CHAPTER 6

STRATEGIES FOR
ENSEMBLE PRACTICE

JANE W. DAVIDSON AND ELAINE C. KING

Within the music profession, ensemble rehearsals are commonly geared toward public
performance, most typically with the focus of attention being on the achievement of
musical fluency and group coordination. Ultimately, this relies on high-quality prac-
tice for motor, cognitive, and social skill development, butit is well documented that
musical knowledge, even among professionals, varies in degree, with someplayers
being for example “better” at sight-reading or manipulating the expressive features of
the music, Asa result, the absoltite time involvedin rehearsing specific pieces can differ
enormously. Indeed,there are clearly no prescriptive rules for how muchpracticeis to
be done, and in this sense, the advice offered in Chapter 5 (that the person,task, and
context must be considered when deciding on appropriate practice strategies) applies
equally well to the ensemble situation. Nevertheless, within ensembles,it is vital that
each person not only exploit his or her own individual skills, but think beyond them
for the sake of the group’s musical and interpersonal cohesion—atthe veryleast, to an
extent that will convince audiences. Whatis certain is that, for the music to be negoti-
ated between the players and then communicated effectively to the audience,twolevels
of knowledge must be integrated and articulated.
Thefirst is a general musical and social knowledgethat provides performance rules
and regulations based on historical, social, and cultural factors (e.g. scale systems,
harmonic and melodic expressive rules, and sociocultural interaction and performance
practices), Whilst this knowledgeis fairly genre specific (with art music,jazz, pop,folk,
etc. all emerging outof different musicohistorical traditions, and so, different knowl-
edge bases), it has a sense of being permanent knowledge for both the producer and per-
ceiver of the music.It forms, therefore, a stable base on which a musical performanceis
built and received. Although such knowledgeis a requisiteforall types of performance,
beit alone or in a group, the social psychological aspects ofit are of paramount import-
ance to ensemble practice and performance.
The second is the specific moment-by-momentinformation that must be processed
and responded to in an ongoing manner—for instance, accommodating a coper-
former’s sudden change of tempo or coping with a memoryslip. Of course,the ability
to deal with moment-by-moment novelty depends on familiarity with other similar,
situations and, hence,relies on knowledge of a permanent sort. Thus, although each
performance is a unique confluence of new interactive elements in the moment-by-
momentprocess, familiarity with such experiences can help prepareforlikely scenarios
106 MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 107

and outcomes. Consider, for instance, any musical tradition in which improvisation the functioning of the rehearsal and performancesituation (Blank & Davidson, 2003),
takes place(e.g. jazz or Indian classical music), where the musicians learn a repertory with male-female or female-female dyads working far more successfully than male—
of musical materials and stock-cultural practices about the length andstyle of impro- male partnerships. They argue that this is because men in Western culture in general
vised solos. When the musicis being created afresh, it emerges from a context and are not encouraged to be in working relationships with close friends, and so find the
depends on shared knowledge,so that coperformers and audiencealike can experience intimacy of the physical proximity of the piano duo difficult.
the unfurling of musicalideas(thisis akin to the long-term working memory theory of At the other extreme, Atik (1994) has shownthat the orchestra, whichitself is com-
Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995; see also Chapter 7). prised of smallersections,elicits very different group interactions. Atik discovered that,
Working onthe basis that musicians and audiences use and constantly develop the in this context, the players’ senseofself has to be sublimatedto a certain extent in order
two formsof knowledge described above, the current chapter explores ways in which to facilitate the sense of groupaffiliation. Since between 50 and 100 people make up an
ensemble rehearsals operate, and how they maybefacilitated for public performance. orchestra, with section leaders and a conductor,it is evidentthat complex and subtle
Largely because ofexisting research, the central focus is on classical music ensembles, interactions are required in order for the ensemble to function successfully. An indi-
ranging from piano duos throughto the orchestra. Of course,all ensembles depend on vidual occupyinga relatively low rank within the hierarchical structure may beassert-
the successful interaction of individual members; therefore, the chapter begins with ing an inappropriately prominent voice to make his or her personal views common
a discussion of the dynamics of group membership.This is followed by an analysis of knowledge within the context of a whole orchestra rehearsal; here, the role of section
the rehearsal situationitself (both the general structure of rehearsals and approaches to leader—asa filter to the conductor—is the mechanism through whichthe player can
individualpieces), as well as the functions of verbal and nonverbal communication. To express views.
close, two case studies of ensemble practice, with two very different types of group
+ The prerequisite for effective ensemble rehearsalis that the operationalprinciples of
membership, are presented so as to elucidate the specific practical recommendations
the ensemble are established, understood, and complied with. This depends, of
arising throughoutthe chapter.
course, on the nature of the ensembleitself, as well as the task.

