BIOLOGY

TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS VIII

State Council of Educational Research & Training

Andhra Pradesh
SCIENCE ISBN 978-81-7450-812-6
Textbook for Class VIII

First Edition
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 BIOLOGY
Class VIII
Text Book Development Committee
Sri S. Suresh Kumar I.A.S
Commissioner of School Education, AP
Smt. Vetriselvi. K I.A.S
State Project Director, Samagra Shiksha, AP
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy
MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.
Director, SCERT, AP
Sri K. Ravindranadh Reddy
M.A., B.Ed.
Director - Govt. Text book Press, AP

Programme Co-ordinators
Dr. G. Kesava Reddy
Prof. C&T, SCERT, AP
Smt. V. Swarnalatha
Lecturer, C&T, SCERT, AP

Subject Co-ordinator
Smt. K. Rama Mani
Lecturer in Biology, SCERT, AP

Asst. Subject Co-ordinators

Sri D. David Dr. Y. Giri Babu Yadav
Lecturer, SCERT, AP Professor, SCERT, AP

Technical Co-ordinator
Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar
Lecturer, SCERT, AP
Published by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati.
Textbook Development Committee
(NCERT)
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.) (Physics), Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBERS
Bharati Sarkar, Reader (Retd.) (Zoology), Maitreyi College, Delhi University,
Delhi
C. V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
(DESM), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, Department of Education, SPM College, Delhi
University, Delhi
H.C. Jain, Principal, (Retd.) Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
Harsh Kumari, Headmistress, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of
Education, Delhi University, Delhi
J. S. Gill, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi
Lalita S. Kumar, Reader (Chemistry), School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
P.S. Yadava, Professor, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Imphal
Puranchand, Professor and Joint Director (Retd.), Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (SG), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rachna Garg, Lecturer, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, North-East Regional Institute of Education, Shillong
R.K. Parashar, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Shashi Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Sunila Masih, Teacher, Mitra GHS School, Suhagpur, P.O. Hoshangabad,
Madhya Pradesh

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s
life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks
a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our
system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi
and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this
basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of
sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will
take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education
outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given
space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with
the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook
as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources
and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible
if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of
a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and
space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible
for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science
and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor V.B. Bhatia for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook. We are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor
Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in
the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will
enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
30 November 2007 Research and Training
 Foreword
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has unleashed a new era in school education by
introducing extensive curricular reforms from the academic year 2020-21. The
Government has taken up curricular reforms intending to enhance the learning
outcomes of the children with focus on building solid foundational learning and to
build up an environment conducive for an effective teaching-learning process. To
achieve this objective, the Government of Andhra Pradesh has decided to implement
the NCERT curriculum from class 8th to reach the global standards.
To enrich the content of the subject QR codes are incorporated in the beginning
of each lesson to enable learning outside the classroom. In this textbook, lessons are
prepared based on the themes like Food, Living world and Natural resources are
incorporated under Biological Science. In order to reinforce the concepts, several
projects and activities are given to inculcate scientific temperament. Each lesson is
provided with eye catching illustrations to engage the children. The key vocabulary of
the lessons are included under “Key words” and the salient features of the lessons are
given under the title “What you have learnt” for the review of the important concepts.
Questions are framed for each lesson to recapitulate the conceptual understanding
and to achieve competencies required for project works, drawings and model making
under “Exercises”. An effort has been made to relate the scientific concepts with the
real-life events thereby developing and promoting scientific temperament in “Extended
Learning - Activities and Projects”.
We are grateful to Honourable Chief Minister, Government of Andhra Pradesh,
Sri Y.S. Jagan Mohan Reddy for being our source of inspiration to carry out this
extensive reform in the education department. We extend our gratitude to Hon'ble
Minister for Education, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Sri B. Satyanarayana for
striving towards qualitative education. Our special thanks to Sri Budithi Rajsekhar,
IAS, Special Chief Secretary to Government, School Education Department, Andhra
Pradesh and Sri S. Suresh Kumar, IAS, Commissioner of School Education, Andhra
Pradesh, Smt. Vetriselvi.K, IAS, State Project Director, Samagra Shiksha, Andhra
Pradesh and Special officer, English medium Project, Andhra Pradesh for their constant
motivation and guidance.
We convey our special thanks to the NCERT for their cooperation and assistance
and giving permission to implement their curriculum. We also thank our coordinators
and layout designers for their contribution in the development of the textbook. We
invite constructive feedback from the teachers and the parents in further refinement
of the textbook.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy
Director
SCERT – Andhra Pradesh
 Preface
This book is the outcome of the efforts of the textbook development committee
appointed by the NCERT. The committee met a few times to interact with one
another to improve the draft. Then there was a review meeting in which many
experts and practicing school teachers were invited to review the draft and suggest
improvements.
By and large we have stuck to the format of the Class VII book. By now famous
characters, Boojho and Paheli, have been used to make the text interactive.
Attempt has been made to recall children’s own experiences and build concepts
around them. This is designed to connect science that they study in the school
with their everyday life.
Many activities have been suggested to clarify concepts. Some of these activities
are so simple that children can perform them on their own. The requirement of
the apparatus required for the activities is minimal. We performed all the activities
ourselves to ensure that there was no difficulty in performing them in the school
situation. The activities should also help children in developing skills such as
presentation of data in tabular and graphical forms, reasoning and drawing
inference from the given data.
The language of the book has been kept as simple as possible. A large number
of photographs, illustrations, cartoons, etc. have been included to make the book
attractive. To help teachers evaluate children effectively, a large number of
exercises have been given at the end of each chapter. The teachers are encouraged
to frame additional exercises to test children’s understanding. Some challenging
exercises have also been devised for those children who would like to appear for
the National Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT.
We are conscious of the fact that there is a paucity of additional reading material
for children. We have tried to address this problem by providing non-evaluative
boxes. These boxes, in light orange, contain additional information, anecdotes,
stories, strange facts and other such interesting materials.
We all know that children are mischievous and playful by nature. Therefore,
in order to prevent any untoward incident during the performance of the activities
in the school or outside, necessary cautions, in magenta, have been inserted at
various places in the book.
To prepare children to assume their roles as responsible citizens of tomorrow,
attempt has been made to sensitise them to the issues concerning gender, religion,
environment, health and hygiene, water scarcity and energy conservation. We
have sought to weave into the text the value of cooperation and the importance of
peer learning.
An important feature of the book is what we call Extended Learning. These
are totally non-evaluative, and purely voluntary activities and projects. Some of
the projects in this section have been designed to enhance children’s interaction
with the experts, teachers, even parents, and society at large. The children are
required to collect information of various kinds and draw conclusions of their own.
My request to teachers and parents is to use the book in the spirit in which it
has been written. Encourage children to perform activities and learn by doing,
rather than by rote. You can supplement, or even replace, the activities given
here. If you feel that you have better alternatives, especially with your local/
regional flavour, please write to us so that these activities could be used in the
future editions of the book.
We have been able to include only a small subset of children’s experiences.
You have a better knowledge of their experiences because you are in touch with
them. Use them to illustrate the concepts being taught. Above all, please do not
stifle children’s natural curiosity. Encourage them to ask questions, even if
sometimes you feel uncomfortable. If you do not know the answer to a question on
the spot, do not feel embarrassed. You can promise them to find the answer and
deal with it later. Make a genuine attempt to get the answer from whatever
resources are within your reach, such as senior school or college teachers, experts,
libraries, internet etc. If, inspite of your efforts, you cannot get the answer to
some question, you could write to NCERT.
I must thank the NCERT for enabling us to talk to children through the medium
of this book. Every member of the NCERT has been courteous and helpful to us.
In the end, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Editing Team,
who worked tirelessly to help me bring the book to the present form. If you and
your students find this book useful and enjoy teaching/learning science through
this book, the Editing Team and I shall consider ourselves well-rewarded.

