RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES BETCK105E

MODULE-3
Wind energy
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the
atmosphere by the sun, variations in the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Mountains,
bodies of water and vegetation influence wind flow patterns. Wind speeds vary based on
geography, topography and season. As a result, there are some locations better suited for
wind energy generation.

Wind Power Introduction:

1. Wind power involves using the motion of the wind to generate mechanical power
through wind turbines, which, in turn, operate electric generators.
2. It is a sustainable and renewable energy source, tapping into the kinetic energy
possessed by the motion of the wind.

Wind Energy Extraction:

Any device capable of slowing down the mass of moving air, such as a sail or
propeller, can extract energy from the wind and convert it into useful work.

Wind Turbine Components:

1. Wind turbines consist of spinning blades attached to a hub and a low-speed shaft.
These blades rotate as the wind flows through them.
2. The rotating low-speed shaft is connected to a gearbox, which, in turn, connects to a
high-speed shaft on the opposite side.
3. The high-speed shaft is linked to an electrical generator responsible for converting the
mechanical energy from the rotation of the blades into electrical energy.

Key Characteristics of Wind Power Sites:

1. High average wind speed is crucial for optimal energy generation.

2. Sufficient separation from noise-sensitive neighbours is essential.
3. Good grid connection ensures efficient distribution of generated power.
4. Site access and the absence of special environmental or landscape designations
contribute to a favourable wind power site.

Challenges in Wind Power Integration:

1. Variability: Wind power output can vary, posing challenges for consistent energy
generation.
2. Uncertainty: The unpredictability of wind patterns introduces uncertainties in power
production.
3. Location-specificity: Ideal wind sites are often in specific geographic locations.
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4. Nonsynchronous generation: Wind power doesn't always synchronize with demand,

requiring careful grid management.
5. Low capacity factor: Wind turbines don't operate at full capacity all the time,
affecting overall efficiency.

Properties of Wind:

Wind, the movement of air across the Earth's surface, possesses several key properties that
influence its behaviour and impact:

1. Direction:

Wind has a specific direction, denoting the path it takes as it moves. Meteorologists use
cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) to indicate wind direction.

2. Speed:

Wind speed is the rate at which air molecules move. It is measured in units like meters per
second (m/s) or miles per hour (mph). Wind speed varies and can range from calm to stormy
conditions.

3. Altitude Variation:

Winds can vary with altitude. Generally, winds are slower near the Earth's surface and
increase in speed with higher altitude. This variation is essential for understanding
atmospheric circulation patterns.

4. Vertical Movement:

Wind exhibits vertical movement in the atmosphere. This vertical component is crucial for
processes like convection, where warm air rises and cold air descends, creating atmospheric
circulation.

5. Seasonal Changes:

Wind patterns can change seasonally due to the Earth's axial tilt. This leads to variations in
temperature and pressure, influencing global wind systems such as the monsoons.

6. Local Influences:

Local geographic features, such as mountains, valleys, and bodies of water, can
significantly influence wind patterns. For example, coastal areas may experience sea breezes
and land breezes.

7. Global Wind Systems:

The Earth's rotation and the distribution of heat create distinct global wind systems,
including the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies. These systems play a crucial role
in weather patterns and climate.
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8. Power Generation:

Wind possesses kinetic energy, and harnessing this energy through wind turbines allows for
the generation of electricity. The speed and consistency of wind in a location are critical
factors for the effectiveness of wind power.

Availability of Wind Energy in India:

In the early 1980’s, the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES)
came into existence with the aim to reduce the dependence of primary energy sources like
coal, oil etc. in view of the country’s energy security. The DNES became Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in the year 1992 and now from 2006, the Ministry was
renamed as Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE).

With an installed capacity of 42633 MW (March 2023) of Wind Energy, Renewable

Energy Sources (excluding large Hydro) currently accounts for 30.08% (125160 MW) of
India’s overall installed power capacity of 416059 MW (31.03.2023). Wind Energy holds the
major portion of 34.06% of total RE capacity among renewable and continued as the major
supplier of clean energy.

The Government of India has fixed a target of 500 GW of Renewable Energy by 2030
out of which 140 GW will be from Wind. The Wind Potential in India was first estimated by
National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) at 50m hub-height i.e. 49 GW but according to
the survey at 80m hub height, the potential grows as much as 102 GW and 302GW at 100
Meter hub height. Further a new study by NIWE at 120m height has estimated a potential
695GW.