6.1 Group dynamics In small ensembles, both conflict and compromise have been commonly found (see
Young & Colman, 1979; Murninghan & Conlon, 1991). That is, when one person dis-
It is obvious that in ensembles the players must have a common connection to the agrees,the best solutions have been shown to comeaboutthrough compromise,rather
music, and research suggests thatthis is the primary source of cohesion for the group than one individualtaking a dictatorial approach. Generally, in groupsoffour individ-
(Davidson & Good, 2002). In small ensembles, cohesiveness can be supplemented by uals, there is the potential for a three-to-one conflict, where oneplayercanliterally be
factors such as the potential for equal musical input andthefact thatall players use overruled by the others; worsestill, a two-to-two. deadlock can occur. So, ironically,
essentially comparable instrumental techniques(¢.g. in string quartets or flute choirs; despite their prevalence as music groups, quartets can be problematic ensembles in
Davidson, 1997). Even when the ensembles are comprised of quite different instru- terms of social dynamics and functioning. Intriguingly, although a democratic
ments, as in the case of a wind quintet where the French hornis.juxtaposed alongside approachis generally favored, it has been found that the second violinist—aboveall
a flute, the complementarity of the instrumental timbres is often regarded by the other players—is the one who needsto feel respected and encouraged;if he orsheis
group membersas a cohesive element too (Ford & Davidson, 2003). Thus, similarity
overwhelmed by the opinions of the others, especially that of the first violinist, the
and complementarity can contribute to ensemble cohesion from a compositional/ group has been shown simply to break down.It has been arguedthatthis is because
instrumental point of view. However,is the sametrue in termsofthe social, interper-
the twoviolinists need similar skill levels and play the same instrument, but owing to
sonalrelationships? the nature of the part-writing,thefirst violinist is often perceived by others to be the
Social psychological research suggests that, in order for any group to function, the superior player (Davidson & Good, 2002).
members need to have a personal senseof“affiliation” (Douglas, 1993). Thatis, there
needs to be a connection or association between individuals and to the group as a In rehearsals,it is important that every voiceis heard,oratleast for every individual
whole. The existing music research literature suggests that this affiliation is highly participantto feel that he or she can contribute as desired.
dependent onan individual’s sense ofself within the ensemble. Young and Colman
(1979), who investigated string quartets, point out that group closeness achieved In a slightly larger ensemble—the wind quintet, for instance—members appear to
through trust and respect of each individual’s boundaries is absolutely vital in order be morerelaxed abouttheir roles. Perhapsthisis because the ratio of disagreementis
for quartets to continue functioning, with leaders and followers conforming to their rarely four-to-one; any disagreementis morelikelyto feel like a group split, rather than
interactive roles, which are mirrored in their musical roles. one against the group. However, as mentionedearlier, the complementarity of the
Previous research, however, indicates that different types of ensembles function in timbres and techniques of the instruments within a wind ensemble may well ensure
unique ways. Work on piano duos shows that personal’friendships seem critical to that each personfeels his or her ownsenseof belongingto the group.
 108 MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 109

6.2 The rehearsal situation a professional string quartet are described warming up, seemsto capture much of the
sentiment found in Goodman’s data:
6.2.1 General structure of rehearsals
The existing research literature on the structure of a rehearsal has shown that Every rehearsal of the Maggiore Quartet begins with a very plain, very slow three-octave scale on
all four instruments in unison: sometimes major, as in our name, sometimes minor, depending
approachesare widely varied (see Davidson, 1997). However, those of a professional
on the keyof the first piece we are to play. No matter how fraught our lives have been over
standard share several overridingtraits (see Goodman, 2000). Firstly, there is a rough
the last couple of days, no matter how abrasive our disputes about people orpolitics, or how
plan ofthe material to be covered across the span ofrehearsals in preparation for per- visceral’ our differences about what weare to play and how weare to playit, it reminds us that
formance. Secondly, there is always room in the schedule for extra practice, accounting we are, when it comesto it, one. ..No one appears to lead. Even thefirst upbeat is merely
for unexpected circumstances, such as a player being unableto attend a rehearsal. Of breathed by[thefirst violinist], not indicated by any movement. . . When I play this 1 release
course, very often when people cometogether, they are surprised that somepieces take myself into the spirit of the quartet. I become the music ofthe scale. I mute mywill, I free my
longer to rehearse than others. Blank and Davidson (2003) discussed with a top piano self (p. 12).
duo the unexpected difficulties they faced when preparing Bartdk’s Sonata for Two
Pianos andPercussion. Oneplayer intriguingly commented: In addition to warming up together, Cox (1989) hasstressed the role of the pace of
rehearsals. In particular, there needs to be periods where players are required to con-
Wecould not believe howdifficultit was notonlyto play the notes, but to coordinate that second centrate intensely, such as in a very fast passage, which is then set againstless intense
barof the opening movement. We spent mostofourrehearsaltime onthat . . . but having said work, such as running through for an overviewofa section orthe entire piece. Thisis
that, the act of concentrating on that singulardifficulty seemedtofacilitate the preparation of
what Blum (1986) considers to be the “balance” of key components of the rehearsal
the rest of the piece. We, if you like, faced the mostdifficult challenge, and that put everything
else into context (personal communication; taken from theinterview transcript but not quoted
(e.g. sight-reading versus working on familiar pieces or parts therein). Allied to this is
by Blank & Davidson, 2003). the fact that, according to most ofthe existing studies,all players need to be equally
involvedin the rehearsal. Durrant (1994), for instance, found thatin conductingsitua-
This commentis revealing,for it showsthatit is often the need to find an appropri- tions, the conductor could easily lose controlif players and/or singers showed signs of
ate manner for approaching the rehearsal process that takes time. The singulardiffi- boredom after having been neglected. Thus, sustaining the interestofall participants
culty of the Bartok focused everyone's attention, and thus they had all developed a seemsto becritically important. In summary:
similar level of concentration and awareness ofthe difficulties involved in the piece.
The commenthasa flip side, whichis that often ensembles do not achieve such a coord- ¢ For the small ensemble, warming up together can bring focus and unity to the
inated manner of working, with the consequencethat rehearsal time may end up unfo- rehearsal.
* cused and unproductive. In Davidson and Good’s (2002) string quartet research,there * Balance the key componentsof practice, in order to achieve both technical progress
wasa difficult social dynamic in the rehearsals in which one memberhad an obsession and musical fluency.
with tuning, while the others were more interested in workingon entrances andexits * Make sure that each memberof the ensemble is, in some way, engaged in the
of the individual lines of the pieces being rehearsed. Although the group adjusted to rehearsal musically and mentally,so as to prevent boredom ora sense ofexclusion.
this individual particularity, the researchers observing the rehearsals sensed that the
player who continually tuned during discussions created a distraction to the main For the professional and advanced student, a concert appears to be an obvious key
musical activity. focal point for rehearsals. Indeed, Blank and Davidson (2003), Goodman (2000), and
Murninghan and Conlon (1991) all found that the concrete goal of a performance
¢@ A keyrehearsal aim is for you to establish shared musical goals within the ensemble as
on a specific date aided focus and effectiveness. However, this is where professional
soon aspossible (be they ofa technical or expressive nature). In relationto theliterature
and amateurplayers differ. Blank and Davidson (2003) foundthat for the amateur
on group dynamics, it is also necessary for you to find a means of coordination that
player, it was the rehearsalitself that was the pleasurable activity and notthe planning
leaves room forindividual needsandstyles.
for a specific goal. Within the rehearsal time, there was an emphasis on “fun” and
# Leave space in your practicing schedule for unexpected difficulties, such as a piece “chat,” with the session often lasting several hours and being broken by coffee breaks.
being more challenging than expected or unanticipated absences of ensemble Theselection of repertory covered wasalso less goal-oriented and included familiar
members. pieces being played through to give a sense of “reward,” alongside some time spent
In addition to the overall context of a series of rehearsals, the content of single tackling new and difficult pieces for a smaller proportion of time. This amateur
rehearsalsis critically important. Specific strategies for effective-single rehearsals have approach has been well-reported by Booth (1999) in a personal account of the
been suggested. Goodman (2000) found that a warm-up routine can provide a helpful joys of music-making for fun. For him, the social aspect is clearly as important as
focus for groups. Vikram Seth’s (1999) novel An Equal Music, in which the members of the musical. The question that each practitioner should ask when thinking about
110 MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 1ii

