OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
OCS 601 Scientific Research Methods :
Data in
research
(Lecture 2.1 - General Research Methodology)
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Research Dr. Kalegele
Quantitative
approaches
Methods and Open University of Tanzania
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
1 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology) Issues with Data
Dr. Kalegele Raw material of research is data (singular-datum)
Data in Researchers use data to conclude about some issues
research
Research Data is elusive, ephemeral, and corruptible.
Paradigms
Therefore, research can never be infallible.
Types of
Research
Quantitative
Research outcomes should often expressed in soft
approaches
statements such as it seems that it is depicted that,and it
Methods and
techniques is likely that.
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
2 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology) Levels of abstraction
Dr. Kalegele How do data relate to knowledge?
Data in Hierarchy of information makes it possible to break down
research
research problems that are expressed in theoretical
Research
Paradigms language to more practical components that can be
Types of
Research
measured.
Quantitative
approaches Hierarchy can be expressed as:
Methods and
techniques Theory ⇒ Concepts ⇒ Indicators ⇒ Variables ⇒Values
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
3 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
Example:
Theory: use of social media leads to poor attention span
Data in
research
Concepts: social media, instagram, attention span, books
Research
Paradigms Indicators: of attention span is failure to read books
Types of
Research
Variables: of failure to read books is level of reading
Quantitative
approaches Values: of level of reading is no. of books read annually
Methods and
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
4 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
Data in
research
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Research
Quantitative
approaches
Methods and
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
5 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Meaning of theory in research
Dr. Kalegele A statement that makes a claim about a phenomenon.
Data in
Can be complex, large-scale, well-researched and
research substantiated claims
Research
Paradigms Our understanding of the world is based on theories, and
Types of much of research is concerned with challenging, refining
Research
Quantitative extending existing theories, or developing new ones.
approaches
Methods and Theories statements s are usually made up of concepts and
techniques
Methods
how they relate.
General
guidance
The Onion
References
6 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research Meaning of other levels of abstraction
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 - Concepts
General
Research particular phenomenon, often quite abstract, such as cyber
Methodology)
crime, socialism, society. Can also be quite concrete, such
Dr. Kalegele
as SQL injection, antivirus, town, and income
Data in
research Indicators
Research How are concepts detected? Indicators are used to
Paradigms
indicate presence of a concept and are usually well defined
Types of
Research and universally accepted
Quantitative
approaches
Variables
Methods and
techniques
In order to gauge the extent or degree of an indicator, find
Methods
a measurable component. Variables are mechanisms for
General
guidance
measuring the degree or extent of an indicator
The Onion
Values
References
Are the units of measurements used to gauge the variables.
7 / 20
Data in research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General Types of Data
Research
Methodology) 1 Primary data: Newly collected data. Four types
Dr. Kalegele Measurement: Numbers indicating amounts
Observation: Records of events, situations or things
Data in
research Interrogation: Gained by asking and probing
Research Participation: Gained by experiences of doing e.g. driving
Paradigms
Types of
Research
2 Secondary Data: Existing data from e.g.
Quantitative
approaches
newspapers
Methods and
internet
techniques
Methods
Both Primary and secondary datasets can be made of
General
guidance real-world data or synthetic data.
The Onion
References
8 / 20
Research Paradigms
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General Meaning
Research
Methodology) Research goal: generalization of results beyond specific
Dr. Kalegele area under investigation
Data in Regardless of science categorization: Natural science,
research
Research
social science, applied science, behavioral science and
Paradigms humanities.
Types of
Research Difference approaches are taken in solving related problems
Quantitative
approaches Therefore, several paradigms 1 have been formed
Methods and
techniques Categorization of paradigms varies among scholars.
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
1
Grbich (2013) defines paradigms as “worldviews of beliefs, values, and
methods for collecting and interpreting data”
9 / 20
Research Paradigms
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research Denicolo, P. and L. Becker (2012). Developing research
Methodology)
proposals. Sage.
Dr. Kalegele
Data in Categories of research paradigms
research
Positivism 2 (mostly in natural and life science)
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Post-positivism (mostly in natural and life science)
Research
Quantitative
Constructivism (social science and humanities)
approaches
Methods and
Critical theory (social science and humanities)
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
2
positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained
through observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy
10 / 20
Types of Research
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
General3 types
Dr. Kalegele Application: Applied versus Fundamental/pure
Data in
research
Objective: Descriptive versus Analytical
Research
Paradigms Data: Quantitative versus Qualitative
Types of
Research
Quantitative
Data: Conceptual versus Empirical
approaches
Methods and Duration: One-time versus longitudinal research
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
3
General types of research: make sure you are able to describe all types
11 / 20
Types of Research Quantitative approaches
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology) There are four main types of Quantitative research
Dr. Kalegele
Descriptive
Data in
research Correlational
Research
Paradigms
Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental
Types of
Research
Quantitative True experimental Research
approaches
Methods and
techniques
Simulation research
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
12 / 20
Types of Research Quantitative approaches
OCS 601
Scientific Types of experimental research
Research
Methods : For both,the purpose is to examine the cause of certain
(Lecture 2.1 -
General phenomena
Research
Methodology)
True experiments, in which all the important factors that
Dr. Kalegele
might affect the phenomena of interest are completely
Data in
research
controlled, are the preferred design. Often, however, it is
Research
not possible or practical to control all the key factors, so it
Paradigms
becomes necessary to implement a quasi-experimental
Types of
Research research design.