Highest Wind Energy Producing State in India 2022

State Capacity

Tamil Nadu 9000 MW

Gujarat 7855 MW

Maharashtra 4789 MW

Karnataka 4779 MW

Rajasthan 4292 MW

Speed and Power Relations

The kinetic energy in air of mass m moving with speed V is given by the following in joules:
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………….(1)

The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic energy per second in watts:

…………..(2)

If

P= mechanical power in the moving air (watts),

ρ = air density (kg/m3),

A= area swept by the rotor blades (m2), and

V= velocity of the air (m/sec),

then the volumetric flow rate is AV, the mass flow rate of the air in kilograms per second is
ρAV, and the mechanical power coming in the upstream wind is given by the following in
watts:

…………(3)

Horizontal-axis wind turbine showing major components.

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Two potential wind sites are compared in terms of the specific wind power expressed in watts
per square meter of area swept by the rotating blades. It is also referred to as the power
density of the site, and is given by the following expression in watts per square meter of the
rotor-swept area:

…………..(4)

This is the power in the upstream wind. It varies linearly with the density of the air sweeping
the blades and with the cube of the wind speed. The blades cannot extract all of the upstream
wind power, as some power is left in the downstream air that continues to move with reduced
speed.

Power Extracted From the Wind

The actual power extracted by the rotor blades is the difference between the upstream and
downstream wind powers. Using Equation 3.2, this is given by the following equation in
units of watts:

… ………..(5)

Where,

Po= mechanical power extracted by the rotor, i.e., the turbine output power,

V= upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades, and

Vo= downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades.

Let us leave the aerodynamics of the blades to the many excellent books available on the
subject, and take a macroscopic view of the airflow around the blades. Macroscopically, the
air velocity is discontinuous from V to Vo at the “plane” of the rotor blades, with an
“average” of ½(V + Vo). Multiplying the air density by the average velocity, therefore, gives
the mass flow rate of air through the rotating blades, which is as follows:

…………….(6)

The mechanical power extracted by the rotor, which drives the electrical generator, is
therefore:

…………….(7)
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Rotor efficiency vs. Vo/V ratio has a single maximum.

The preceding expression is algebraically rearranged in the following form:

…………….(8)

The power extracted by the blades is customarily expressed as a fraction of the upstream
wind power in watts as follows:

……………. (9)

Where

……………(10)

Comparing Equation 3 and Equation 9, we can say that Cp is the fraction of the upstream
wind power that is extracted by the rotor blades and fed to the electrical generator. The
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remaining power is dissipated in the downstream wind. The factor Cp is called the power
coefficient of the rotor or the rotor efficiency.

Rotor efficiency vs. Vo/V ratio for rotors with different numbers of blades.

Major problems associated with wind power

1. Intermittency and Variability:

One of the primary challenges with wind power is its inherent intermittency. Wind
speed is unpredictable, leading to fluctuations in energy production. This intermittency can
strain power grids and requires additional backup power sources or energy storage solutions.

2. Land Use and Aesthetic Concerns:

Wind farms require large expanses of land, which can lead to conflicts with existing
land uses, such as agriculture or natural habitats. Additionally, some people find the visual
impact of wind turbines undesirable, particularly in scenic or residential areas.

3. Noise and Health Concerns:

Wind turbines produce noise during operation, and this can be a source of concern for
nearby residents. Some studies suggest a potential link between prolonged exposure to wind
turbine noise and adverse health effects, although the evidence is not conclusive.
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4. Bird and Bat Mortality:

Wind turbines pose a threat to birds and bats, especially in areas with significant avian
populations. Collisions with turbine blades can result in fatalities, raising ecological and
conservation concerns.

5. High Initial Costs:

While the operational costs of wind power are relatively low, the initial investment in
constructing wind farms and installing turbines can be high. This cost factor may limit the
widespread adoption of wind energy in certain regions.

6. Transmission and Grid Integration:

Wind farms are often located in remote areas with abundant wind resources,
necessitating the construction of extensive transmission infrastructure to connect them to
population centres. Integrating variable wind energy into existing power grids also poses
technical challenges.

7. Resource Limitations and Location Dependence:

Wind power is most effective in regions with consistent and strong wind patterns.
Areas lacking these conditions may not be suitable for large-scale wind energy production.
This geographical dependence limits the global applicability of wind power.

8. Environmental Impact during Construction:

The manufacturing, transportation, and installation of wind turbines can have

environmental impacts, including carbon emissions. The production of materials such as steel
and the use of rare earth elements in turbine components contribute to the environmental
footprint.