a rehearsal approachis: For chambergroups: you can save muchtime andeffortif all players have access to
a copyofthefull score and even take timeto go throughthe score together. Typically
@ Are yourrehearsalsstrictly for the pleasure of participation and for entertainment,
in chamber music, individual parts are handed out, so unless each person in the
or are they in preparation for professional-level performance? Depending on the
ensemble can be acquainted with the others’ parts through repeated playing,it is
answerto this question, the focus and structure of rehearsal maybe very different; often difficult for one instrumentto know whatis going on around them.Thisstrat-
however, achieving a balance between pleasure and workis importantfor all ensem-
egy has been foundto be useful and a good shortcutto lengthy rehearsal processes
bles, and healthy music making generally. (Goodman,2000).
@ For conductors: you need to think about potential areas ofdifficulty in the piece to
6.2.2 Approachesto individual pieces ensuretechnical security and to confirm that yourinterpretation is robust (to know
Theparticular demandsofindividual pieces often meanthateffective practice strategies what you wantfrom the players in each passage and for the player to understand
can be as many and varied as performers themselves. Goodman (2000, 2002), Gruson whatis required; Durrant, 1994).
(1988), Miklaszewski (1989), and Williamon etal. (2002) all discovered that there can
From the existing literature, it is evident that despite individual differences, a clear
be manydifferences in approach to a piece. Somegroupsonly play through from begin-
rehearsal method can be prescribed to ensure positive outcomes. Nonetheless, these
ning to end, whilst others tend to stop andstart to focus on “tricky” passages. Hallam
strategies are offered with some caution,sinceall players have to display similar levels
(1995, 1997) has examinedthese differences in strategy in detail and,although she does
of commitment to the rehearsal and have the same goals—whetherit be for social
not favor onetype ofstrategy above another, she commentsthat they are indicative of
amateur entertainmentor for professional engagement.
individual differences in cognitive style: either a “holist”or“serialist,” respectively.Still,
lookingat the different approaches foundto exist, ensembles can workin the following
mannerto achieve thorough and accurate learning: 6.3 Verbal and nonverbal communication
@ Identify and workwithin and upto structural boundaries in the music. This imme- 6.3.1 Between a conductor and ensemble
diately highlights the form of the piece, and so can strengthen your ensemble’s There can be varioustypesof “talk” used in rehearsals. Directions such as “findletter ‘&
shared understanding ofit (Chaffin et al, 2002; Miklaszewski, 1989; Williamon &
in yourscore”or “let’s try that again butat a-slower tempo”are the most commontypes
Valentine, 2002).
of exchanges. Typically, when there is a conductor,he or she leads the speech. Time and
* Balance the focus in rehearsal between long and short segmentsofthe piece. Doing again, however, ensemble research indicates that too much talking, either from the
this within a piece can help sustain concentration and involvementin the rehearsal conductororin the form of questions from an individualplayer, disrupts the flow of
(Goodman, 2000) and has been shownto be a salient characteristic of effective the music in rehearsals (see Yarbrough, 1975; Durrant, 1994; Weeks, 1996; Price & Byo,
learning (Williamon et al, 2002). 2002). Thatis, if too much questioning is permitted from oneindividual,it is likely to
@ Integrate “run-throughs” during the rehearsal process, for it is important to put lead to interference as others may becomeirritated or distracted.
expressive ideas and/or technical problemsinto the context of the whole. This can Obviously, talk cannot be avoided. Instructional talk, however, seems acceptable,
be important for reinforcing memory and consolidating common tempi, dynam- whereasdiscussion is often less welcomed (althoughthere needs to be spaceforthis).
ics, and other expressive elements (see Chaffin and Imreh, 1997; Chaffin et al., In the larger ensemble context, discussion should be carefully managed,forit is easy
2002). for the talking to turn into confrontation. Davidson (1997) gives an example ofthis
* Consider working both sequentially and nonsequentially through an individual through an incident with Leonard Bernstein and José Carreras when makinga televi-
movement or composition. These strategies can help you place portions of the sion documentary on the CD recording of Bernstein’s West Side Story. Carreras was
music in their chronological context and also allow common material, or sections of
singing the role of Toni and had mislearnedor couldnotsing accurately a part of one
similar levels of difficulty, to be explored, Goodman (2000) found that different of his songs. Beginning relatively patiently, Bernstein, who was conducting, pointed
ensembles tended to use one or both ofthese strategies, but the former wasparticu outthe tenor’s error. Bernstein stopped whenthetenor repeatedly madethe same mis-
larly used to generate new thoughts about sub-sectionsof a work. take, but after several corrections in front of the whole orchestra, Bernstein became
extremely vexed and asked the tenor why he could not dothis simple thing. The tenor,
Otherstrategies that could be explored include: furious and shamedbythesituation, swore profusely and stormed outofthe rehearsal.