V.B. BHATIA
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the individuals and
organisations involved in the development of this book. The Council
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics
for reviewing and refining the manuscript of this book: K.C. Sharma,
Reader (Physics), Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer; Charu Verma,
Lecturer (Science), DIET, Pitampura, Delhi; Geeta Bajaj, TGT (Science),
K.V. No. 3, Delhi Cantt., New Delhi; K.D. Sharma, TGT (Science), R.P.V.V.
Civil Lines, Delhi; Manohar Lal Patel, Teacher, Govt. R.N.A. Higher
Secondary School, Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh; Reeta Sharma, Reader
(Botany), Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal; Kamal Deep Peter,
OEI, Oracle India, Bangalore; Puneeta Sharma, TGT (Science), L.D. Jain
Girls Senior Secondary School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi; M.C. Das, Teacher
(Science), Govt. Secondary School, Zoom, West Sikkim; Deepti Kohli,
P.D. Public School, Shalimar Bagh, Delhi; Sulekha Chandra, Reader
(Chemistry), Zakir Husain College, Delhi University, Delhi; R.S. Tomar,
TGT (Science), J.N.V. Mothuka, Faridabad (Haryana); Anjali Khirwadkar,
Lecturer, Department of Education, M.S. University, Baroda (Gujrat);
Suresh Chand, TGT (Science), J.N.V. Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh; Satheesh
H.L., TGT (Science), Demonstration School, Regional Institute of
Education, Mysore; Simminder Kaur Thukral, NIIT, Kalkaji, New Delhi;
M.M. Kapoor, Professor (Retd.) (Chemistry), Delhi University, Delhi; Sarita
Kumar, Reader (Zoology), Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi
University, Delhi. The contributions of Pushplata Verma, R.R. Koireng,
Pramila Tanvar and Ashish K. Srivastava, Assistant Professors, are
acknowledged for being a part of the review of this textbook.
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions
received from the National Monitoring Committee in the development
of the manuscript of this textbook.
The dynamic leadership of Professor Hukum Singh, Head, DESM,
for providing guidance at different stages of development of the textbook
and extending infrastructure facilities is highly acknowledged. Special
thanks are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor and Shashi Chadha,
Assistant Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting
relevant changes.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor,
Incharge Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor and Ritu Jha, Proof Reader.
The contributions of APC-office, administration of DESM,
Publication Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also
acknowledged.
 A Note for the Students
The team of Paheli and Boojho will be with you as you journey through this
textbook. They love to ask questions. All kinds of questions come to their
minds and they collect them in their sacks. Sometimes, they may share
some of the questions with you, as you read through the chapters.
Paheli and Boojho are also on the lookout for answers to many
questions — sometimes the questions seem answered after they discuss
them with each other, sometimes through discussions with other classmates,
teachers or their parents. Answers to some questions do not seem available
even after all these. They might need to experiment on their own, read books
in the library, send questions to scientists. Just dig and dig and dig into all
possibilities and see if the questions can be answered. Perhaps, they would
carry some of the unanswered questions in their sacks to higher classes.
What will really thrill them would be your adding questions to their
sacks or answers to their questions. Sometimes, activities are suggested in
the textbook, results or findings of these by different groups of students
would be of interest to other students and teachers. You can complete the
suggested activities and send your results or findings to Paheli and Boojho.
Do keep in mind that activities that involve using blades, scissors or fire
need to be done strictly under the care of your teachers. Stick to the
precautions given and then enjoy doing all the suggested activities. Mind,
the book will not be able to help you much, if the activities are not completed!
We would like to advise you that you must make observations yourself
and record whatever results you get. Keen and true observations are
necessary for exploring any subject of study. For some reason your results
may turn out to be different from those of your classmates. Do not worry.
Try to find out the reason for these results instead of disregarding them. Do
not ever copy results from your classmate.
You can send your feedback for Paheli and Boojho at:

To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
CELL – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 1