Basic Components of Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)

An apparatus used for converting the kinetic energy available in the wind to
mechanical energy that can be used to power machinery (grain mills, water pumps, etc). The
major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind turbine, a
generator, interconnection apparatus, and control systems.
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1. Batteries (for off-grid and backup systems) provide energy storage for periods of calm or
during utility grid outages.

2. A charge controller and/or voltage clamp take raw energy from a wind generator and
condition it so it can charge batteries safely and effectively or interface with an inverter and
the utility grid.

3. Disconnects and over current protection provide safety from overloaded circuits and allow
you to isolate different parts of the system.

4. A dump load is a place to divert excess energy in off-grid systems or when the utility grid
is down, it's windy, and your batteries are full.

5. An inverter converts direct current (DC) electricity to conventional household alternating

current (AC) electricity, and it may "sell" surplus electricity to the utility grid.

6. Loads in a system are energy-using devices, such as lights, appliances, and other electricity
users.

7. Metering gives you data display and logging so you can tell what your system is doing and
whether it's performing well.

8. A tower supports a wind generator, getting it up into the smooth, strong wind that's needed
to generate meaningful amounts of electricity.

9. Transmission wiring and conduit allow you to transfer energy from where it's made to
where it's stored and used.

10. Wind generators (or turbines) collect the energy in the wind and use it to make electricity.
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Types of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types determined by which way the
turbine spins. Wind turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common (like a
wind mill), while vertical axis wind turbines are less frequently used (Savonius and Darrieus
are the most common in the group).

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) are the common style that most of us think of
a wind turbine. A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill, it has blades that look like a
propeller that spin on the horizontal axis 8.

Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the
top of a tower, and they must be pointed into the wind. Small turbine are pointed by a simple
wind vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally use a wind
sensor coupled with a servo motor to turn the turbine into the wind. Most large wind turbines
have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a faster rotation that is more
suitable to drive an electrical generator.
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Fig. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of
the tower. Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into
the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front
of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they
don‘t need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind. Additionally, in
high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their
wind resistance. Since turbulence leads to fatigue failures and reliability is so important, most
HAWTs are upwind machines.

Important point to remember recording HAWT are

 Lift is the main force

 Much lower cyclic stress
 95% of the existing turbines are HAWTs
 Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower
 Yaw mechanism is required
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HAWT Advantage

1. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some
wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20% and the
power output by 34%.
2. High efficiency, since the blades always moves perpendicular to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation.

HAWT Disadvantages

1. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
2. Components of horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position.
3. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the
appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
4. Download variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence
when a blade passes through the tower‘s wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of
HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
5. HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the
wind.
6. HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the
turbine from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.

2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)

Vertical wind turbines (VAWTs), have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically .The
main advantage of this arrangement is that the wind turbine does not need to be pointed into
the wind. This makes them suitable in places where the wind direction is highly variable or
has turbulent winds. With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components can be
placed near the ground, so the tower does not need to support it, also makes maintenance
easier. The main drawback of a VAWT is that, it generally creates drag when rotating into the
wind.

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often

installed nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The
wind speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size
turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can
introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase the
maintenance or shorten its service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the
building generally redirects wind over the roof and these can double the wind speed at the
turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the
building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind
turbulence.
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Fig. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines –Darrieus type

Important points to remember for VAWT:

 Nacelle is placed at the bottom.

 Drag is the main force
 Yaw mechanism is not required
 Lower starting torque
 Difficulty in mounting the turbine
 Unwanted fluctuations in the power output

VAWT Advantages

1. No yaw mechanisms is needed

2. A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
3. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical HAWTs.
4. VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
5. VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where rooftops,
means hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.

VAWT Disadvantage
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1. In contrast to HAWT, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne
wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil
surfaces to the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.
2. Most VAWTs have an average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT, mainly
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind.
Versions that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel wind into
the collector area.
3. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do not
take advantage of higher wind speeds above.
4. Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantage
mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This
has often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50
years.

VAWT Subtypes

Darrieus Wind Turbine

Darrieus turbine has long, thin blades in the shape of loops connected to the top and
bottom of the axle; it is often called an ―eggbeater windmill‖ as shown in fig. above. It is
named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus who patented the design in 1931. (It was
manufactured by the US company FLoWind which went bankrupt in 1997). The Darrieus
turbine is characterized by its C-shaped rotor blades which give it its eggbeater appearance. It
is normally built with two or three blades.