Whentimeis short, have an “economical rehearsal approach’—thatis, only work © It is evidentthat it is best for the conductornotto allow situation to escalate into
on passages that need attention, so as not to waste time going over parts that are confrontation, otherwise there can be dire consequences. By contrast, of course, the
sufficiently grasped. - odd wordof praise, especially to an individual within an entire group setting, has
112. MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 113

been foundto be extremely beneficial. However, even an individual comment needs * Besides beingableto give instructions using gestures, you need to read cuesfrom the
to be moderated, otherwise other group members could feel undervalued. ensemble. Be aware of possible signals (in practice and performance) that are used
by musicians in your ensemble, and determine which are consistent across theentire
Verbal instructions can be necessary, but are best minimized. Talk with any sort of group and which are individual-specific. In doing so, you will be able to work
social dynamic context needsto be carefully monitored,as the stakesforall parties can toward establishing an effecting three-way communication between yourself, the
be high (see Davidson, 1997,for a further exploration ofthis issue). In thelight of the ensemble, and the audience.
commentsabove,it is not surprisingto learn that, although both verbal and nonverbal
indicators to others can be employed in rehearsals, conductors are at their most effi-
6.3.2 Between coperformers
cient when using nonverbal cues (Durrant, 1994), The conductor, of course, typically
controls the ensemble through the use of gestures, and the rehearsal period is the time Coperformers need to be able to decipher what is going on both within and between
for the players to learn the meaning behindthose gestures. : musical parts in orderto achievea fluent performance. Davidson and Good (2002) dis-
The extensive literature on general nonverbal communication has demonstrated coveredthat there are two major categories of interaction between string quartet mem-
that we typically use four main categories of gesture in our interactions: bers: (1) those of musical content and its coordination (e.g. achieving entrances and
exits) and (2) those of a more personalnature(e.g. the first violinist making a head-
adaptors: movements ofself-stimulation (e.g. head-scratching and touching the nodding gesture of approval to the second violinist after a particularly well-played
finger to the bridgeof the nose) passage). Davidson and Goodreported a power struggle going on in a rehearsal based
© regulators: movements that allow for entrances and exits to speech or movement principally on sexual politics (one flirtatious male among three compliant, admiring
(e.g. using a hand movementto encourage someone to make a point duringa dis- females), and it was noted that the flirtation worked around the use of nonverbal
cussion,or using an open arm gestureto indicate to someone to walk ahead andpass gestures. The male teasedthefirst violinist about herlackofclarity, or even the sudden
throughthe doorfirst) jerkiness of her regulatory gesture to say “start the upbeat, now.Ironically, the two
© illustrators: self-explanatory gestures of emphasis with direct musical or speech researchers did not find her cue remotely ambiguous, but the example demonstrates
translations (e.g. making a cradling arm movement whentalking about a baby) how multifunctional the role of nonverbal communication can be on both a musical
and sociallevel in the rehearsal.
e emblems: culturally defined gestures (e.g. the “V for Victory”sign used by Churchill
Williamon and Davidson (2002) foundthatin the practice of two professional pianists
to the British troops during the Second World War; see Ekman & Freisen, 1969, for
forming a duo, the quantity of nonverbal interaction increased significantly from first
further discussion).
meeting through to a performance. Here, the most used movement wasa slight head-
In performance where a conductoris involved, regulatory gestures andillustrators and-eye indication for regulation. Also and somewhatintriguingly, through the course
are obviously required in order to indicate when and how something should happen. of the rehearsals, the movementstyles of the two individuals coalesced. The player who
Durrant(1994) has foundthat some conductors use emblemsextensively. These, how- moved the most moderated and reduced the quality of his movements somewhat,
ever, are often very elaborate codes, and part of the rehearsal period mustthen be con- while the more conservative player produced more movement.It wasas if they began
cerned with performers learning and quickly decoding what these emblemssignify. to move as one,rather than two individuals. According to interviews with thepianists,
The emblemsare usually complex signs intended to substitute for spoken technical this was for the sake of musical coherence.In fact, these physical expressions provided
and expressive instruction (e.g. using the handattheside of the head in a rotational a means of understanding and sharing musical intentions, as they were most coordi-
gesture to indicate the notion of creating “space” for the singing voice to sound, and nated at key points in the music’s structure (as identified by the pianists); for an audi-
accompanying this with a sharp downwardpointed gesture to indicate the vocal attack ence, this level of coordination can give an additional access point to the music’s
on the sound). Although there is no formal research to date, Davidson (1997) has meaning (Davidson, 1993). The musicians’ movements also seemed to have a social
‘hypothesized that the most successful conductors onthe internationalprofessionalcir- dimension as well. Evidently, they sensed that they were performingthe pieces “together,”
cuit are those whonot only keep to nonverbal interaction, but whoarealso efficient in as one “unit.” Davidson and Good(2002) also observed this with a string quartet playing
their use ofillustrators and regulators and keep emblems to a minimum,given the Britten’s Rhapsody. They foundit mucheasier to achieve the canonical musical entries if
time involved in learning their meanings. In choral music,it is more usual for a con- they wereall ebbing and flowingin exactly the same manner.
ductor to work with the same ensemblefor long periods, so a common understanding
* Movementcan help to bring about musical coherence and social unity. Consider the
of emblemscan be built up over time. movements made within your ensemble. Are these readily recognized and shared
+ An overly zealous, gesticulating conductor can becomea distraction (Davidson, amongthe group? Are they timed to correspondwith certain points in the music?
1997). Scrutinize your movements and consider whether these can be easily and Will audiences consciously notice and be able to interpret.them, or are the move-
quickly deciphered byothers. - Ln ments purposefully too subtle for this?
114 MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 115

