RESEARCH ARTICLE | AUGUST 09 2022

A programmable magnetoelastic sensor array for self-

powered human–machine interface 
Special Collection: Flexible and Smart Electronics

Jing Xu ; Trinny Tat ; Xun Zhao; Yihao Zhou; Diantha Ngo; Xiao Xiao ; Jun Chen 

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022)

https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0094289
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 Applied Physics Reviews ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/are

A programmable magnetoelastic sensor array

for self-powered human–machine interface
Cite as: Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289
Submitted: 2 April 2022 . Accepted: 27 June 2022 .
Published Online: 9 August 2022

Jing Xu, Trinny Tat, Xun Zhao, Yihao Zhou, Diantha Ngo, Xiao Xiao, and Jun Chena)

AFFILIATIONS
Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA

Note: This paper is part of the special collection on Flexible and Smart Electronics.
a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Skin-integrated electronics that directly interact with machines are transforming our ways of life toward the emerging trend of the metaverse.
Consequently, developing a wearable and skin-conformal interface that simultaneously features waterproofness, low cost, and low power
consumption for human–machine interaction remains highly desired. Herein, a stretchable, inexpensive, and waterproof magnetoelastic sen-
sor array has been developed as a secondary skin for self-powered human–machine interaction. The magnetoelastic sensor array utilizes the
giant magnetoelastic effect in a soft system, which converts mechanical pressure to magnetic field variation and, when coupled with the mag-

09 October 2024 21:35:56

netic induction, can generate electricity. In such a way, our magnetoelastic sensor array comprises the giant magnetomechanical coupling
layer made up of nanomagnets and a porous silicone rubber matrix, and the magnetic induction layer, which are coils patterned by liquid
metal. With programmable functionalities, the soft magnetoelastic sensor array can supply different commands by producing bespoke elec-
tric signals from human finger touch with an optimal signal-to-noise ratio of 34 dB and a rapid response time of 0.2s. To pursue a practical
application, the soft magnetoelastic sensor array can wirelessly turn on and off a household lamp and control a music speaker via Bluetooth
continuously in real time, even with contact with high-humidity environments such as heavy perspiration. With a collection of compelling
features, the soft magnetoelastic sensor array puts forth a unique and savvy avenue of self-powered bioelectronic technology that practically
enables a wider variety of applications for wearable human–machine interaction.
Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0094289

I. INTRODUCTION for external power sources that are bulky, rigid, environmentally
As the ever-growing presence of 5G infrastructure and the prolifer- unfriendly, and limited in lifetime. These disadvantages hinder the
ation of the Internet of Things (IoT) become more robust, intelligent HMI equipment capabilities in transferring into practical and sustain-
devices, such as computers, machines, sensors, and many more, progres- able applications since it is nearly impossible to seamlessly incorporate
sively provide humans with more convenience.1–7 In addition, those wearable devices with conventional batteries while maintaining
technological examples are gradually becoming more adaptive and intui- breathability and skin conformability, owing to the current designs in
tive, revolutionizing the bridge of communication between humans and materials and volume. On this account, wearable HMI devices10–12
machines.8,9 The global human–machine interface (HMI) market is with minimalistic features related to resistive effect,13–16 capacitive
expected to reach a value of 5.73  109 dollars by 2023 at a compound effect,17–19 and self-powered mechanisms based on triboelectric
annual growth rate of 9.37%. The growing desire for improved machines effect20–24 and piezoelectric effect,25–27 or hybridized systems,28–30
to monitor production and respond to fast-changing demands, as well as have emerged to provide the current state-of-the-art technologies,
the necessity for even higher efficiency and lower downtime, has fueled especially those with energy-harvesting strategies for sustainable and
the expansion of the HMI market. This rapid growth suggests that now environmentally friendly power generation by means of biomechanical
is an opportunistic time for the development of more innovative and cre- motions. Despite the tremendous list of advantages, these working
ative approaches to connect human and machine even further, diversely principles can still be vulnerable to humidity and deteriorate in liquid
ranging from hardware sensors to software algorithms. conditions,31 which limit their electrical outputs and applications in
On the one hand, traditional HMIs require complex data collect- certain environments, such as exercise causing heavy perspiration or
ing units and an enormous amount of power consumption, which call usages in extreme weather.

