Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution
Dr. SIDRAM. M.H
B.E, M.Tech, Ph.D
Associate Professor
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering
JSS Science and Technology University
2. OVER HEAD TRANSMISSION AND
DISTRIBUTION LINES
INTRODUCTION
• When a wire is suspended between
2 points, the wire sags down. The
wire takes the shape of parabola.
• To have lowest cost , length of the
transmission line must be minimum
.But due to sag, it requires more
conductor material. So sag has to be
kept minimum considering all the
factors for economical transmission
lines
SAG CALCULATION ON CONDUCTORS
• Sag: It is well known that when a rope is
suspended between two points, then it
shows a tendency to sag down. The wire
takes the shape of a catenary or a
parabola. This sag forms an important role
in the mechanical design of the
transmission lines.
• Sag is defined as the difference in levels
between point of support and the lowest
point on the conductor with respect to the
ground.
• Sag is found when there is a conductor
supported between two towers. If the
supports are at equal levels with respect to
ground, then sag is found in between the
conductors. Or else, it will be found
elsewhere. The distance between the
conductors is called as span.
Common notations in a transmission and distribution line
SAG AT EQUAL LEVELS
Sag can be found in the middle of the supporting structure if the supporting towers
are at equal levels
To calculate sag, consider a conductor supported by supports a and b which are
located at same levels.
• L = length of span in meters
• W = weight per unit length of the conductor
• T = tension in the conductor in Kg
• l = half span length(L/2)
Consider point ‘o’ the lowest point on the trajectory. Consider point ‘P’ on the
conductor, whose co-ordinate are (x,y) considering ‘o’ as the origin,
As the curve is very small due to small sag, it can be assumed that the length OP of the
conductor is same as the ‘x’ co-ordinate of the P.
Length of (OP) = x
Diagram to calculate sag at equal levels
Now, there are two external forces acting on the portion OP of the conductor.
1. The tension T
2.the weight ‘wx’ which acts at a distance of x/2 from the point ‘o’ or ‘p’ as (OP)=x
The tension T acts in the horizontal direction at point O
Taking the moments of these two forces about point P and equating them, we get
T×y = wx × (x/2)
• The equation shows that ten trajectory is a parabolic in nature. At the support A
and B, the vertical distance ‘y’ from the origin O indicates the sag S.
• Therefore, at A or B, x=(L/2) and y=S
• Therefore, the equation (1) becomes,
SAG CALCULATION AT UNEQUAL
HEIGHTS
In many practical situations, it is not possible to have the supports at the same
level. It is necessary to use the supports at different levels in the areas including
small hills, rivers.
Consider, a transmission line having,
O= point at which the sag is occurring
L= total length of the span
h= difference in the levels
T= tension in the conductor
X1= distance from point o to support A
X2= distance from point o to support B
W= weight per unit length of the conductor
Using the formula derived for the sag due to equal supports, formulae for unequal
supports can be derived
Diagram to calculate sag at unequal heights
Applying the results derived from sag at equal supports, we have,
EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
The expressions derived up till now are valid only for still air and normal temperature
and it is assumed that the conductor is acted by its weight only.
But, the performance of the transmission line gets affected by the atmospheric
conditions. In hilly regions, the ice coating increases the weight of the ice, and
the wind pressure increases the tension of the conductor.
Hence, such conditions must be considered while designing the transmission line, in
calculating sag and the tension in the line conductor.
In this chapter, we would study the effect of the following atmospheric conditions on
the conductors.
1. Effect of ice coating
2. Effect of wind pressure
EFFECT OF ICE COATING
• When the transmission line is coated with
ice, the thickness and size of the
conductor increases. This thickness
depends on the weather conditions. This
causes increase in weight and the vertical
sag. The weight of the ice acts vertically
downwards, in the same direction as that
of the conductor.
• Consider a conductor with diameter ‘d’ . It
is coated with ice of thickness ‘t’.
Hence, the overall diameter of the coated
conductor is D.
Now, it can be seen that, D= d+2t
and the area of the coated conductor is =(πD2 )/ 4
Hence, the area of the ice covering,
A=(π/4)(D2 – d2)
We know that the density of ice is 915 kg/m3, the total weight of the ice can be
obtained as,
Wi=915 (π/4)(D2 – d2) Kg/m
This weight acts vertically downwards.