Goodman(2002) and Murninghan and Conlon (1991) found that nonverbal com- beginning to end. On the other, Neil and Matthew maintained a nonsequential agenda,
munication during playing often solved problems where talk had failed. By simply in so far as they isolated certain parts of the score throughoutthe rehearsal with no
playing andsorting out coordination “on the hoof,”there was often no need to discuss particular concern for the movement's chronological progression. They usedtheir ini-
a particular pointat all. Alternatively, when a verbal disagreement about musicalinter- tial run-through of the movement as a benchmark or baseline for discussion, and they
pretation emerged,playingthe piece throughin severaldifferent ways would often lead modified, clarified, and reshaped aspects oftheir playing accordingly. These different
to a decision without verbaldiscussion (orat least nothing more than exchanginga few styles of rehearsing the musicareillustrated in Figure 6.1.
syllables). In view of the contrasting styles of approach undertaken by the two ensembles, it is
Finally, it is importantto note that nonverbal cues can be discussed in rehearsal too. useful to speculate which of the twois the mosteffective.First,it is possible to suggest
Blank and Davidson (2003) interviewed one duo partnership whosaid that, early on in that a nonsequential method of practice is more economical in terms of time than
their career together, they would discuss where they were going to give such cues. As a sequential approach,for Neil and Matthew’s rehearsal lasted 30 minutes while Mary
time went by and familiarity with their musical repertory grew,the cues often did not and Mikako’s rehearsal wasstrikingly longer at 80 minutes. Arguably, however,the total
occuras they had doneoriginally, and new ones emerged. durationof the rehearsal is not an indicationofits quality, but rathera reflection on how
the performers have been trained to practice and how they decided to apply their train-
It is importantfor you to think about how your ensembleis to use talk and nonver- ing in the context of the new partnership established in this study (cf. Krampe &
bal gestures in rehearsal. Strategies based on the regulator andillustrator can help Ericsson, 1995). It is plausible to suggest, however, that the professional musicians,
with musical coordination, but eye contact and smiles (found in the rehearsals Neil and Matthew, were used to working under time constraints and, therefore,
recorded by Goodman, 2000, and Williamon & Davidson, 2002) can be extremely adopted a “quick-fit solution” approach to the rehearsal, while Mary and Mikako
important in helping you provide clarity in a message and express the degree of
wanted to take the time to ensure thatall corners of the music were worked out in
satisfaction between ensemble members. rehearsal.
Second, the sequential agenda could be regarded as more demanding or thorough
6.4 Case studies because it allowed for a step-by-step approach to the movement. Mary and Mikako
seemed to explore details of the piece and inspire each other to consider ideas about
The case studies presented here are on twocello—piano duos. Both duos were asked to the piece en route. In effect, the sequential method allowed for the generation and
rehearse and perform (at the end of their rehearsal) the second movement (Minuet confirmation of ideas in the rehearsal. By contrast, in studying select areas of the
and Trio) of Brahms’s Sonata for Piano and Cello, Op. 38. The players in both ensem- movementin relation to their initial run-through, Neil and Matthew adopted a more
bles were unfamiliar with one another before the investigation and were matched retrospective or reflective style. To this end, the nonsequential agenda could be
together according to age, playing standard, and experience. None of the musicians regarded as more“risky,” in the sense that the performers did not address every part of
had played. this particular movementfor at least 5 years. Neil (cello) and Matthew the movement in rehearsal and, hence,left a certain amount of passagework to the
(piano) were grouped togetheras professionals, and Mary(cello) and Mikako (piano) whim of the performance.As professional musicians, however, Neil and Matthew obvi-
were grouped as advanced students(i.e. they had each recently completed undergrad- ously felt comfortable with their preparation, and they had the confidence in one
uate studies at a conservatory). One month before the rehearsal,.they were sent copies anotherto be able to perform the movementat the endofthe rehearsal.
of the movement and were asked to learn the relevant part in preparation for the There is inevitably a degree of overlap between these two rehearsal methods, and it
rehearsal. For the purposes of analysis, the rehearsals were videotaped and transcribed is possible that they could be combined quite successfully. Indeed, other data from
by documentingall verbal and pertinent nonverbal communication. Three aspects of Goodman’s (2000) research showed that one of the duosrehearsing the Prologue from ~
the duo rehearsals are addressed below: rehearsal method, communication, and social Debussy’s Cello Sonata adopted a nonsequential agenda and then switched to a seq-
interaction (the complete methodandsetofanalyses are reported in Goodman,2000). uential approach midway through the rehearsal. Nevertheless, in the cases discussed
here, the ensembles achieved the goal of performing the movementbut adopted altern-
6.4.1 Rehearsal method ative methods of preparation, both of which can be regarded as appropriate in their
In thefirst instance, the duos began the rehearsal by playing through the moyementin ownright.
its entirety without stopping. Thereafter, their practice proceeded in quite different
6.4.2 Rehearsal communication
ways, although in both cases this involved breaking down the music into long and
short segments in order to address specific issues. Interestingly, the performers did not The performers communicated using verbal and nonverbal discourse, the latter
discuss how they would tackle the piece, or proposea specific agendafor the rehearsal, including singing, humming, counting aloud, gesturing, and clicking the pulse.
but simply got on with the task of playing the movement. Onthe one hand, Mary and There wasa relatively high amountoftalking, as the musicians made manyoftheir
Mikako rehearsed the piece in a sequential fashion’ by working progréssively- from ideas explicit through verbal discourseeither before or after playing segments of the
 STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 117

music (aboveall, the relatively high degree of talking seemsto reflect the musicians’
unfamiliarity with one another}. Nonetheless, someissues were resolved “tacitly” while
playing. For example, Neil and Matthewrealized that they were “not together”at the
end of the Trio, but the problem of coordination ironed itself out in a subsequent

