An Introduction to Psychological Assessment and

Psychometrics, 2nd Edition

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© Keith Coaley 2014
First published 2009. Reprinted in 2012 and 2013
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ISBN 978-1-4462-6714-1
ISBN 978-1-4462-6715-8 (pbk)
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 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO:
Rhys, Llywelyn, Megan, Lucas and Samuel
and to the memory of
Vivian Lewis
 CONTENTS
Preface
1 Introduction: Individual Differences and Psychometrics
Individual Differences, Assessment and Psychometric Testing
Why Measure Individual Differences?
Identifying and Measuring Differences
What Do We Mean by Psychological Assessment and
Psychometrics?
The Historical Background
Core Characteristics of Assessment
The Technical Nature of Assessment
Stable and Changing Characteristics
Types of Measurement
Maximum Performance Measures
Typical Performance Measures
Other Ways of Classifying Tests
Different Approaches to Testing
Quality and Measurement
What Are Tests Used For?
What Have We Discovered About Individual Differences and
Psychometrics?
Some Key Questions
Part I:The Essential Tools of Psychological Measurement
2 The Basic Components: Scales and Items
What Kinds of Scales Are Available?
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Scalar Variables
Construction and Analysis of Items
Intelligence Test Items
Performance Tests
Ability and Aptitude Tests
Person-based and Personality Questionnaires
Items Having Rating Scales
Forced-Choice Items
Item Analysis
Classical Item Analysis
 Item Response Theory
Comparing Classical Test Theory and Item Response Theory
Measuring Attitudes
Attitude Measurement
Thurstone’s Scales
Likert Scales
Guttman’s Scalogram
The Semantic Differential
Limitations of Attitude Measures
What Have We Discovered About the Basic Components of
Assessment?
Some Key Questions
3 How Assessment Measures are Made
Planning and Designing New Tests
Methods of Test Construction
Criterion-Keyed Construction
Construction Using Factor Analysis
Construction Using Classical Test Theory
Construction Using Item Response Theory and Rasch Scaling
To Standardize or Not to Standardize?
Standardized Measures
Sampling
Norm Referencing
Criterion Referencing
Self Referencing
Domain Referencing
How Are Percentile Norms Made?
Calculation from Raw Scores
Interpreting Percentiles
What Have We Discovered About How Assessment Measures Are
Made?
Some Key Questions
4 Statistics for Psychological Measurement
Frequency Distributions
The Normal Curve
Skewed Distributions
Measures of Central Tendency
 The Normal Curve and Probability
Sampling and Standard Error of the Mean
Sampling Error
The Standard Error of the Mean
Confidence Limits
The Normal Curve and Standard Scores
Z Scores
Normalizing Scores
T Scores
Sten Scores
Stanine Scores
Converting Raw Scores to Standard Scores
Standard Scores in Practice
What Have We Discovered About the Statistics Which Underpin
Psychological Assessment?
Some Key Questions
Part II: The Essential Characteristics of Psychological Measurement
5 The Importance of Reliability
Why Reliability?
Consistency and Accuracy
The Concept of Correlation
Scattergrams
Covariance
Correlation Coefficients
Identifying and Evaluating Error
The Fallibility of Scores
Sources of Error
Different Types of Reliability
Evaluation of Coefficients
Generalizability Theory
Measuring Error and Making Decisions
Connecting SEM and Reliability
Effects of Range Restriction
SEM and Standard Scale Scores
Using Confidence Limits
Standard Error of Difference
Comparing and Combining Scores
 What Have We Discovered About Reliability?
Some Key Questions
6 The Significance of Validity
Why Validity?
Defining Validity
What Does Validation Mean?
Criterion Variables
A Catalogue of Validity
Content Validity
Criterion-Related Validity
Construct Validity
The Multitrait-Multimethod Approach
Validation in Practice
Giving Evidence
Validity’s ‘Faux Amis’ (False Friends)
Evaluating Validity Coefficients
Factors Affecting Coefficients
Meta-Analysis
What Have We Discovered About Validity?
Some Key Questions
Part III: Theories and Applications of Measurement Techniques
7 Theories and Measurement of Intellectual Ability
Psychology’s World Cup Winner: Intelligence
What is Intelligence?