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289 9, 031404-1

Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing
 Applied Physics Reviews ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/are

On the other hand, the magnetoelastic effect is usually observed in productively command electronic devices in real time via touch sensing
rigid bulky alloys in nature.32–35 Very recently, the giant magnetoelastic of finger tapping. Importantly, it is intrinsically waterproof since the
effect was discovered in a soft material system with up to four times magnetic field can penetrate water without much loss in intensity. To
enhancement more than the traditional rigid counterpart.36 In this pursue a practical application, this device is integrated with a custom-
work, the discovered giant magnetoelastic effect is employed to develop ized circuit system to act as the on and off buttons for a desk lamp and
a programmable and waterproof sensor array for self-powered HMI. function as four command features: play, pause, next, and previous, to
Each magnetoelastic sensing unit is revolutionarily conditioned with a control a music speaker. At the front end, the programmable magnetoe-
characteristic output signal in order to correlate with programmable lastic sensor array is capable of becoming a key player in the HMI com-
functionalities in controlling a machine. This unique feature comes munities whose future may require a self-powered, skin-comfortable,
from the programmed orientation of the magnetoelastic film during the flexible, stretchable, and waterproof innovation.
initial magnetization process. The device demonstrates a strain of up to
II. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
150%, a wide pressure sensitivity ranging from 10 kPa to 80 kPa, an
optimal signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 34 dB, and a rapid response time A. Structural design and working principle
of 0.2 s at the frequency of 1 Hz. The programmable magnetoelastic A 40  40 mm2 programmable magnetoelastic sensor array,
sensor array can produce continuously responsive electric signals and consisting of four sensors, is illustrated in Fig. 1(a) with a waterproof

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FIG. 1. The invention of a multifunctional magnetoelastic sensor array for touch sensing combining the effect of the magnetoelastic effect and electromagnetic induction for bio-
mechanical-to-electrical conversion. (a) Schematic of the magnetoelastic sensor array, composed of four magnetoelastic sensors, whose components are patterned liquid metal
printed onto a soft magnetoelastic film. Illustrations of magnetic alignment changing the magnetic flux density of a magnetoelastic sensor in the (b) original state and the (c)
compressed state, based on the wavy chain analytical model. (d) 3D micro-CT of the liquid metal MI layer and the soft MC layer. Scale bar: 1.5 mm. Magnetic flux density map-
pings of a single magnetoelastic sensor (e) with and (f) without compression. Scale bars: 1.5 mm. (g) Flexible, stretchable, and waterproof magnetoelastic sensor array that
can adapt to various deformations in the (i) original state, (ii) rolling state, (iii) folding state, and (iv) stretching state. Scale bars: 5 mm.