Darrieus wind turbines are commonly called ―Eggbeater turbines, because they look
like a giant eggbeater. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic
stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally require some
external power source, or an additional savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting
torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results
in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area over the rotor area.
Newer Darrieus type turbines are not help up by guy-wires but have an external
superstructure connected to the top bearing.

The tip speed ratio (TSR) indicates the rotating velocity of the turbines to the velocity
of the wind. In this case, the TSR has a higher value than 1, meaning that the velocity rotation
here is greater than the velocity of wind and generates less torque. This makes Darrieus
turbines excellent electricity generators. The turbine blades have to be reinforced in order to
sustain the centrifugal forces generated during rotation, but the generator itself accepts a
lower amount of force than the Savorius type. A drawback to the Darrieus wind turbines is
the fact that they cannot start rotation on their own. A small motor, or another Savonius
turbine, maybe needed to initiate rotation.

Advantages
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1. The rotor shaft is vertical. Therefore it is possible to place the load, like a generator or
a centrifugal pump at ground level. As the generator housing is not rotating, the cable
to the load is not twisted and no brushes are requires for large twisting angles.
2. The rotor can take wind from every direction.
3. The visual acceptation for placing of the windmill on a building might be larger than
for an horizontal axis windmill.
4. Easily integrates into buildings.

Disadvantages

1. Difficult start unlike the Savonius wind turbine.

2. Low efficiency.

Savonius Wind Turbine

The Savonius wind turbine is a type of vertical-axis wind turbine. It is one of the
simplest wind turbine designs. It consists of two to three ―scoops‖ that employ a drag action
to convert wind energy into torque to drive a turbine. When looked at from above in cross-
section, a two scoop Savonius turbine looks like an S-shape. Due to the curvature of the
scoops, the turbine encounters less drag when moving against the wind than with it, and this
causes the spin in any wind regardless of facing.

Drag type wind turbines such as the Savonius turbine are less efficient at using the wind‘s
energy than lift-type wind turbines, which are the ones commonly used in wind farms. A
Savonius is a drag type turbine; they are commonly used in cases of high reliability in many
things such as ventilation and anemometers. Because they are a drag type turbine they are
less efficiency than the common HAWT. Savonius are excellent in areas of turbulent wind
and self-starting.

Fig. Savonius wind turbine

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Advantages

1. Having a vertical axis, the Savonius turbine continues to work effectively even if the
wind changes direction.
2. Because the Savonius design works well even at low wind speeds, there‘s no need for
a tower or other expensive structure to hold it in place, greatly reducing the initial
setup cost.
3. The device is quiet, easy to build, and relatively small.
4. Because the turbine is close to the ground, maintenance is easy.

Disadvantages

1. The scoop system used to capture

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Biomass Energy
Introduction
Biomass is a scientific term for living matter, but the word biomass is also used to
denote products derived from living organisms - wood from trees, harvested grasses, plant
parts and residues such as twigs, stems and leaves, as well as aquatic plants and animal
wastes. All the Earth's biomass exists in a thin surface layer called the biosphere. The plants
which are grown on land (terrestrial) and aquatic (grown in water) and their derivatives,
results in the formation of organic matter called "Biomass". The forest crops, animal manure
etc all comes under Biomass. It is considered as indirect form of solar energy. It is the way of
harnessing solar energy by photosynthesis. We can write

Solar energy ---> photosynthesis ---) Biomass energy

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Biomass energy or "bio-energy" includes any solid, liquid or gaseous fuel, or any
electric power or useful chemical product derived from organic matter, whether directly from
plants or indirectly from plant-derived industrial, commercial, or urban wastes, or agricultural
and forestry residues.

The Biomass resources are grouped into:

1. In the form of solid mass (wood and agricultural waste) which could burn to release
energy directly.
2. In nontraditional form (liquid fuels) in which ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and methanol
(methyl alcohol) are used as fuels to run the engines.
3. In the form of gaseous fuel called biogas.

The energy density of biomass in liquid and gaseous form is high. The anaerobic
decomposition of the organic matter results in the formation of biogas or methane. This gas is
produced from cow dung and other wastes. The methane gas is also produced by aquatic
biomass, if the mixture contains 7 to 9% solid matter, the gas generation rate will be higher.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis has two Greek words; Photo-Light and synthesis -combination.

1. It is the method of biological conversion of sun energy into sugars and starches. Solar
energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll (i.e. green pigment) in the plant and is stored in
the plant in the form of chemical bond energy.
2. In this reaction, H2O and CO2 molecules broken down and carbohydrate are formed
by releasing Oxygen.