represent segmentsof the musicplayed, which correspondto the bar numbersliste d along the x-axis (graphical method adapted from Chaffin &
Figure 6,1 Sample transcriptionsof(a) thé non -sequential practice of Neil and Matthew an d (b) the sequential practice of Mary and Mikakoin
their respective rehearsals of the second movement of Brahms ’s Sonata for Piano and Cello, Op.38. Horizontallines (read from bottom to top)
7-6 | 72 [13718] 19-24 [25-30] 3126 |37—42] 45-46] 49-54] 55-60] 61-66 [67-72| 73-78] 79-64 [85-90] 91-96] 97—02[03-08 [09-115]
run-throughofthe section, so there wasno further discussion about the point.
Ofparticular interest, however, are the issues that the performers addressed verbally,
and the mannerin whichthey negotiated their ideas. The musicians in both ensembles
divided their rehearsal timerelatively equally between the Minuetand the Trio. There
were several commonissuesof consideration: the dynamics in the Minuet(particularly
across the climactic build wp in bars 50-58), the rubato in the Trio, and the tempo at
the end of the Minuet. The performers discussed these issues in different ways, thus
highlighting the potential variety and complexity of musical interaction manifest in
chamberrehearsal. For example,the realization of the crescendo poco a poco in bar 50 of
the Minuet caused varying problemsfor them (see Figure 6.2). Matthew suggested that
the music should be played more softly at bar 50 in order to enhance the subsequent
build-up:“start that bit quietly, then we can make moreofthe crescendo.” Indeed,Neil
confessed that he found thecello part difficult to interpret at that point (“I’ve got a
complex about that bit”) and admitted that he originally conceived thestart of the
crescendo a few barsearlier (i.e. bar 48). Neil readily conformed to Matthew’s sugges-
tion to “play quieter”at bar 50. In this case, negotiation was achieved easily on the basis
of adherence to the dynamicindication in the score, and Matthew’s practicaldirection.

Bar numbers
Mikako made a similar request to Mary in their rehearsal of the same passage:
“] know you have a crescendo, but can you doit. . .in a softer way?”In contrast to Neil
and Matthew’s relatively quick resolution of the point, Mary and Mikako discussed the

CreSc. POCO a poco

Bra
be dd AN aN 4 Saprar
(poco a

Imreh, 1997).
(o}
{a)

wo aN wo °Q

poteyd sjuewbieg

Figure 6.2 Bars 50-59 of the Minuet from the second movement of Brahms’s Sonata for Piano and Cello,
Op. 38.
118 MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 119

issue at length. Mikako mentionedthe difficulty of exposing the melodyin her right compared with that witnessed in other, nonmusical small group scenarios; see Bales,
handbecauseofits high register. For this reason, she suggested that thecellist should 1999), which indicates that the performers gave mainly positive socioemotional responses.
delay the crescendo until bar 54 and exemplified her point by talking and playing Once again, the musicians’ unfamiliarity with one anotheris a likely explanation for
through the passage. Essentially, she wished to use dynamic contrast to highlight the this point, as they possibly felt more inclined to express positive reactions in order to
melodic repetition in the piano part: bars 50-51 are echoed by bars 52~53, which are establish a “friendly” group dynamic (undoubtedly, the relationship would develop in
quieter, and from bar 54, the crescendo beginswith the cello. By contrast, Mary con- time, anditis possible that negative reactions would be expressed more frequently in
ceived a “broadflow forwards. . .not crescendoingtooearly, and doingit really with a ensuing rehearsals).
very fine gradient.” To this end, she claimed that Mikako’s dynamicfluctuations con- It is apparentthat Neil dominated muchofthe task-related discussion in his rehearsal,
tradicted the marking in the score, “which is. . .just to crescendo really gradually”. In for he gave moresuggestions, opinions, and orientation than Matthew. Indeed, Neil initi-
orderto negotiate their conflicting points of view, Mary and Mikako played the passage ated a majority ofthe points or areas of discussion (e.g. he mentioned “What I'd like to
in several different ways, hence using trial-and-error. In addition, they gave further dofirst is actually the very end ofthe Trio”). By contrast, Matthew asked for more orien-
attention to performance indications in the score, discussed the music’s process(i.e. tation, which perhapsreflects his desire, as an accompanist, to ascertain as much infor-
the concept of build-up across the passage), and reconsidered the nature of the mation from thecellist as possible. In general, however, Neil and Matthew generated
melodicline in the piano part. There was a certain degree of compromise by both per- averyrelaxed andpositive atmospherein their rehearsal, not least because there were no
formers in order to reach a workable solution: Mikako conformed to Mary’s notion of signs of negative tension or antagonism;they simply got on with the rehearsal.
a broad build-up, while Maryagreed to play quietly at the beginning of bar 57 to exag- Theinteraction between Mary and Mikako appeared to be equally positive on the
gerate the hairpin dynamic marking in herpart. Similarly, Mikako accepted Mary’s surface, although therelationship between them soured as the rehearsal progressed.
conception of the arrival point at bar 58 as “louder than forte, and they both agreed There were several moments of disagreement, which created negative tension. Mikako
that the dynamiclevel at bar 50 should be reduced. offered more suggestions, opinions, and orientation in the rehearsal, and Mary pro-
The above example reflects the potential scope of communication between per- duced more utterances of agreement and disagreement. In fact, Mikako appeared to
formers abouta singleissue, and the fact that there are alternative ways in which musi- lead the discussion by virtue of the fact that she did most of the talking and con-
cal negotiation canarise. In this case, the two ensemblesused the following strategies tributed fully to the realization of musical ideas. Mary, however, showedsignsof dis-
to negotiate their ideas: content with Mikako’s persistent verbal explanation of points and her constantdesire
to stop andstart, for Mary clearly preferred to concentrate onletting the music ‘Sust
© awarenessofscore indications
play itself.” There wasa certain amountof conflict here between “musical” personalities
® personal judgmentbased ontrial-and-error (one wantingto analyze the musical detail intently and the other wanting simply to let
® analytical reasoning the music happen), as well as differences in perception of each other’s standard, The
© consideration of the music’s form as process. social dynamic was invariably strained.
Nevertheless, Mary and Mikako continued to offer supportive opinions to one
Othertypes of negotiation are reported by Goodman(2000) in the duo rehearsals, another throughoutthe rehearsal, even if they were used as a tactic to softencritical
includingpractical reasoning and reconciliation of emotionalinsights. In both ensem- suggestions or disagreement. For instance, Mary remarked, “[the dynamic] makes
bles, the mosteffective strategy for resolving the issue of dynamics in the Minuet was a really nice contrast, but can wetryit just once where wefollow exactly whatit says in
to follow the indications in the score.Still, the other strategies usefully supported the the copy. . . ?” and “I know that you're really playing out your tune andI think that’s
discussion ofthis issue (particularly for Mary and Mikako), which suggests that a wide really good, but I thinkit’s a little bit too much. . ” Likewise, Mikako commented,
range ofstrategies should be explored to reach a workable solution when members of “I thought that was good, butif you could comein less. . ” These utterancesreflect the
an ensemble are in disagreement. performers’ sensitivity toward each other, for they seemed wary of giving comments
without offering solidarity first.
6.4.3 Social interaction The performers in both of these ensembles thus maintained workingrelationships
From an analysis of the performers’ discourses,it is evident that the majority of social by sustaining a “friendly,” positive group dynamic. This was primarily achieved by
interaction in both ensembles was task-related, notably through “giving opinions” ensuring that the discussion was focused on the task at hand and that opinions were
about the music. This can be regarded as quite characteristic of small-group behavior offered sensitively. However, the rehearsals were led by different instrumentalists, Neil
in general (see Bales, 1950, 1999). At the sametime,a high level of agreementexisted in (cellist) and Mikako (pianist), which indicates that the stereotypical hierarchy between.
the rehearsals, although phatic acknowledgements mainly consisted of “yeah.”In fact, a soloist and an accompanist does not necessarily dictate the social relationship
the amountof agreementexpressedin the performers’ discourses was tremendous (as between performersin rehearsal.
120 MUSICAL EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES FOR ENSEMBLE PRACTICE 121