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289 9, 031404-2

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all-in-one body design. Each sensor mainly holds two functional com- concentrations to examine a variety of magnetic flux density altera-
ponents. One is the giant magnetomechanical coupling (MC) layer that tions as appeared in Fig. 2(c). Under a continuous uniaxial applied
comprises the solid neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) nanomagnets stress, 83 wt. % micromagnet concentration demonstrates the highest
and microbubbles-introduced porous silicone rubber matrix, which is values of magnetic field variation of 10.3 mT more than those with
able to convert a gentle biomechanical pressure into magnetic flux varia- 75 wt. % (8.9 mT) and 67 wt. % (5.2 mT) of nanomagnets. The higher
tion. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the MC layer is increase in micromagnet concentrations would be more difficult to
displayed in Fig. S1 in the supplementary material, showing the scat- combine with the polymer matrix and consequently, to form a flexible,
tered nanomagnets and porous structure. The other functional compo- stretchable, and deformable sensor. Therefore, 83 wt. % is adequate
nent is the magnetic induction (MI) layer, which are the patterned enough to provide extensive output signals while still keeping the
liquid metal coils. A photograph of the liquid metal before patterning is desired properties of our magnetoelastic sensor array. In addition, the
shown in Fig. S2 in the supplementary material. The MI layer is respon- Young’s modulus and the initial magnetic field strength of the magne-
sible to pick up the magnetic field variation and generate electricity on toelastic composite (10  10  1.5 mm3), with different micromagnet
the basis of electromagnetic induction. concentrations, are measured, as shown in Fig. 2(d). Increasing in the
The magnetoelastic sensor itself could convert biomechanical concentration of the nanomagnets not only could intensify the initial
activities into electrical signals by using a two-step conversion process: magnetic field but also raise the Young’s modulus of the magnetoelas-
the MC layer is responsible for the mechanical-to-magnetic conver- tic system. The rearrangement of the nanomagnets in the composite
sion and the MI layer the magnetic-to-electrical conversion. As illus- could possibly decrease the remanent magnetization and the coercive
trated in Fig. 1(b), after magnetization and in the initial state, the field in the compressed state, resulting in a negative fluctuation in the
nanomagnets are single magnetic dipoles and aligned in a wavy chain magnetic flux density. Furthermore, we verify the magnetic field varia-
structure. When each magnetoelastic sensor receives an applied uniax- tion of the device in different magnetization angles under the original
ial pressure, as shown in Fig. 1(c), the micromagnet chain structure state and the applied pressure of 300 kPa. As evidenced in Fig. 2(e),
diverges and internally alters the dipole–dipole interaction of the chain the orientation that directly applies magnetization on the south and
(shown in Fig. S3 in the supplementary material).36 The demagnetiz- north directions provide the highest values of magnetic field variation,
ing fields are proportional with the decrease in the surface magnetic where north is the positive direction. Figure 2(f) displays the system-
flux density. Once the uniaxial stress is released, the recovery of the atic configuration of how the magnetoelastic composite was oriented
micromagnet wavy chain structure reverses the magnetic flux density to conditioned different magnetization, so each sensor can perform

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back to its original state. The magnetoelastic effect in the magnetoelas- different commands.
tic sensor is observed without the necessity of an external magnetic Subsequently, each soft magnetoelastic film is patterned with 20
field. The micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) images in Fig. turns of liquid metal coils to establish a fully completed magnetoelastic
1(d) and Movie S1 in the supplementary material reveal that these sensor array, which includes four different magnetoelastic sensors as
nanomagnets are evenly distributed and scattered throughout the shown in Fig. 3(a). In our case, the proposed dimension allows the
porous matrix. Figure 1(e) shows the shift in the magnetic flux density device to fit onto a human hand or wrist for HMI. However, the sensor
mappings of one magnetoelastic sensor. As illustrated in Fig. 1(f), array can be miniaturized for various application scenarios. The excel-
under an applied pressure of 300 kPa, the magnetic flux density lent composition of the materials gives great freedom for versatile sen-
declines to about 50%. Owing to the materials’ flexibility and durabil- sor designs, including size, thickness, softness, and so on. To
ity, the magnetoelastic sensor array can also generate stable power incorporate the magnetoelastic effect with the coil’s electromagnetic
under deformations, rolling, folding, and stretching as in Fig. 1(g). induction, different numbers of coil turns are examined as a way to
Due to these compelling features, the device can be adopted for verify both the performance of the current and voltage outputs against
human-body powered HMI by transforming human biomechanical the number of coils. Consequently, Fig. 3(b) shows a well-behaved lin-
activities into electrical signals. ear relationship. This is consistent with Faraday’s law of induction,
which declares that both the number of liquid metal turns and the
B. Device optimization magnetic field variation of the MC layer are positively proportional to
To optimize the biomechanical-to-electrical energy conversion of the electrical outputs.32 Consequently, 20 turns of coil are chosen due
each individual magnetoelastic sensor, we comprehensively investigate to their indication of high-output signals while still equipping the mag-
the assembly and properties of the soft magnetoelastic composite. netoelastic sensor array with the abilities to be skin-conformal, flexible,
First, by controlling the thicknesses and the magnetic particle concen- stretchable, and deformable. On the one hand, to characterize the elec-
tration, the soft magnetoelastic composite shows different mechanical trical performance of the magnetoelastic sensor array, we investigate
properties. The thickness to produce an optimal electrical output is the pulse waveforms under different applied frequencies at a fixed
plotted according to Fig. 2(a). Accordingly, thicker magnetoelastic pressure, as illustrated in Figs. 3(c) and S4 in the supplementary mate-
composite provides higher magnetic flux. The thickness of 1.5 mm is rial and observe that increasing the applied frequencies yields higher
chosen because it provides high magnetic field variation while still electrical outputs. This result correlates with the working principle
seemingly appears thin enough to exhibit flexibility, stretchability, and that the faster the magnetic field changes (the higher frequency), the
deformation. Second, as illustrated in Fig. 2(b), the 83 wt. % soft mag- greater the output electrical signal will be. On top of that, according to
netoelastic film is stretchable up to 150% strain. Since its decrease in Fig. 3(d), with an increased frequency, the output signals exhibit a
magnetic flux density can compete to that of the traditional magnetoe- shorter response time and higher SNR. The background noise is
lastic system,37 which needs an enormous amount of uniaxial stress of within a controllable range in the lab environment. Additionally, the
more than 10 MPa, we proceed to sample different micromagnet magnetoelastic sensor array is sensitive enough to detect pressure in