Quantitative
approaches
Similarities: Both follow
Methods and
techniques treatment ⇒ measure outcome of interest ⇒ Is outcome
Methods
General
related to treatment?
guidance
The Onion Differences (1) in true experiment, participants are
References
randomly assigned to either treatment or control group,
(2)no control in quasi-experiments
13 / 20
Types of Research Quantitative approaches
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
Data in
research
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Research
Quantitative
approaches
Methods and
techniques
Methods
General
guidance https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quasi-experimental-design/
The Onion
References
14 / 20
Methods and techniques
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General Definitions
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele Research method/technique refers to the manner in which
a particular research is undertaken. It constitutes specific
Data in
research means, approach or tools by which data is gathered and
Research
Paradigms
analyzed, and also inferences and conclusions are drawn.
Types of
Research
Quantitative
Methodology refers to how the whole research design is
approaches
deployed through logical, systematic and consistent
Methods and
techniques research decisions so that it withstands critique as to
Methods
reaching valid and reliable findings. It is a way to
General
guidance systematically solve the research problem.
The Onion
References
15 / 20
Methods and techniques
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
Data in
research
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Research
Quantitative
approaches
Methods and
techniques
This is what researchers are supposed to do:
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
16 / 20
Methods and techniques Methods
OCS 601
Scientific
Research Different research methods
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 - 1 Exploratory research method: Improves basic knowledge
General
Research on concepts. It is normally conducted for a problem that
Methodology)
has not been clearly defined.
Dr. Kalegele
2 Constructive research method: Done by technical
Data in
research professionals to find a new solution to a specific persisting
Research problem. It is commonly used in computer science.
Paradigms
Types of
3 Empirical research method: Testing feasibility of a solution
Research
Quantitative
using empirical 4 evidence. Through quantifying the
approaches
evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a
Methods and
techniques researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be
Methods
clearly defi
General
guidance ned and answerable with the collected evidence or data.
The Onion
References Some experimental methods are also empirical.
4
Greek word means experience
17 / 20
Methods and techniques Methods
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
Advantages of empirical research methods
Data in
research
Works in real world environment. Beyond theories
Research Translate research into practice
Paradigms
Types of
Understand and respond more appropriately to dynamics
Research
Quantitative
of situations
approaches
Methods and
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
18 / 20
General guidance The Onion
OCS 601
Scientific
The below research onion applies mostly to empirical studies.
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
Methodology)
Dr. Kalegele
Data in
research
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Research
Quantitative
approaches
Methods and
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
19 / 20
General guidance The Onion
OCS 601 Ways to acquire knowledge
Scientific
Research 1 Intuition: Occurs when one feels they have direct
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
knowledge or insight but cannot state any observation or
Research reason for the knowledge.
Methodology)
2 Authority: acceptance of information or facts stated by
Dr. Kalegele
another person because is a highly respected source.
Data in
research 3 Rationalism: uses reasoning to arrive at knowledge and
Research
Paradigms
assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if the correct
Types of
reasoning process is used.
Research
Quantitative
4 Empiricism: facts that concur with experience are
approaches
accepted, and those that do not are rejected. Empiricism
Methods and
techniques is a vital element in science, but in science, empirical
Methods
observations must be conducted under controlled
General
guidance conditions and systematic strategies must be used to
The Onion
minimise researcher bias and to maximise objectivity.
References
5 Science: Induction (specific to general), deduction
(general to specific) and abduction (back and forth).
20 / 20
General guidance The Onion
OCS 601
Scientific
Research Common strategies or approaches
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 - 1 Experiment
General
Research Aims at identifying causal effect of the independent variables on the
Methodology)
dependent variable
Dr. Kalegele
2 Survey
Data in
research Non-experimental. Answers questions like ”how many” and ”how
Research much”. It is meant for preliminary phase of a research
Paradigms
Types of
3 Case study
Research When you want to study a social group, system, organization event
Quantitative
approaches
(etc) in details. No generalizability. It is meant for quality theoretical
Methods and
techniques
analysis.
Methods
4 Action research
General
guidance Relies on observation and behavioral data. No or little control over
The Onion
independent variables. Cannot fulfil scientific requirement for
References
generalizability.
21 / 20
General guidance The Onion
OCS 601
Scientific
Research
Methods : Data Collection methods
(Lecture 2.1 -
General
Research
1 Interviews
Methodology) Direct inquiring through asking participants
Dr. Kalegele
2 Tests
Data in Use data collection instruments to measure metrics on human
research
Research
3 Secondary data
Paradigms Data that was previously used for other studies
Types of
Research 4 Questionnaires
Quantitative
approaches Self-report instrument to collect data from participants
Methods and
techniques
5 Focus groups
Methods
Moderator led discussions
General
guidance 6 Observations
The Onion
Recording through looking rather than asking
References
22 / 20
References
OCS 601 References
Scientific
Research
Methods :
(Lecture 2.1 -
Kothari, C. and Garg, G. (2014). Research methodology
General
Research
Methods and Techniques. 3rd ed. New Delhi: New Age
Methodology) International (P) Ltd., p.63.
Dr. Kalegele
Data in
research
Research
Paradigms
Types of
Research
Quantitative
approaches
Methods and
techniques
Methods
General
guidance
The Onion
References
22 / 20
