with speleothem
samples in carbonate-rich contexts.

Interpretation:

The considerable variation in the ages of stalagmite layers (ranging from ~5,900 to ~19,000
years BP) is attributed to differences in sample depth, layering, and sample selection. For
example, deeper stalagmite layers are logically older and less likely to have been disturbed by
anthropogenic activity or environmental contaminants. These results collectively support the
interpretation that human or environmental influence on tunnel stability and inactivity dates back
well into the Upper Paleolithic.

Conclusion:

These U-series dating results underscore the need for continued stratified sampling and analysis
of the extensive stalagmite formations preserved in Section A and A2 of Ravne 3. The
chronological depth indicated by these measurements is of significant importance for
understanding the long-term geochronology and potential anthropogenic activity associated with
the Ravne tunnel system.
Laboratory report: Institute of Geology CAS (Prague, Czech Republic) & Institute of Geological
Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences (Warsaw, Poland).

Source: Osmanagich, S. (2025) Establishing Deep Time: Multi-Method Dating of

Archaeological and Speleological Features in the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids. Geoinfor
Geostat: An Overview 13:3.
Osmanagich S (2025) Establishing Deep Time: Multi-Method Dating of Archaeological and
Speleological Features in the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids. Geoinfor Geostat: An Overview
13:3

Figure 9. Continuous Dry-Stone Structure in Ravne 3 Tunnel Identified as a Single Wall

Segment. This photograph documents a major discovery within the Ravne 3 tunnel complex.
During the 2024 excavation campaign, removal of loose fill material adjacent to Section A
revealed that two previously recorded dry-stone walls—Wall 2 and Wall 3—are in fact
connected, forming a single, extended structural feature. The wall measures approximately 480
cm in length and stands 60–80 cm high, composed of seven to nine courses of river pebbles laid
without mortar. It blocks access to a large cavity and appears to stabilize surrounding loose fill.
The wall orientation is northwest–southeast, and it is located 45 meters from the entrance of
Ravne 3
Source: Osmanagich S (2025) A New Class of Subterranean Dry-Stone Structures: River-Pebble
Walls in the Ravne Tunnel Complex, Bosnia-Herzegovina. J Environ Biol Sci. Vol.1 No.1: 05.