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289 9, 031404-3

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FIG. 2. Characterization of magnetic and mechanical properties of the magnetoelastic sensor array for biomechanical-to-magnetic conversion. (a) Magnetic field variation of
the magnetoelastic sensor at different thicknesses under applied stress. (b) Stress–strain curves of the magnetoelastic sensor. (c) Magnetic field variation of the magnetoelastic
sensor at different concentrations of nanomagnets under applied stress. (d) Comparison of Young’s modulus and the initial magnetic field strength of the magnetoelastic sensor
(10  10  1.5 mm3) with different micromagnet concentrations. (e) Magnetic field variation (in a vertically upward direction) of the magnetoelastic sensor under different mag-
netization direction angles. Set the north as the positive direction. (f) Setup of the magnetization orientation of the magnetoelastic sensor.

the range of human finger tapping. As shown in Fig. 3(e), both the equipment in a shower, in extreme weather, or under a heavily per-
current and voltage response linearly with an increase in pressure spiring body during exercise. Notably, to validate the performance of
ranging from 10 to 80 kPa, confirming a superb sensitivity in the range the magnetoelastic sensor array as a Bluetooth wireless controller, four
of human finger tapping. Meanwhile, 10 000 cycles of constant applied similar-in-appearance magnetoelastic sensors are embedded into a
pressure were exerted onto the device to validate its durability. Figure structural Ecoflex elastomer. Each is individually magnetized in differ-
3(f) substantiates the device’s excellent stability and repeatability. The ent orientation to exhibit characteristic output signals in order to sepa-
fast response time of 0.2 s at a frequency of 1 Hz, a favorable SNR of rately command the features: play, pause, next, and previous, of a
34 dB, and a stable output performance reveal that the magnetoelastic music speaker, as shown in Fig. 4(c). To further explore the possibility
sensor array performs better under high-frequency excitation and of differentiating the control sensors, four participants are requested to
expresses significant stability and durability, which can be incorpo- touch each key as shown in Figs. S7–S10 in the supplementary mate-
rated toward many long-term HMI applications. rial. These results deliver output differences between each sensor but
similarities between each subject. Thus, when a user is tapping on the
magnetoelastic sensor array, the signal detected is conditioned, trans-
C. Self-powered human–machine interaction
mitted, and then converted into on and off signals for the electrical
With the fundamentally new working principle, the array system appliances (Fig. S11 and Movie S2 both in the supplementary mate-
is a promising design in applications of HMI for its wearability, flexi- rial). To integrate this technology with a commercialized music
bility, skin conformity, and stable electrical performance under the speaker as a part of the HMI application and confirm its competence
exposure to humid environment and submergence in water as illus- in enacting wireless communication, a process flow system of the cir-
trated in Figs. 4(a) and S5 in the supplementary material. The whole cuit system is developed, consisting of three components: a sensor
system is tested underwater, as shown in Figs. 4(b) and S6 in the sup- array (four magnetoelastic sensors connected in parallel), a transmitter
plementary material, to examine its performance in producing ade- unit, and a receiver unit, as shown in Fig. 4(d). For the transmitter
quate energy in a liquid environment, such as accessing to control the unit, the magnetoelastic sensor array directly collects the user’s