6.5 Conclusions Bales, R. FE. (1950). A set of categories for the analysis of small group interaction. American
Sociological Review, 15, 257-263.
The case studies above demonstrate that there is no single “best” methodor strategy Bales, R. F. (1999). Social Interaction Systems: Theory and Measurement. London: Transaction
for rehearsinga particular piece of music—rather, that individual ensembles will nec- Publishers.
essarily find their own “best” ways of rehearsing. Here,it has been revealed that two Blank, M., & Davidson, J. W. (2003) A consideration of the effect of gender on co-performer
ensembles can effectively rehearse the same piece in contrasting ways in order to communication in piano duos. Manuscript submitted for publication.
achieve the same goal, whilst adopting alternative approaches and using different
Blum,D. (1986). The Art of Quartet Playing: The Guarneri String Quartet in Conversation with
strategies to negotiate musical ideas. At the same time, the rehearsal must be under- David Blum. New York: Cornell University Press.
pinnedbya strong social framework, with musicians working hard to achieve a pos-
Booth, W. (1999). For the LoveofIt: Amateuring andIts Rivals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
itive socioemotional ambience through sensitive and friendly behavior. .
Chaffin, R., & Imreh, G. (1997). “Pulling teeth and torture”: Musical memory and problem
Undoubtedly, musical interaction in rehearsal is most effective and pleasurable
solving. Thinking and Reasoning, 3, 315-336.
when musicians “click” with one another at both musical and social levels, but when
this is not possible, can an ensemblestill be successful? Research data reveal that a Chaffin, R., Imreh, G., & Crawford, M. (2002). Practicing Perfection: Memory and Piano
Performance. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
social framework can be sustained in different ways,yetstill enable a group to achieve
its goal. In the case studies, one partnership “clicked” quite comfortably, and the musi- Cox,J. (1989). Rehearsal organisational structures used by successful high school choral directors.
JournalofResearch in Music Education, 37, 201-218.
cians simply proceeded with the task at hand. The other duo experienced conflict,
resulting in a much more tense rehearsal environment. Nonetheless, both ensembles Davidson,J. W. (1993). Visual perception of performance manner in the movements ofsolo
achievedtheir goal of successfully performing Brahms’s MinuetandTrio. musicians. Psychology ofMusic, 21, 103-113.
The crucial advice for performers—be they in small or large ensembles—is to Davidson, J. W. (1997). Thesocial in musical performance. In D, J. Hargreaves & A. C. North
develop a greater awareness of the social psychological principles that govern group (Eds.), The Social Psychology ofMusic (pp. 209-228). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
interaction and cohesion.At the sametime,players shouldreflect over the effectiveness Davidson,J. W., & Good, J. M. M. (2002). Social and musical co-ordination between membersof
of their rehearsal methods and ways of communicating. Such knowledge will invari- a string quartet: An exploratory study. Psychology ofMusic, 30, 186-201.
ably offer new perspectives in approaching and subsequently optimizing ensemble Douglas,T. (1993). A Theory of Groupwork Practice. New York: Macmillan.
practice and performance. Durrant, C. (1994). Towards an effective communication: A case for structured teaching of
conducting. British Journal ofMusic Education, 11, 56-76.