Implicit and Explicit Theories
An Intelligent History
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Guilford’s Structure of Intellect
Vernon’s Hierarchy
An Integrative Model
The Theory of Cognitive Abilities
Gardner and Sternberg
A Cognitive Psychology Model
The Development of Intelligence Testing
Early Days
The Stanford-Binet
Alpha and Beta Tests
 Wechsler Scales
The Problem of Culture
Later Test Developments
Issues About Intelligence
The Nature-Nurture Debate
Ideology and Intelligence
The Flynn Effect
Measurement of Abilities and Aptitudes
Specific Versus General Measures
Utility Analysis
What Have We Discovered About the Theories and Measurement of
Intellectual Ability?
Some Key Questions
8 Theories and Measurement of Personality Characteristics
The Concept of Personality
Situational and Dispositional Approaches
How Do We Define Personality?
Making Important Distinctions
Theories of Personality
Types, Traits and Competencies
Idiographic versus Nomothetic Approaches
The Physiological Paradigm
The Psychodynamic Paradigm
The Cognitive-Behavioural Paradigm
The Phenomenological Paradigm
The Biological Paradigm
The Trait Paradigm
Personality Questionnaires: Advantages and Limitations
Correlational Approaches to Validation
What Have We Discovered About the Assessment and Measurement
of Personality?
Some Key Questions
9 Alternative Perspectives: Theories and Measurement
Alternative Approaches to Assessment
Attribution Processes
Spurious Validity
Graphology
 Polygraphy
Other Pseudo-sciences
More Accepted Forms of Assessment
Situational Assessments
Reports by Others
Projective Instruments
Observations of Behaviour
Self-Report Assessments
Task Performance Measures
Physiological Measures
Objective Tests
Honesty and Integrity Questionnaires
Measuring Motives, Values, Interests and Creativity
Measuring Motives
Measuring Values
Measuring Interests
Measuring Creativity
What Have We Discovered About Alternative Perspectives on
Assessment?
Some Key Questions
Part IV: Ethical and Professional Issues
10 Best Practice in Measurement
Ethics, Fairness and Assessment
Fairness in Testing
Data Protection
Confidentiality and Security
Informed Consent
Professional Issues in Testing
Job Analysis
Test Administration
Scoring Tests
Interpretation
Giving Feedback
Testing in the Twenty-first Century
What Have We Discovered About Best Practice in Measurement?
Some Key Questions
Part V: Practical Skills for Measurement of Individual Differences
11 How to Make a Test or Questionnaire
Constructing Your Measure
Step 1: Set Clear Aims
Step 2: Define the Attribute(s)
Step 3: Write a Plan
Step 4: Writing Items
Step 5: Selecting Items
Step 6: Standardization
Step 7: Final Preparation
Appendix A: A Table of Areas Under the Normal Curve
References
Author Index
Subject Index
Assessment, Measures and Tests Index
 PREFACE
Too often the science of psychology can be viewed as consisting of distinct,
almost exclusive, areas of study and application, such as the spheres of
occupational, clinical, educational, counselling, forensic and
neuropsychological practice, for example. It sometimes seems that all of
these stand in isolation from each other. Yet there are a number of key
themes which provide both a foundation and a long-standing connection
between them all, prominent among them being the study of individual
differences and of psychometric assessment. This was brought to mind
particularly during a discussion when my colleague at the time, Stuart
Robertson, commented that ‘Psychometrics are at the heart of individual
differences’.
The study of individual differences is commonly referred to as being
about how and why people are psychologically different, for example in
intelligence or personality. Yet it has also to be about ‘how much’ people
are different if we are to be capable of making genuine distinctions.
Traditionally, psychological tests have been employed to measure the
differences between people or between the responses of the same person on
different occasions. This has made them fundamentally important to
individual differences.
This link was touched on in the first edition. This time, however, it has
been enhanced significantly, demonstrating its relevance to the study of
individual differences. One reason for this is that many texts in this area
make mention of the use of psychometric tests but fail to discuss them in
terms of breadth and depth. The tendency is to lack breadth through
provision of the background, nature and range of test materials currently
available, and to lack depth through thorough explanation of the
considerable technicalities needed to understand their nature. In addition,
undergraduate courses sometimes appear to cover the background statistics
but fail to place these in a broader context of professional practice to the
qualification levels set by professional bodies.
I have sought in this new edition to link the book’s contents to the
competences adopted by the European Federation of Psychological
Associations (EFPA) which have been widely accepted throughout Europe.