Chapter 2
MICROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE 11

Chapter 3
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 26

Chapter 4
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 42

Chapter 5
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 55

Chapter 6
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 69

Chapter 7
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 82

GLOSSARY 96
 CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Y
ou have already learnt that things These boxes appeared like a honey-
around us are either living or comb. He also noticed that one box was
non-living. Further, you may separated from the other by a wall or
recall that all living organisms carry out partition. Hooke coined the term ‘cell’
certain basic functions. Can you list for each box. What Hooke observed as
these functions? boxes or cells in the cork were actually
Different sets of organs perform the dead cells.
various functions you have listed. In this Cells of living organisms could be
chapter, you shall learn about the basic observed only after the discovery of
structural unit of an organ, which is the improved microscopes. Very little was
cell. Cells may be compared to bricks. known about the cell for the next 150
Bricks are assembled to make a years after Robert Hooke’s
building. Similarly, cells are assembled observations. Today, we know a lot
to make the body of every organism. about cell structure and its functions
because of improved microscopes
1.1 Discovery of the Cell having high magnification.
Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices
of cork under a simple magnifying
1.2 The Cell
device. Cork is a part of the bark of a Both, bricks in a building and cells in
tree. He took thin slices of cork and the living organisms, are basic
observed them under a microscope. He structural units [Fig. 1.2(a), (b)]. The
noticed partitioned boxes or buildings, though built of similar bricks,
compartments in the cork slice (Fig. 1.1). have different designs, shapes and sizes.
Similarly, in the living world, organisms
differ from one another but all are made
up of cells. Cells in the living organisms
are complex living structures unlike
non-living bricks.

A hen’s egg can be seen

easily. Is it a cell or a
Fig. 1.1: Cork cells as observed by group of cells?
Robert Hooke
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 1
 (a) Brick wall (b) Onion peel
Fig. 1.2 : Brick wall and onion peel
The egg of a hen represents a single Organisms made of more than one
cell and is big enough to be seen by cell are called multicellular (multi :
the unaided eye. many; cellular : cell) organisms. The
number of cells being less in smaller
1.3 Organisms show Variety organisms does not, in any way, affect
in Cell Number, Shape and the functioning of the organisms. You
Size will be surprised to know that an
How do scientists observe and study the organism with billions of cells begins
living cells? They use microscopes which life as a single cell which is the fertilised
magnify objects. Stains (dyes) are used egg. The fertilised egg cell multiplies
to colour parts of the cell to study the and the number of cells increase as
detailed structure. development proceeds.
There are millions of living Look at Fig 1.3 (a) and (b). Both
organisms. They are of different shapes organisms are made up of a single cell.
and sizes. Their organs also vary in The single-celled organisms are called
shape, size and number of cells. Let us unicellular (uni : one; cellular : cell)
study about some of them.
Number of Cells
Can you guess the number of cells in a
tall tree or in a huge animal like the
elephant? The number runs into
billions and trillions. Human body has
trillions of cells which vary in shapes
and sizes. Different groups of cells
perform a variety of functions.
A billion is a thousand million. A (a) (b)
trillion is a thousand billion.
Fig. 1.3 : (a) Amoeba (b) Paramecium
2 BIOLOGY
organisms. A single-celled organism
performs all the necessary functions The change in shape is due to
that multicellular organisms perform. formation of pseudopodia
which facilitates movement
A single-celled organism, like
and help in capturing food.
amoeba, captures and digests food,
respires, excretes, grows and
reproduces. Similar functions in A white blood cell (WBC) in human
multicellular organisms are carried out blood is another example of a single cell
by groups of specialised cells forming which can change its shape. But while
different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form WBC is a cell, amoeba is a full fledged
organs. organism capable of independent
existence.
Activity 1.1 What shape would you expect in
organisms with millions of cells? Fig.
The teacher may show a permanent 1.4 (a, b, c) shows different cells such
slide of amoeba and paramecium as blood, muscle and nerve of human
under a microscope. Alternatively, beings. The different shapes are related
the teacher can collect pond water to their specific functions.
and show these organisms by Generally, cells are round, spherical
preparing the slides. or elongated [Fig. 1.4(a)]. Some cells are
long and pointed at both ends. They
Shape of Cells exhibit a spindle shape [Fig. 1.4(b)].
Cells sometimes are quite long. Some
Refer to Fig. 1.3 (a). How do you define are branched like the nerve cell or a
the shape of amoeba in the figure? neuron [Fig. 1.4(c)]. The nerve cell
You may say that the shape appears receives and transfers messages,
irregular. Infact, amoeba has no thereby
definite shape, unlike other
organisms. It keeps on changing its
shape. Observe the projections of
varying lengths protruding out of its
body. These are called pseudopodia
(pseudo : false; podia : feet), as you (a)
learnt in Class VII. These projections
appear and disappear as amoeba
moves or feeds.
(c)
(b)

What advantage does Fig. 1.4 : (a) Spherical red blood cells
amoeba derive by of humans, (b) Spindle
changing shape? shaped muscle cells,
(c) Long branched nerve cell
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 3
helping to control and coordinate the plant. It is not necessary that the cells in
working of different parts of the body. the elephant be much bigger than those
Can you guess, which part of the cell in a rat. The size of the cell is related to
gives it shape? Components of the cell its function. For example, nerve cells,
are enclosed in a membrane. This both in the elephant and rat, are long
membrane provides shape to the cells and branched. They perform the same
of plants and animals. Cell wall is an function, that of transferring messages.
additional covering over the cell
membrane in plant cells. It gives shape 1.4 Cell Structure and Function
and rigidity to these cells (Fig. 1.7). You have learnt that each living
Bacterial cell also has a cell wall. organism has many organs. You have
studied in Class VII about the digestive
Size of Cells
organs which together constitute the
The size of cells in living organisms may digestive system. Each organ in the
be as small as a millionth of a metre system performs different functions
(micrometre or micron) or may be as such as digestion, assimilation and
large as a few centimetres. However, absorption. Similarly, different organs
most of the cells are microscopic in size of a plant perform specific/specialised
and are not visible to the unaided eye. functions. For example, roots help in
They need to be enlarged or magnified the absorption of water and minerals.
by a microscope. The smallest cell is 0.1 Leaves, as you have learnt in Class VII,
to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The are responsible for synthesis of food.
largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 Each organ is further made up of
mm, is the egg of an ostrich. smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is
a group of similar cells performing a
Activity 1.2 specific function.
Boil a hen’s egg. Remove the shell. Paheli realised that an organ is made
What do you observe? A white up of tissues which in turn, are made
material surrounds the yellow part. up of cells. The cell in a living organism
White material is albumin which is the basic structural unit.
solidifies on boiling. The yellow part
is yolk. It is part of the single cell.
1.5 Parts of the Cell
You can observe this single cell Cell Membrane
without any magnifying device. The basic components of a cell are cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
(Fig. 1.7). The cytoplasm and nucleus
are enclosed within the cell membrane,
Are the cells in an also called the plasma membrane. The
elephant larger than the
membrane separates cells from one
cells in a rat?
another and also the cell from the
The size of the cells has no relation surrounding medium. The plasma
with the size of the body of the animal or membrane is porous and allows the
4 BIOLOGY
movement of substances or materials substance between the nucleus and
both inward and outward. the cell membrane is called cytoplasm.