D=d+2t
Now, we have
Wi=915 (π/4)((d+2t)2 – d2)
Wi=915 πt (d+t) Kg/m
In general,
Wi = weight of the ice per unit length
= density of ice x πt (d + t) Kg/m
EFFECT OF WIND PRESSURE
The wind flows horizontally and hence the wind pressure on the conductor is
considered to be acting perpendicular to the conductor. Thus, force due to the
wind acts at right angles to the projected surface of the conductor.
The force Ww can be obtained as,
Ww = wind force per unit length is Kg/m
= wind pressure per unit area x projected surface area per unit length.
= wind pressure x (d+2t)
Ww = p (d+2t)
p = wind pressure in Kg/m2
d = diameter of conductor
t = thickness of the conductor
EFFECT OF ICE AND WIND TOGETHER
The total force acting on the conductor is the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical forces.
W = weight of the conductor itself acting vertically downwards
Wi = weight of ice acting vertically down
Ww= wind force acting horizontally
Hence, total force is given by,
Wt = total weight acting on the conductor
STRINGING CHART
The graph of tension in Kg against temperature in degree C and the graph of
sag in meters against temperature in degree C is called as stringing chart.
•The stringing charts are the two
graphs for tension and sag at the
time of erection against
temperature at the stringing
condition, with the temperature
at maximum condition being
constant.
•Generally, initial and final sag
tension charts provided by the
supplier along with the
conductor. The values of correct
sag is found from these charts.
•These charts are very useful for
design of the transmission line
FACTOR OF SAFETY
While calculating the effect of sag on the conductor, factor of safety is very
important.
Every conductor has certain ultimate strength which it can sustain. If the
tension increases beyond this value, mechanical failure of the conductor
occurs. This ultimate strength is called breaking stress. While the tension T
is called the Working stress. The ratio of the breaking stress to the working
stress is defined as the factor of safety. Bath breaking stress and working
stress must be expressed in same units. The factor of safety is denoted as
Sf and mathematically expressed as,
Sf = (breaking stress) / (working stress )
Sf = ( Ultimate strength) / (allowable working tension T)
IMPORTANT POINTS
• Slant sag: The sag in the direction angle Θ measured with respect to vertical.
Hence, the sag is called slant sag.
Slant sag = (Wt L2) / ( 8T )
• The conductor adjusts itself in a plane which is at an angle Θ with respect to
vertical. The angle is given by,
tan Θ =( Ww ) / (W + Wi)
• As slant sag S is in the direction at an angle Θ with respect to vertical, the vertical
sag is cosine component of the slant sag S
Vertical sag = S cos Θ
Underground Cables
Contents
Introduction
Advantages and Disadvantages
Construction
Classification
Materials used
Insulation resistance
Effect of Capacitance and
Charging current
Capacitance of singe core UG
cable
Electric Stress in single core UG
cable insulation
Grading and Testing of Cables
Underground Cables
Introduction
Underground cables are one or more conductors
covered with insulators, enclosed by protective covers.
They are a part of development in Transmission and
Distribution systems.
They were introduced in the early 1980’s.
Primarily employed in regions of high
population density or inconvenience
Trend in Underground Cable
Application
New York City – No overhead lines since 1980’s
Singapore – More than 95% of underground
cables.
Belgium – Ban on overhead lines since 1992
France – After several blackouts, 25% of HV
lines are UG cables
In 1997 & 1999, Denmark replaced 6 – 132kV
Overhead lines with 2 new 400kV UG cables
Construction of Underground
Cables
Conductor : Transmits power between two points, also known as the cable’s
core
Insulation : Prevents the leakage current between two or more conductors
Metallic sheath : Protects the core from damage due to moisture, acids,
alkalies or other harsh fluids
Bedding : Consists of fibrous material, protects the metallic sheath from
corrosion and mechanical abruption
Armouring : Consists of one or more layers of steel tape wound after the
bedding, protects the cable from mechanical stress and the
weight acting on it
Serving : A layer of fibrous materials, it protects the armouring from
Advantages
More safer
Improved
Appearance
Higher Reliability
Low Maintenance
Reduced
Interference(EMI)
Disadvantages
Higher initial cost
Lower Flexibility
Difficult to locate and
correct faults
Lower Current carrying
capacity
Classification of Cables
Basis of Classification
Type of insulating material used in
their manufacture.