This will, therefore, ensure that readers have a greater level of
understanding of test materials and of professional issues, and become more
able to reach the standards of competence required for qualification in test
use.
As a result the book now includes greater discussion of modern issues
such as the various modes of test administration and their problems,
including online testing and security, as well as issues of IQ assessments
and their relationship with culture, environment and disability. The different
types of sampling and concepts such as meta-analysis, utility analysis and
consequential validity have been added. There is discussion of the
difference between trait-based and behavioural descriptions, such as
competencies, and the interaction between personality and race, ethnicity,
culture, age and gender. The differences between point scores, banding and
ranking have been added, as well as the nature of job analysis and its link
with competency profiling. I also describe how tests may be used in a
number of applications or assessment contexts.
As you can see, I have attempted to broaden the scope of the book
considerably. My aim is to ensure that it meets the needs of a wide range of
people, including undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as
others who need to have an up-to-date knowledge and understanding of
modern testing. These include Human Resources professionals and a wide
variety of psychologists seeking to broaden their knowledge of assessment
practice in different fields of application.
As before, I would like to thank the Sage team of Michael Carmichael,
my editor, and Keri Dickens for their help throughout in creating this new
edition. Thanks go also to my wife for her hard work in providing cartoon
characters in order to make the book more entertaining. Any of the book’s
shortcomings should be attributed to myself.
Keith
July 2013
Laleston, South Wales
 1
INTRODUCTION: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND
PSYCHOMETRICS
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• discuss the general ideas and approaches to understanding
individual differences and how psychological assessment and
psychometrics enable their investigation;
• understand the basic principles underlying psychological
assessment and distinguish between its various forms;
• identify key figures in the historical development of psychometric
testing;
• give an account of the core characteristics and issues relating to
different approaches to testing.
WHAT IS THIS CHAPTER ABOUT?
Applied psychologists ply their trade in the real world of individual
differences. We must begin by understanding the nature of these. We must
also introduce the core definitions, characteristics and foundations
underlying modern approaches to assessment and psychometrics. It helps
also to have an understanding of the historical origins of modern test
practice, so we will review their development, identifying those explorers
who have had a significant and enduring influence. We will also look at key
terms and issues, discuss common types of test and how they can be
classified or grouped. We will also review how they contribute to the
application of individual differences in different fields.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, ASSESSMENT AND
PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING
Many people come to the study of psychology because of a terrific
fascination for others, not just people at large but also perhaps for specific
groups, such as children, those having disabilities, older people, criminal
offenders, etc. Perhaps you have chosen to read this book because you want
to understand others more than you do now. Do you observe others? Do you
wonder why they behave as they do? Do you often wonder why some
people seem similar yet can be strikingly different in certain ways?
Welcome to the discipline of psychology.
Perhaps you want to start by reading the theories that try to explain why
people are the way they are. History has thrown up a number of these.
There are those which classify different kinds of people in some way, some
that try to investigate their emotions or behaviours, some that try to analyse
personality, some that look at how people develop, others that try to link
biology and behaviour, and many more. Theorists will often make
assumptions about people which they link to the psychological ideas they
have generated.
Many theories focus upon similarities. The trouble with this is that people
can be quite similar in some ways but will also be different in others and so
make understanding even more complex. Theories are all very good in
themselves but their assumptions make it difficult to understand the ‘what
and why?’ of differences. Attempts to understand need analysis and
measurement of the differences between people.
This book is about methods for linking the theories to greater
understanding of individual differences through scientific investigation and
measurement. We can evaluate the theories and the similarities among
people and we can also scientifically analyse and measure the differences.
Hence the title, An Introduction to Psychological Assessment and
Psychometrics. We can only evaluate the similarities and the differences
between people through the use of modern forms of assessment and valid
psychometric tests. In the twenty-first century the use of armchair
observation has long gone. By reading this book you will learn about the
theories and how to measure the differences.
The study of individual differences has grown over a long period,
sometimes being called ‘differential psychology’. The importance of this
was stressed by Anne Anastasi (1937) when she wrote ‘It is apparent that if
we can explain satisfactorily why individuals react differently from each
other, we shall understand why each individual reacts as he does’. To
determine the unique characteristics of someone we need to both identify
and quantify the differences with others. Social comparison theory suggests,
in fact, that we learn how to define the self by comparing ourselves with
others (Festinger, 1954).