Activity 1.3
In order to observe the basic I want to know why plant
components of the cell, take an cells need cell walls?
onion bulb. Remove the dry pink
coverings (peels). You can easily You have learnt earlier that the cell
separate these from the fleshy white membrane gives shape to the cell. In
layers of the bulb with the help of addition to the cell membrane, there
forceps or even with your hand. You is an outer thick layer in cells of plants
can also break the onion bulb and called cell wall. This additional layer
separate out thin layers. Place a surrounding the cell membrane is
small piece of the thin onion peel required by plants for protection. Plant
in a drop of water on a glass slide. cells need protection against variations
The thin layer can be cut into in temperature, high wind speed,
smaller pieces with the help of a atmospheric moisture etc. They
blade or forceps. Add a drop of are exposed to these variations
methylene blue solution to the layer because they cannot move. Cells can
and place a coverslip on it. While be observed in the leaf peel of
placing the coverslip ensure that Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo. You
there are no air bubbles under the can prepare a slide as in the case
coverslip. Observe the slide under of onion.
the microscope. Draw and label. Paheli asks Boojho if he can also
You may compare it with Fig. 1.5. observe animal cells.

The boundary of the onion cell is the Activity 1.4

cell membrane covered by another
thick covering called the cell wall. The Take a clean tooth pick, or a
central dense round body in the centre matchstick with the tip broken.
is called the nucleus. The jelly-like Scrape inside of your cheek without
hurting it. Place it in a drop of water
on a glass slide. Add a drop of iodine
and place a coverslip over it.
nucleus Alternatively, add 1-2 drops of
methylene blue solution. Observe
it under the microscope. You may
notice several cells in the scraped
cytoplasm
material (Fig. 1.6). You can identify
the cell membrane, the cytoplasm
and nucleus. A cell wall is absent
in animal cells.
Fig. 1.5 : Cells observed in an onion peel
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 5
 Gene
nuclear cytoplasm
membrane Gene is a unit of inheritance in living
organisms. It controls the transfer of
a hereditary characteristic from
parents to offspring. This means that
your parents pass some of their
characteristics on to you. If your father
nucleus has brown eyes, you may also have
cell mem-
brane brown eyes. If your mother has curly
hair, you might also end up having
curly hair. However, the different
Fig. 1.6 : Human cheek cells combination of genes from parents
result in different characteristics.
Cytoplasm
Nucleus, in addition to its role in
It is the jelly-like substance present inheritance, acts as control centre of the
between the cell membrane and the activities of the cell. The entire content
nucleus. Various other components, or of a living cell is known as protoplasm.
organelles, of cells are present in the It includes the cytoplasm and the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living
golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc. You will
substance of the cell.
learn about them in later classes.

Nucleus
Paheli wants to know if the
It is an important component of the living structure of the nucleus is
cell. It is generally spherical and located the same in cells of plants,
in the centre of the cell. It can be stained animals and bacteria.
and seen easily with the help of a
microscope. Nucleus is separated from The nucleus of the bacterial cell is
the cytoplasm by a membrane called the not well-organised like the cells of
nuclear membrane. This membrane is multicellular organisms. There is no
also porous and allows the movement of nuclear membrane. The cells having
materials between the cytoplasm and nuclear material without nuclear
the inside of the nucleus. membrane are termed prokaryotic
cells. The organisms with these kinds
With a microscope of higher
of cells are called prokaryotes (pro :
magnification, we can see a smaller primitive; karyon : nucleus). Examples
spherical body in the nucleus. It is called are bacteria and blue green algae. The
the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus cells, like onion cells and cheek cells
contains thread-like structures called having well-organised nucleus with a
chromosomes. These carry genes and nuclear membrane are designated as
help in inheritance or transfer of eukaryotic cells. All organisms other
characters from the parents to the than bacteria and blue green algae
are called eukaryotes. (eu : true;
offspring. The chromosomes can be
karyon: nucleus).
seen only when the cell divides.
6 BIOLOGY
 While observing the onion cells called chloroplasts. They provide green
under the microscope, did you notice colour to the leaves. You may recall that
any blank-looking structures in the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of leaves,
cytoplasm? It is called vacuole. It could is essential for photosynthesis.
be single and big as in an onion cell.
Cheek cells have smaller vacuoles. 1.6 Comparison of Plant and
Large vacuoles are common in plant Animal Cells
cells. Vacuoles in animal cells are much
smaller. If you recall Activities 1.3 and 1.4, you
You might have noticed several small should be able to compare plant and
coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of the animal cells. Observe the plant and
cells of Tradescantia leaf. They are animal cell carefully in Fig. 1.7 (a), (b).
scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf Let us tabulate the similarities and
cells. These are called plastids. They are disinguishing features of plant and
of different colours. Some of them animal cells. Only a few features are
contain green pigment called mentioned. You may add more in
chlorophyll. Green coloured plastids are Table 8.1.

cell membrane
cell wall

vacuole

nucleus

cell membrane

chloroplast
cytoplasm
(b)
(a)
Fig. 1.7 : (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell
Table 1.1 : Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Sl. No. Part Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Cell membrane Present Present

2. Cell wall Present Absent
3. Nucleus
4. Nuclear membrane
5. Cytoplasm
6. Plastids
7. Vacuole

CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 7

KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
CELL Ü All organisms are made of smaller parts called

CELL MEMBRANE organs.