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289 9, 031404-4

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 Applied Physics Reviews ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/are

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FIG. 3. Characterization of electrical properties of the magnetoelastic sensor array for magnetic-to-electrical conversion. (a) Drawing of the magnetoelastic sensor array with
scalable dimension. (b) Dependence of the electric outputs of one magnetoelastic sensor on the number of turns of the coils. (c) Generated current waveforms of the magne-
toelastic sensor under various applied frequencies. (d) Dependence of the response time and SNR of the magnetoelastic sensor on the applied pressure frequency. (e)
Sensitivity of the magnetoelastic sensor with respect to applied pressure at a frequency of 2 Hz. (f) Cyclic test of the magnetoelastic sensor underwater for more than 10 000
cycles.

biomechanical finger tapping data. The hand gesture signals will then low-pass filters, micro-controllers, Bluetooth modules, a relay, and an
be collected and transferred to an analog circuit for careful amplifi- audio and display module, the magnetoelastic sensor array not only
cation and filtration. This step ensures that the output signal can wirelessly acts as the on and off buttons of a lamp but also as a music
precisely express adequate details that are suitable for processing player’s command features, representing the actions of play, pause,
by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and further incorporating next, and previous. These applications are accomplished by the unique
in commanding a third-party equipment. Additionally, the data magnetization design of each magnetoelastic sensor in order for it to
would further be processed by a microcontroller before wirelessly produce identifiable electrical signals. Importantly, between different
being delivered from a Bluetooth module to another one at the users, these four output signals remain similar. The device exhibits a
receiver end. In this way, the second microcontroller can receive well-behaved linear variation in the forms of output voltage and cur-
the command signals generated from the magnetoelastic sensor rent that shows a superior sensitivity range of 80 kPa, which is suitable
array, which can also precisely control the audio and display mod- for touch sensing, an optimal SNR of 34 dB, and a rapid response time
ule inside the music speaker. Simultaneously, a latching relay is of 0.2 s at 1 Hz. This work demonstrates a unique and compelling
connected in series with the electrical appliances (music player, approach for self-powered bioelectronics and promises a great adapt-
lamp, or fan). Figure 4(e) shows the command signals collected able and versatile solution for users in water-resistant HMI applica-
after converting by the relay, and in this way, the magnetoelastic tions to control their third-party machine anytime anywhere,
sensor array can successfully control a commercial music speaker, ultimately improving our way of living in the smart generation of the
as shown in Movie S3 in the supplementary material. IoT and 5 G technologies.
III. CONCLUSIONS
IV. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Enabled by the new discovery of the magnetoelastic effect in the
soft polymer system, a self-powered sensor array is developed for A. Fabrication of the multifunctional magnetoelastic
human– machine interaction with decent wearability and water resis- sensor array
tance. It can effectively convert biomechanical signals from finger tap- All the soft MC layers are fabricated using Ecoflex 00-30 part A
ping into bespoke output signals to connect with desired machines. By and Ecoflex 00-30 part B with a weight ratio of 1:1. Then, neodymiu-
integrating with a signal-processing circuit that includes an amplifier, m–iron–boron nanomagnets (MQFP-B-20076-088) with weight