Photosynthesis process has two steps:

1) In 1ST step, H2O splits into H2 and 02 in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll

2) In 2nd step, H2 combines with CO2 to form sugar or starch. This reaction does not need any
sunlight.

Following are the essential requirements for photosynthesis process:

1) Sun light

2) Carbon Di Oxide (CO2)

3) Temperature
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Biofuel
It is the scientific name given to any plant or animal substance that is combustible,
thus releasing off energy which can be then used for a number of purposes, including for
producing motion (such as the movement of a piston in an internal combustion engine) and
heating liquids (such as water in a boiler).

Types of biofuels

Biofuels can range from solid, liquid and gaseous products, and their application is as
varied as that of the petroleum products they replace.

I. Solid biofuels

The main examples are wood and charcoal which are used for everyday use in heating and
cooking.

II. Liquid biofuels

Liquid biofuels Liquid biofuels, as their name suggests, are fuels derived from biomass and
processed to produce a combustible liquid fuel.

There are two main categories:

1. Alcohol fuels - these include ethanol and methanol

2. Vegetable oils - derived from plant seeds, such as sunflower, sesame, linseed

III. Bioethanol

Ethanol fuels basically an alcohol fuel produced by the use of enzymes and micro-
organisms through the process of fermentation of starches and sugar. It can be used as a
alternative to petrol, where sugar cane is used as the base material. Ethanol with less than 1%
water called anhydrous ethanol can be blended with petrol in varying quantities. Currently,
all spark ignited petrol engines can operate with mixtures of up to 5% bioethanol (E5). The
combustion of ethanol adds virtually no net carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and so helps
reduce the threat of global warming.

IV. Methanol

It is produced by a process of chemical conversion. It can be produced from any

biomass with moisture content of less than 60%; potential feed stocks include forest and
agricultural residues, wood and various energy crops. As with ethanol it can either be blended
with petrol to improve the octane rating of the fuel or used in its neat form.

V. Vegetable oils

A further method of extracting energy from biomass is the production of vegetable

oils as a fuel known as biodiesel. The process of oil extraction is carried out the same way as
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for extraction of edible oil from plants. There are many crops grown in rural areas of the
developing world which are suitable for oil production – sunflower, coconut, cotton seed,
palm, rapeseed, soy bean, peanut, hemp and more. Sunflower oil, for example, has an energy
content about 85% that of diesel fuel. The oil, as well as being used for lighting and heating,
can be used as a fuel in internal combustion engines.

The vegetable oil is converted to a useable fuel by adding ethanol or methanol alcohol
along with a catalyst to improve the reaction. Small amounts of potassium hydroxide or
sodium hydroxide (commonly called caustic soda, which is used in soap making) are used as
the catalyst material. Glycerine separates out as the reaction takes place and sinks to the
bottom of the container. This removes the component that gums up the engine so that a
standard diesel engine can be used.

VI. Gaseous biofuels

Biogas is a renewable fuel, which is produced by the breaking down of organic matter
by a process of microbiological activity. Basically this means that rotting municipal waste,
food waste or sewage (both human and animal) is turned into gas by means of anaerobic
conversion in a digester. Biogas contains methane, which in itself is a fuel and can be
recovered from industrial anaerobic digesters, mechanical biological treatment systems and
engineered landfills. In engineered landfills, the collected landfill gas can be used to produce
electricity and heat.

Biomass resources
Biomass resources encompass a diverse range of organic materials derived from
living or recently living organisms, presenting a valuable and renewable source of energy.
These resources include:

1. Wood and Crop Residues:

- Wood, crop residues, and agricultural by-products are traditional forms of biomass. They
can be directly burned for heat or converted into biofuels like wood pellets.

2. Energy Crops:

- Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass and miscanthus, are grown specifically for
energy production. They offer high biomass yields and can be used for bioenergy production.

3. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):

- Organic components of municipal waste, including food and yard waste, can be utilized as
biomass resources. Anaerobic digestion and incineration are common methods for extracting
energy from MSW.

4. Animal Manure:
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- Livestock and agricultural operations generate organic waste, such as manure, which can
be used for biogas production through anaerobic digestion.

5. Algae:

- Algae are a promising biomass resource, rich in oils that can be converted into biofuels.
Algae cultivation offers a sustainable source for biodiesel production.

6. Forestry Residues:

- Residues from forestry operations, such as branches and tops of trees, can be utilized for
biomass energy, contributing to sustainable forest management practices.