Ü Organs are made of still smaller parts. The
CELL WALL smallest living part of an organism is a ‘cell’.
CHLOROPLAST Ü Cells were first observed in cork by Robert
Hooke in 1665.
CHROMOSOME
Ü Cells exhibit a variety of shapes and sizes.
CYTOPLASM Ü Number of cells also varies from organism to
organism.
EUKARYOTES
Ü Some cells are big enough to be seen with
GENE the unaided eye. Hen’s egg is an example.
Ü Some organisms are single-celled, while oth-
MULTICELLULAR
ers contain large number of cells.
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE Ü The single cell of unicellular organisms per-
forms all the basic functions performed by a
NUCLEOLUS
variety of cells in multicellular organisms.
NUCLEUS Ü The cell has three main parts: (i) the cell
membrane, (ii) cytoplasm which contains
ORGAN
smaller components called organelles, and
ORGANELLES (iii) the nucleus.
Ü Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a
PLASMA MEMBRANE
nuclear membrane.
PLASTID Ü Cells without well-organised nucleus, i.e.
lacking nuclear membrane, are called
PROKARYOTES
prokaryotic cells.
PSEUDOPODIA Ü Plant cells differ from animal cells in having
an additional layer around the cell mem-
TISSUE
brane termed cell wall.
UNICELLULAR Ü Coloured bodies called plastids are found in
the plant cells only. Green plastids contain-
VACUOLE
ing chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
WHITE BLOOD CELL Ü Plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike a
(WBC) number of small vacuoles in animal cells.

8 BIOLOGY
 Exercises

1. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
(a) Unicellular organisms have one-celled body. (T/F)
(b) Muscle cells are branched. (T/F)
(c) The basic living unit of an organism is an organ. (T/F)
(d) Amoeba has irregular shape. (T/F)
2. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve
cells perform?.
3. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus of a cell
4. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
5. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three differences
between them.
6. State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
7. Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function.
8. ‘Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms’. Explain.
9. Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells?
10. Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below.
Across
1 2
1. This is necessary for C O
photosynthesis.
3. Term for component present
in the cytoplasm.
3
6. The living substance in the O
4
cell. M
5
8. Units of inheritance present V
on the chromosomes. 6
P
7
T
Down
1. Green plastids.
2. Formed by collection of
tissues.
4. It separates the contents of
8
the cell from the surrounding G
medium.
5. Empty structure in the cytoplasm.
7. A group of cells.
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 9
 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Visit a laboratory for senior secondary students in your school or
in a neighbouring school. Learn about the functioning of a
microscope in the laboratory. Also observe how a slide is observed
under the microscope.

2. Talk to the senior biology teacher in your school or a neighbouring

school. Find out if there are diseases which are passed on from
parents to the offspring. Find out how these are carried and also if
these diseases can be treated. For this you can also visit a doctor.

3. Visit an agriculture extension centre in your area. Find out about

genetically modified (GM) crops. Prepare a short speech for your
class on this topic.

4. Find out about Bt cotton from an agriculture expert. Prepare a

short note on its advantages/disadvantages.

Did You Know?

The cells in the outermost layer of our skin are dead. An average
adult carries around about 2 kg of dead skin. Billions of tiny
fragments of the skin are lost every day. Every time you run your
finger on a dusty table, you shed a lot of old skin.

10 BIOLOGY
 MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE

Y
ou have seen several kinds of These observations show that water
plants and animals. However, and soil are full of tiny organisms,
there are other living organisms though not all of them fall into the
around us which we normally cannot category of microbes. These
see. These are called microorganisms microorganisms or microbes are so
small in size that they cannot be seen
or microbes. For example, you might
with the unaided eye. Some of these,
have observed that during the rainy
such as the fungus that grows on bread,
season moist bread gets spoilt and its can be seen with a magnifying glass.
surface gets covered with greyish white Others cannot be seen without the help
patches. Observe these patches through of a microscope. That is why these are
a magnifying glass. You will see tiny, called microorganisms or microbes.
black rounded structures. Do you know Microorganisms are classified into
what these structures are and where do four major groups. These groups are
these come from? bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some
algae. Some of these common
2.1 Microorganisms microorganisms are shown in
Figs. 2.1 - 2.4.
Activity 2.1 Viruses are also microscopic but are
Collect some moist soil from the different from other microorganisms.
field in a beaker and add water to They, however, reproduce only inside the
it. After the soil particles have cells of the host organism, which may be
a bacterium, plant or animal. Some of
settled down, observe a drop of
the viruses are shown in Fig. 2.5.
water from the beaker under a
Common ailments like cold, influenza (flu)
microscope. What do you see ?
and most coughs are caused by viruses.
Serious diseases like polio and chicken
Activity 2.2 pox are also caused by viruses.
Diseases like dysentery and malaria
Take a few drops of water from a are caused by protozoa(protozoans)
pond. Spread on a glass slide and whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB)
observe through a microscope. are bacterial diseases.
You have learnt about some of
Do you find tiny organisms moving these microorganisms in Classes VI
around? and VII.

MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 11

 Fig. 2.1: Bacteria

Amoeba

Chlamydomonas Spirogyra Paramecium

Fig. 2.2 : Algae Fig. 2.3 : Protozoa

Bread mould Penicillium Aspergillus

Fig. 2.4 : Fungi

12 BIOLOGY
 Friendly Microorganisms
Microorganisms are used for various
purposes. They are used in the
preparation of curd, bread and cake.

Microorganisms have been used for

the production of alcohol since ages.