Further information and reading Ekman,P, & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The repertoire of non-verbal behaviour: Categories,origins,
usage and coding. Semiotica, 1, 49-98.
Blum, D. (1986). The Art of Quartet Playing: The Guarneri String Quartet in Conversation with Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102,
David Blum. New York: Cornell University Press. , 211-245.
Cox, J. (1989). Rehearsal organisational structures used by successful high school choral directors. Ford, L., & Davidson, J. W. (2003). An investigation of members’ roles in wind quintets.
JournalofResearch in Music Education, 37, 201-218. - Psychology ofMusic, 31, 53-74.
Goodman,E. (2002). Ensemble performance.In J. Rink (Ed.), Musical Performance: A Guide to Goodman, E. (2000). Analysing the Ensemble in Music Rehearsal and Performance: The Nature and
Understanding (pp. 153-167). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Effects ofInteraction in Cello-Piano Duos. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of London,
Murninghan,J. K., & Conlon,D. E. (1991). The dynamics of intense work groups: A study of Goodman,E.(2002). Ensemble performance. In J. Rink (Ed.), Musical Performance: A Guide to
British string quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 165-186. Understanding (pp. 153-167). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Price, H. E., & Byo,J. L. (2002). Rehearsing and conducting. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson Gruson,L. M. (1988). Rehearsal skill and musical competence: Does practice make perfect? In
(Eds.), The Science and Psychology ofMusic Performance: Creative Strategies for Teaching and J. A. Sloboda (Ed.), Generative Processes in Music: The Psychology of Performance,
Learning (pp. 335-351). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Improvisation, and Composition (pp. 91-112). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Williamon, A., & Davidson, J. W. (2002), Exploring co-performer communication. Musica Hallam, S. (1995). Professional musicians’ approaches to the learning andinterpretation of
Scientie, 6, 53-72. music. Psychology ofMusic, 23, 111-128.
Hallam,S. (1997). The development of memorisationstrategies in musicians. British Journal
Music Education, 14, 87-97.
References
Krampe,R. T., & Ericsson, K. A. (1995). Deliberate practice and elite musical performance. In
Atik, Y. (1994). The conductor and the orchestra: Interactive aspects of the leadership Process. J. Rink (Ed.), The Practice of Performance: Studies in Musical Interpretation (pp. 84-102).
Leadership and Organisation DevelopmentJournal, 13,2228. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
122, MUSICAL EXCELLENCE

Miktaszewski, K.(1989). A case study of a pianist preparing a musical performance. Psychology of CHAPTER 7
Music, 17, 95-109.
Murninghan,J. K., & Conlon, D. E. (1991). The dynamics of intense work groups: A study of
British string quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 165-186. STRATEGIES FOR
Price, H, E., & Byo,J. L. (2002). Rehearsing and conducting. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson
(Eds.), The Science and Psychology of Music Performance: Creative Strategies for Teaching and
MEMORIZING MUSIC
Learning (pp. 335-351). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Seth, V. (1999). An Equal Music. London: Phoenix.
Weeks, P. (1996). A rehearsal of a Beethoven passage: An analysis of correction talk. Research on JANE GINSBORG
Language and SocialInteraction, 29, 247-290.
Williamon, A., & Davidson, J. W. (2002). Exploring co-performer communication. Musica
Scientia, 6, 53-72.
It is commonin many kinds of musicforartists to perform from memory. Within cer-
Williamon, A., & Valentine, E. (2002). The role ofretrieval structures in memorizing music.
tain musical genres, in fact, social convention and audience expectation are such that
Cognitive Psychology, 44, 1-32.
performing with a notated score would be inconceivable. Rarely does onesee a folk,
Williamon,A., Valentine, E., & Valentine,J. (2002). Shifting the focusof attention betweenlevels
rock, or pop musician reading from the printed page during performance; within the
of musical structure. European Journalof Cognitive Psychology, 14, 493-520.
Western art music tradition (where audiences have cometo expect almost note-perfect
Yarbrough, C. (1975). Effect of magnitude of conductor behaviour on students in mixed
renditionsof well-knownpieces), memorized performances are customary for concert
choruses. Journal ofResearch in Music Education, 23, 134-146,
soloists. Whyis this the case? Clearly, there are a numberof practical advantages to
Young, V. M., & Colman, A. M. (1979). Some psychological processes in string quartets. playing or singing withouta score. These include not having to turn pages, being able
Psychology ofMusic, 7, 12-16.
to monitor the physical aspects of a performance(e.g. lookingat the handsorat other
ensemble members), and in the case of concert pianists, avoiding the needto share the
platform with a page-turner.
More importantly, perhaps, performing from memoryis often seen to havetheeffect
of enhancing musicality and musical communication.It is commonly arguedthat the
very act of memorizing can guarantee a more thorough knowledgeof andintimate con-
nection with the music (see Plunkett Greene, 1912; Hughes, 1915; Matthay, 1926). In
addition, memorization can enable the use of direct eye contact with an audience (and
gaze, in other ways, for expressive purposes) that is more convincing than when refer-
ring to the score. Those who “possess”the musicin this way often convey the impression
that they are spontaneously andsincerely communicating from the heart, and indeed,
contemporary evidence suggests that musicians who achievethisarelikely to find their
audiences more responsive (see Davidson, 1993, 1994; Williamon, 1999). Moreover,
when performersreceive andreactto visual feedback from the audience, a performance
can becometruly interactive, involving genuine communication betweenall involved.
While performing from memory may have benefits for the performer and audience
alike, the task of memorizing music and giving a memorized performance can be arduous.
Memory failure—however momentary—can havecatastrophic consequences for a per-
former’s self-confidence. The musician does not, in fact, need to have experienced such
failure to be frightenedof forgetting, and this may well contribute to a more general-
ized performance anxiety. Furthermore, the fear of memorylapses is as common
amongexperienced professional musicians as with novices—-perhaps moreso,as they
feel they have more to lose. Artur Rubinstein, for example, “abandoned the concert
stage mainly on accountofthe fact that he could no longer depend on his memory in
public performance” (Hughes, 1915, p. 603).