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289 9, 031404-5

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FIG. 4. Demonstration of magnetoelastic sensor array in applications of human–machine interface. (a) Photograph of the magnetoelastic sensor array, which is conformal to
human skin and can function even under the exposure to liquid. Scale bars: 2 cm. (b) Waterproof ability of the magnetoelastic sensor array with respect to electricity genera-
tion. (c) Recorded output signals from touch sensing of the magnetoelastic sensor array to interact with a music speaker’s command components: play, pause, next, and previ-
ous. (d) Circuit design and the process flow of the acquired data from magnetoelastic sensor array, including an amplifier, the low-pass filters, two micro-controllers, two
Bluetooth modules, and a relay. (e) Recorded output signals from touch sensing of the magnetoelastic sensor array after being processed by a relay.

concentrations of 65%, 75%, and 83% are combined with the polymer mixed with 10 wt. % Ni particles (99.5%, 5 lm, US Research
mixture using a stirring rod. Stirring thoroughly for 10 min introduced Nanomaterials) thoroughly using a VWR mini Vortexer to acquire
air microbubbles to produce desirable porous structure. Then, the the desired rheological property as a way to improve processability
mixture is poured into a 3D printed template and cured at 70  C in before any usage. A laser cutting machine (ULTRA R5000,
the oven (Thermo Fisher Scientific) for 4 h. By using different tem- Universal Laser System) is used to cut a polyethylene terephthalate
plates, composited films with given thickness could be fabricated. (PET) film in the shape of a square helix (length, 12 mm; width,
Finally, the cured composited film, positioned at 0 , 45 , 180 , and 12 mm). The liquid metal is then patterned onto the soft magne-
225 angle, is individually magnetized by an impulse field (approxi- toelastic film using the PET film mask.
mately 2.6 T) using an impulse magnetizer (IM-10-30, ASC Scientific)
to introduce different remnant magnetization patterns.
Ga (99.99%) and In (99.99%) ingots were purchased from B. Characterization of the soft magnetoelastic film
RotoMetals to assemble the liquid metal. Eutectic gallium indium Structural characterization of the soft magnetoelastic film
(EGaIn; 74.5 wt. % Ga and 25.5 wt. % In) is heated in a muffle fur- was conducted by SEM (Zeiss supra 40VP) and micro-CT
nace (Thermo Fisher) at 200  C for 2 h. Then, the liquid metal is (CrumpCAT). Magnetic flux density measurement is succeeded

Appl. Phys. Rev. 9, 031404 (2022); doi: 10.1063/5.0094289 9, 031404-6

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using a digital Gauss meter (TD8620, Tunkia). Uniaxial stress is AUTHOR DECLARATIONS
applied on the soft magnetoelastic film, and the Gauss meter with Conflict of Interest
an axial probe measures the vertical component of the magnetic
A patent based on this work has been filed by UCLA.
field. The stress–strain curves are determined by using a dynamic
mechanical analyzer (DMA, RSA III). The Young’s modulus is cal-
Author Contributions
culated by fitting the experimental curves with a neo-Hookean
model. Jing Xu: Data curation (lead); Investigation (lead); Validation (lead);
Writing – original draft (lead). Trinny Tat: Data curation (equal);
C. Characterization of the magnetoelastic sensor Investigation (equal); Validation (equal); Writing – original draft
array’s electrical performance (equal). Xun Zhao: Investigation (supporting). Yihao Zhou:
Investigation (supporting). Diantha Ngo: Investigation (supporting).
The voltage signals of the magnetoelastic sensors are measured Xiao Xiao: Investigation (supporting). Jun Chen: Conceptualization
by a Stanford low-noise voltage pre-amplifier (Model SR560) and cur- (lead); Funding acquisition (lead); Project administration (lead);
rent signals, a Stanford low-noise current pre-amplifier (Model Supervision (lead); Validation (lead); Visualization (lead); Writing –
SR570). Real-time data acquisition and display are realized using the original draft (supporting); Writing – review and editing (lead).
LabVIEW software. The stability of the magnetoelastic sensor is
validated by a calibration electrodynamic transducer (Labworks,
ET-126HF) at 20 Hz. The electrical output performance of the magne- DATA AVAILABILITY
toelastic sensor is measured at the different frequencies and applied The data that support the findings of this study are available
forces. Finally, the pressure meter (HYPX-017) is used to apply an from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
adjustable pressure to the magnetoelastic sensor.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12
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