They are also used in cleaning up

of the environment. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels,
remains of animals, faeces, etc.) are
broken down into harmless and usable
substances by bacteria. Recall that
bacteria are also used in the
preparation of medicines. In
agriculture they are used to increase
soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.
Fig. 2.5 : Viruses
Making of Curd and Bread
You have learnt in Class VII that milk is
2.2 Where do Microorganisms turned into curd by bacteria.
Live?
Microorganisms may be single-celled
like bacteria, some algae and protozoa, I saw that my mother
or multicellular, such as many algae added a little curd to
warm milk to set curd for
and fungi. They live in all types of
the next day. I wonder
environment, ranging from ice cold
why?
climate to hot springs; and deserts to
marshy lands. They are also found Curd contains several micro-
inside the bodies of animals including organisms. Of these, the bacterium,
humans. Some microorganisms Lactobacillus promotes the formation
grow on other organisms while others of curd. It multiplies in milk and
exist freely. converts it into curd. Bacteria are also
involved in the making of cheese,
2.3 Microorganisms and Us pickles and many other food items. An
Microorganisms play an important role important ingredient of rava (sooji )
in our lives. Some of them are beneficial idlis and bhaturas is curd. Can you
in many ways whereas some others are guess why? Bacteria and yeast are
harmful and cause diseases. Let us also helpful for fermentation of rice
study about them in detail. idlis and dosa batter.
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 13
Activity 2.3 spoon of yeast powder to the sugar
Take ½ kg flour (atta or maida), solution. Keep it covered in a warm
add some sugar and mix with place for 4-5 hours. Now smell the
warm water. Add a small amount solution. Can you get a smell?
of yeast powder and knead to
This is the smell of alcohol as sugar
make a soft dough. What do you
has been converted into alcohol by
observe after two hours? Did you
yeast. This process of conversion of
find the dough rising?
sugar into alcohol is known as
fermentation.

Louis Pasteur
Maida with yeast powder discovered
fermentation
in 1857.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms

Raised maida
Whenever you fall ill the doctor may
Fig. 2.6 give you some antibiotic tablets,
Yeast reproduces rapidly and capsules or injections such as of
produces carbon dioxide during penicillin. The source of these
respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the medicines is microorganisms. These
dough and increase its volume (Fig. medicines kill or stop the growth of the
2.6). This is the basis of the use of yeast disease-causing microorganisms. Such
in the baking industry for making medicines are called antibiotics.
breads, pastries and cakes. These days a number of antibiotics are
being produced from bacteria and
Commercial Use of Microorganisms fungi. Streptomycin, tetracycline and
Microorganisms are used for the large scale erythromycin are some of the
production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid
(vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial
production of alcohol and wine. For this In 1929, Alexander
Fleming was working
purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars
on a culture of disease-
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice,
causing bacteria.
crushed fruit juices, etc. Suddenly he found the
spores of a little green mould in one
Activity 2.4 of his culture plates. He observed that
the presence of mould prevented the
Take a 500 mL beaker filled upto
growth of bacteria. In fact, it also killed
¾ with water. Dissolve 2-3 many of these bacteria. From this the
teaspoons of sugar in it. Add half a mould penicillin was prepared.

14 BIOLOGY
commonly known antibiotics which are protected from the disease-causing
made from fungi and bacteria. The microbes for ever. This is how a vaccine
antibiotics are manufactured by works. Several diseases, including
growing specific microorganisms and cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and
are used to cure a variety of diseases. hepatitis can be prevented by
Antibiotics are even mixed with the vaccination.
feed of livestock and poultry to check
microbial infection in animals. They are Edward Jenner
also used to control many plant discovered the
vaccine for small-
diseases.
pox in 1798.
It is important to remember that
antibiotics should be taken only on
the advice of a qualified doctor. Also In your childhood, you must have
you must complete the course been given injections to protect
prescribed by the doctor. If you take yourself against several diseases.
antibiotics when not needed or in Can you prepare a list of these
wrong doses, it may make the drug diseases? You may take help from
less effective when you might need
your parents.
it in future. Also antibiotics taken
unnecessarily may kill the beneficial It is essential to protect all children
bacteria in the body. Antibiotics, against these diseases. Necessary
however, are not effective against vaccines are available in the nearby
cold and flu as these are caused by hospitals. You might have seen the
viruses. advertisement on TV and newspapers
regarding protection of children against
Vaccine polio under the Pulse Polio Programme.
Polio drops given to children are
actually a vaccine.
A worldwide campaign against
Why are children/infants smallpox has finally led to its
given vaccination? eradication from most parts of the world.
These days vaccines are made on a
When a disease-carrying microbe enters large scale from microorganisms to
our body, the body produces antibodies protect humans and other animals
to fight the invader. The body also from several diseases.
remembers how to fight the microbe if
it enters again. If dead or weakened Increasing Soil Fertility
microbes are introduced into a healthy Some bacteria (Fig. 2.7) are able to fix
body, the body fights and kills nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich
the invading bacteria by producing soil with nitrogen and increase its
suitable antibodies. The antibodies fertility. These microbes are commonly
remain in the body and we are called biological nitrogen fixers.
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 15
 Fig. 2.7 : The Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria (blue green algae)

Cleaning the Environment released in the process can be used

Boojho and Paheli had observed the by the plants again.
school gardener making manure. Along Did you notice that in pot B, the
with their friends, they collected wastes polythene bags, empty glasses, bottles
of plants, vegetables and fruits from and broken toy parts did not undergo
nearby houses and gardens. They put any such change? The microbes could
them in a pit meant for waste disposal. not ‘act’ on them and convert them into
After some time, it decomposed and got manure.
converted to manure. Boojho and You often see large amounts of
Paheli wanted to know how this had dead organic matter in the form of
happened. decaying plants and sometimes dead
animals on the ground. You find
Activity 2.5 that they disappear after some time.
This is because the microorganisms
Take two pots and fill each pot half
decompose dead organic waste of
with soil. Mark them A and B. Put
plant waste in pot A and things like plants and animals converting them
polythene bags, empty glass bottles into simple substances. These
and broken plastic toys in pot B. substances are again used by other
Put the pots aside. Observe them plants and animals. Thus, micro-
after 3-4 weeks. organisms can be used to degrade the
harmful and smelly substances and
Do you find any difference in the thereby clean up the environment.
contents of the two pots? If so, what is
the difference? You will find that plant 2.4 Harmful Microorganisms
waste in pot A, has been decomposed. Microorganisms are harmful in many
How did this happen? The plant waste ways. Some of the microorganisms
has been converted into manure by the cause diseases in human beings, plants
action of microbes. The nutrients and animals. Such disease-causing