7. Aquatic Biomass:

- Biomass derived from aquatic sources, such as water hyacinths and seaweed, can be
harnessed for bioenergy, including biogas and bioethanol production.

8. Organic Industrial Wastes:

- Organic wastes from industrial processes, such as food processing and paper
manufacturing, can be repurposed as biomass for energy generation.

Biomass conversion technologies

Fixed-dome type biogas plant

Construction:

1. It consists of a well-like underground tank made of bricks and cement. This tank is
called a digester and has inlet and outlet valves. The roof of the tank is dome-shaped.
A gas outlet pipe at the top of the dome is fitted. The dome of the digester acts as a
storage tank of biogas.
2. There is a mixing tank made above the ground level which is connected to the inlet
valve of the digester through a slopping inlet chamber below the ground level.
3. On the other side of the digester, a rectangular tank called an outlet chamber is
constructed with bricks and cement. This outlet chamber is connected to the overflow
tank which collects the used slurry.
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Working:

Animals-dung or similar, is mixed with water to make a slurry in the mixing tank.
This slurry enters the digester through the inlet chamber. The digester is filled partially with
slurry so that enough space is left above it in the dome for the collection of biogas. The slurry
in the digester is left for about two months for fermentation.

Anaerobic microorganisms are responsible for this action. As a result of fermentation,

biogas is formed which is collected in the dome. When a sufficient amount of biogas is
collected in the dome, it exerts a large pressure on the slurry and forced it to go into the
overflow tank through the outlet chamber.

The biogas is taken out from the dome through a pipe and used for cooking food or
heating water whenever required. Once the biogas plant starts functioning, more and more
slurry may be fed into the digester to get the continuous supply of biogas.

The used slurry collected in the overflow tank is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus
which are essential for the growth of crops and plants. Hence this used slurry can be used as
manure.
Urban waste to energy conversion
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1. Waste-to-Energy Technologies:

- Various technologies are employed to convert urban waste into energy, including
incineration, anaerobic digestion, and gasification. These methods aim to extract energy from
the organic and combustible components of waste.

2. Incineration:

- Incineration involves burning waste at high temperatures to generate heat. This heat is
then used to produce steam, driving turbines to generate electricity. Incineration reduces the
volume of waste and minimizes its environmental impact.

3. Anaerobic Digestion:

- Anaerobic digestion employs microorganisms to break down organic waste in the absence
of oxygen, producing biogas (primarily methane). This biogas can be used for electricity
generation or as a fuel for heating and transportation.

4. Gasification:

- Gasification involves converting solid waste into a gas mixture by reacting it with a
controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam. The produced syngas can be used for electricity
generation or as a fuel source.

5. Landfill Gas Recovery:

- Landfills emit methane as organic waste decomposes. Methane recovery systems capture
this gas and utilize it for energy production, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.

6. Environmental Benefits:

- Urban waste to energy conversion helps reduce the environmental impact of landfilling by
decreasing the volume of waste and minimizing methane emissions. It contributes to cleaner
air and reduced reliance on fossil fuels.

7. Challenges:

- Challenges include managing emissions from combustion processes, ensuring proper

waste sorting to enhance efficiency, and addressing public concerns related to potential
environmental and health impacts.

8. Integrated Waste Management:

- Urban waste to energy projects are often part of integrated waste management strategies
that prioritize recycling and waste reduction. These approaches aim for a more sustainable
and circular economy.
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Biomass gasification (Downdraft):

Biomass gasification, specifically downdraft gasification, is a technology that

converts biomass into a combustible gas mixture known as syngas. Here are key points about
this process:

1. Gasification Process:

- Biomass gasification involves the thermal conversion of biomass feedstock, such as wood
chips or agricultural residues, in a controlled environment with limited oxygen. The process
occurs in stages, including drying, pyrolysis, combustion, and reduction, leading to the
production of syngas.

2. Downdraft Gasification:

- In downdraft gasification, biomass is fed into the gasifier from the top, and the
gasification reactions progress downward through the biomass bed.

3. Syngas Composition:

- The syngas generated through downdraft gasification typically consists of carbon

monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), and other trace gases. The composition
makes it suitable for various applications, including electricity generation, heating, and
biofuel production.
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4. Cleaner Syngas:

- Downdraft gasification's design allows for efficient tar cracking and minimizes tar content
in the syngas, reducing the risk of equipment fouling and improving downstream utilization.

5. Applications:

- The syngas produced from biomass gasification can be used in internal combustion
engines, gas turbines, or combined heat and power (CHP) systems.