Maximum Voltage they can withstand
Based on the construction
Classification based on their voltage ratings
Low Tension cables – up to 1kV
High Tension cables – up to 11kV
Super Tension cables – from 22kV to
33kV
Extra High Tension cables – from 33kV to
66kV
Extra super voltage cables – beyond
132kV
Classification based on
construction
Single Core
Double Core
Three Core
Four Core
Expression for Insulation R
Insulation Resistance –
offered by insulator to the f
leakage current.
Resistance of the cable =
Insulation resistance for wh
R= ρ( ) Ω.
r1 – radius of core cable
π
r2 – radius of internal sheath
dx – differential layer of insulation Evaluating the integral we g
x – distance of dx from centre
l – length of the cable
R= ln Ω.
– resistivity of insulating material π
Materials Used for Insulation
Rubber
Obtained from milky sap of
tropical trees
Dielectric Strength – 30 kV/mm
Relative Permittivity – 2 to 3
Soft and Flexible
Readily absorbs moisture
Liable to damage due to
improper handling
Maximum safe temperature –
38⁰C
Vulcanized Indian Rubber
Obtained by mixing pure rubber with
zinc oxide, red lead and sulphur.
Has better durability, mechanical
strength
and wear resistance
Suitable for low and moderate
voltages
Maximum Temperature – 150⁰C
Higher temperature withstand
capability
Impregnated Paper
Obtained from chemically pulped
paper
impregnated with naphthenic
and paraffinic
materials.
Low capacitance, higher
dielectric strength.
Higher insulation resistance.
It is hygroscopic and thus needs
protective covering.
Varnished Cambric
Cotton impregnated and
coated with varnish.
Dielectric Strength – 4 kV/mm
Relative permittivity – 2.5 to
3.8
Poly Vinyl Chloride
Obtained from
polymerization of
Vinyl Chloride
Inert to oxygen, many
alkalies
and acids
Relative Permittivity – 5
Dielectric Strength – 17
kV/mm
Maximum Temperature –
75⁰C
Effect of Capacitance and Charging
The effect of capacitance iscurrent
more
prone in case of underground cables
because of the ground being very near
to the cable core (only several inches).
Due to this there is a flow of current Load Supply
along the insulation (capacitance) even Side Side
when no load is connected to the
system.
This current is known as charging
current Ic.
The magnitude of this current is far
more greater than what it is in case of
overhead transmission lines.
This puts a constraint for the power Core
delivering capacity of the underground
cables.
Insulation(Dielectric)
Ground
Capacitance of Single Core UG Cable
Stress in Insulation of single UG
Cable
Grading of Underground Cables
Need for grading
Electrical stresses on underground cables are maximum
at conductor
surface and minimum at the sheath.
Unequal distribution of stress leads to
• Increase in thickness of insulation used
• Increase in size and hence cost
• Decrease in insulator life span and voltage withstanding
ability
Definition of grading
Process of obtaining uniform distribution of electrical
stress in
cable’s insulation is called grading.
Methods Employed for Grading
Intersheath Grading
Metallic sheaths are placed in
between the core and lead sheath.
Intersheaths are maintained at
different potentials by connecting
to
tappings of transformer secondary.
Lead is used in these sheaths as it
is flexible and corrosion resistant.
Permittivity of dielectric is same Core
everywhere
Capacitance Grading
Dielectric layers of different
permittivity are placed between core
and sheath
The permittivity of dielectric is
different at different portions of the
insulator.
Here the relative permittivity of the
layers decreases on moving from
centre to surface.
Core
Challenges in Grading UG cables
Thickness of Intersheath should be
minimum
Intersheath has to carry charging
current which overheats the cable
Dielectrics of appropriate
permittivities have to be selected
for proper capacitance grading
Permittivity itself changes with time
and surrounding conditions which is
a challenge in material design.
Testing of Underground Cables
Murray Loop Test
• Most common and accurate method for
locating earth or short circuit fault.
• Uses the principle of balance in Wheatstone
Bridge
• The branch resistances used for detection are
variable
Varley Loop Test
• Uses the principle of Wheatstone Bridge
• The branch resistances used for detection are
fixed
Thanks !?