16 BIOLOGY
microorganisms are called pathogens. There are some insects and animals
Some microorganisms spoil food, which act as carriers of disease-
clothing and leather. Let us study more causing microbes. Housefly is one such
about their harmful activities. carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and
animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their
Disease causing Microorganisms bodies. When these flies sit on
in Humans uncovered food they may transfer the
Pathogens enter our body through the pathogens. Whoever eats the
air we breathe, the water we drink or contaminated food is likely to get sick.
the food we eat. They can also get So, it is advisable to always keep food
transmitted by direct contact with an covered. Avoid consuming uncovered
infected person or carried by an animal. items of food. Another example of a
Microbial diseases that can spread from carrier is the female Anopheles
an infected person to a healthy person mosquito (Fig. 2.8), which carries the
through air, water, food or physical parasite of malaria (Plasmodium).
contact are called communicable Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier
diseases. Examples of such diseases of dengue virus. How can we control the
include cholera, common cold, chicken spread of malaria or dengue?
pox and tuberculosis.
When a person suffering from
common cold sneezes, fine droplets of
moisture carrying thousands of viruses
are spread in the air. The virus may
enter the body of a healthy person while
breathing and cause infection.
Fig. 2.8 : Female Anopheles mosquito

Then how do you

prevent the spread of Why does the teacher
communicable keep telling us not
diseases? to let water collect
anywhere in the
neighbourhood?

All mosquitoes breed in water.

Hence, one should not let water collect
We should keep a anywhere, in coolers, tyres, flower pot,
handkerchief on the etc. By keeping the surroundings clean
nose and mouth while and dry we can prevent mosquitoes from
sneezing. It is better to
breeding. Try to make a list of measures
keep a distance from
which help to avoid the spread of
infected persons.
malaria.
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 17
 Table 2.1: Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms
Human Disease Causative Mode of Preventive Measures
Microorganism Transmission (General)

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete

isolation. Keep the personal
Measles Virus Air
belongings of the patient away
from those of the others.
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
Vaccination to be given at
Polio Virus Air/Water suitable age.

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene

and good sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water Consume properly cooked food
and boiled drinking water.
Vaccination.

Hepatitis A Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water.

Vaccination.

Use mosquito net and

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito
repellents. Spray insecticides
and control breeding of
mosquitoes by not allowing
water to collect in the
surroundings.

Some of the common diseases also in other animals. For example,

affecting humans, their mode of anthrax is a dangerous human and
transmission and few general methods cattle disease caused by a bacterium.
of prevention are shown in Table 2.1. Foot and mouth disease of cattle is
caused by a virus.
Disease causing Microorganisms
in Animals Disease causing Microorganisms
Several microorganisms not only cause in Plants
diseases in humans and plants, but Several microorganisms cause
diseases in plants like wheat, rice,
Robert Köch (1876) potato, sugarcane, orange, apple and
discovered the bacterium others. The diseases reduce the yield of
(Bacillus anthracis) which crops. See Table 2.2 for some such plant
causes anthrax disease.
diseases. They can be controlled by the
18 BIOLOGY
 Table 2.2: Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Microorganisms

Plant Micro- Mode of

Diseases organism Transmission
Citrus Bacteria Air
canker

Rust of Fungi Air,

wheat seeds

Yellow vein Virus Insect

mosaic of
bhindi (Okra)

use of certain chemicals which kill the food poisonous causing serious
microbes. illness and even death. So, it is very
important that we preserve food to
Food Poisoning
prevent it from being spoilt.
Boojho was invited by his friend to a
party and he ate a variety of foodstuff. 2.5 Food Preservation
On reaching home he started vomiting
In Chapter 3, we have learnt about the
and had to be taken to a hospital. The
methods used to preserve and store food
doctor said that this condition could be
due to food poisoning. grains. How do we preserve cooked food
at home? You know that bread left
unused under moist conditions is
attacked by fungus. Microorganisms spoil
our food. Spoiled food emits bad smell
Paheli wonders how
food can become a
and has a bad taste and changed colour.
‘poison’. Is spoiling of food a chemical reaction?
Paheli bought some mangoes but she
Food poisoning could be due to the could not eat them for a few days. Later
consumption of food spoilt by some she found that they were spoilt and
microorganisms. Microorganisms that rotten. But she knows that the mango
grow on our food sometimes produce pickle her grandmother makes does not
toxic substances. These make the spoil for a long time. She is confused
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 19
 Let us study the common methods Similarly, we keep our food in the
of preserving food in our homes. We refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits
have to save it from the attack of the growth of microbes.
microorganisms.

Chemical Method
Salts and edible oils are the common Why does the milk that
chemicals generally used to check the comes in packets not spoil?
growth of microorganisms. Therefore My mother told me that the
they are called preservatives. We add milk is ‘pasteurised’. What
salt or acid preservatives to pickles to is pasteurisation?
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium metabisulphite Pasteurised milk can be consumed
are common preservatives. These are without boiling as it is free from harmful
also used in jams and squashes to microbes. The milk is heated to about
check their spoilage. 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then
suddenly chilled and stored. By doing
Preservation by Common Salt so, it prevents the growth of microbes.
Common salt has been used to preserve This process was discovered by Louis
meat and fish for ages. Meat and fish Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
are covered with dry salt to check
the growth of bacteria. Salting is also Storage and Packing
used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, These days dry fruits and even
tamarind, etc. vegetables are sold in sealed air tight
packets to prevent the attack of
Preservation by Sugar
microbes.
Jams, jellies and squashes are
preserved by sugar. Sugar reduces the 2.6 Nitrogen Fixation
moisture content which inhibits the
You have learnt about the bacterium
growth of bacteria which spoil food.
Rhizobium in Classes VI and VII. It is
Preservation by Oil and Vinegar involved in the fixation of nitrogen in
leguminous plants (pulses). Recall that
Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage
Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of
of pickles because bacteria cannot live
leguminous plants (Fig. 2.9), such as
in such an environment. Vegetables,
beans and peas, with which it has a
fruits, fish and meat are often preserved
symbiotic relationship. Sometimes
by this method.
nitrogen gets fixed through the action
Heat and Cold Treatments of lightning. But you know that the
amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
You must have observed your mother remains constant. You may wonder
boiling milk before it is stored or used. how? Let us understand this in the
Boiling kills many microorganisms. next section.
20 BIOLOGY
 nitrogen cannot be taken directly by
plants and animals. Certain bacteria
and blue green algae present in the
soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
and convert it into compounds of
nitrogen. Once nitrogen is converted
into these usable compounds, it can be
utilised by plants from the soil through
their root system. Nitrogen is then used
for the synthesis of plant proteins and
other compounds. Animals feeding on
plants get these proteins and other
nitrogen compounds (Fig. 2.10).
When plants and animals die,
Fig. 2.9 : Roots of a leguminous plant with root bacteria and fungi present in the soil
nodules convert the nitrogenous wastes into
nitrogenous compounds to be used by
2.7 Nitrogen cycle plants again. Certain other bacteria
Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. convert some part of them to nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the essential gas which goes back into the
constituents of all living organisms as atmosphere. As a result, the percentage
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains
acids and vitamins. The atmospheric more or less constant.

Fig. 2.10 : Nitrogen cycle

MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 21
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ALGAE Ü Microorganisms are too small and are not

ANTIBIOTICS visible to the unaided eye.

Ü They can live in all kinds of environment,
ANTIBODIES ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs

BACTERIA and deserts to marshy lands.

Ü Microorganisms are found in air, water and
CARRIER in the bodies of plants and animals.
Ü They may be unicellular or multicellular.
COMMUNICABLE
Ü Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, pro-
DISEASES
tozoa and some algae. Viruses, though differ-
FERMENTATION ent from the above mentioned living organ-
isms, are considered microbes.
FUNGI
Ü Viruses are quite different from other micro-
LACTOBACILLUS organisms. They reproduce only inside the
host organism: bacterium, plant or animal
MICROORGANISM
cell.
NITROGEN CYCLE Ü Some microorganisms are useful for commer-
cial production of medicines and alcohol.
NITROGEN FIXATION
Ü Some microorganisms decompose the organic

PASTEURISATION waste and dead plants and animals into

simple substances and clean up the environ-
PATHOGEN ment.
Ü Protozoans cause serious diseases like dys-
PRESERVATION
entery and malaria.
PROTOZOA Ü Some of the microorganisms grow on our food
and cause food poisoning.
RHIZOBIUM
Ü Some microorganisms reside in the root nod-
VACCINE ules of leguminous plants. They can fix ni-
trogen from air into soil and increase the soil
VIRUS
fertility.
YEAST Ü Some bacteria present in the soil fix nitro-
gen from the atmosphere and convert into
nitrogenous compounds.
Ü Certain bacteria convert compounds of nitro-
gen present in the soil into nitrogen gas which
is released to the atmosphere.

22 BIOLOGY
 Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.

(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a ____________.

(b) Blue green algae fix __________ directly from air and enhance fertility
of soil.

(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of __________.

(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

2. Tick the correct answer.

(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol (iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(b) The following is an antibiotic

(i) Sodium bicarbonate (ii) Streptomycin (iii) Alcohol (iv) Yeast

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach

(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly
(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly (iii) dragonfly (iv) spider

(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of

(i) heat (ii) grinding (iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading

(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called

(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding (iii) fermentation (iv) infection

3. Match the organisms in Column A with their action in
Column B.

A B
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing malaria
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing cholera
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(g) Producing antibodies

4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they
be seen?
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 23
 EXERCISES
5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.

7. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.

8. Write a short paragraph on the harmful effects of microorganisms.

9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking
antibiotics?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Pull out a gram or bean plant from the field. Observe its roots. You
will find round structures called root nodules on the roots. Draw a
diagram of the root and show the root nodules.
2. Collect the labels from the bottles of jams and jellies. Write down
the list of contents printed on the labels.
3. Visit a doctor. Find out why antibiotics should not be overused.
Prepare a short report.
4. Project : Requirements – 2 test tubes, marker pen, sugar, yeast
powder, 2 balloons and lime water.
Take two test tubes and mark them A and B. Clamp these tubes
in a stand and fill them with water leaving some space at the top.
Put two spoonfuls of sugar in
each of the test tubes. Add a
spoonful of yeast in test tube B.
Inflate the two balloons
incompletely. Now tie the
balloons on the mouths of each
test tube. Keep them in a warm
place, away from sunlight.
Watch the setup every day for A B
next 3-4 days. Record your
observations and think of an
explanation.
Now take another test tube
filled 1/4 with lime water.
Remove the balloon from test
tube B in such a manner that
gas inside the balloon does not
escape. Fit the balloon on the
test tube and shake well. Observe and explain.

24 BIOLOGY
 Did You Know?
Bacteria have lived on the earth for much longer than human beings.
They are such hardy organisms that they can live under extreme
conditions. They have been found living in boiling mudpots and extremly
cold icy waters. They have been found in lakes of caustic soda and in
pools of concentrated sulphuric acid. They can survive at depths of several
kilometres. They probably can survive in space, too. A kind of bacterium
was recovered from a camera which stood on the moon for two years.There
is probably no environment in which bacteria cannot survive.

MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 25

 CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

P
aheli and Boojho went to their
uncle’s house during the summer
vacation. Their uncle is a farmer.
One day they saw some tools like Food has to be
produced on a large
khurpi, sickle, shovel, plough, etc., in
scale.
the field.
In order to provide food for a large
population— regular production, proper
management and distribution is
I want to know
where and how we
necessary.
use these tools.
3.1 Agricultural Practices
You have learnt that all living
organisms require food. Plants can Till 10,000 B.C.E. people were
make their food themselves. Can you nomadic. They were wandering in
recall how green plants synthesise their groups from place to place in search
of food and shelter. They ate raw
own food? Animals including humans
fruits and vegetables and started
can not make their own food. So, where
hunting animals for food. Later, they
do animals get their food from? could cultivate land and produce rice,
But, first of all why do we have to wheat and other food crops. Thus,
eat food? was born ‘Agriculture’.
You already know that energy from
the food is utilised by organisms for When plants of the same kind are
carrying out their various body cultivated at one place on a large scale,
functions, such as digestion, respiration it is called a crop. For example, crop of
and excretion. We get our food from wheat means that all the plants grown
plants, or animals, or both. in a field are that of wheat.
You already know that crops are of
different types like cereals, vegetables
and fruits. These can be classified on
Since we all need the basis of the season in which they
food, how can we grow.
provide food to a large India is a vast country. The climatic
number of people in
conditions like temperature, humidity
our country?
and rainfall vary from one region to
26 BIOLOGY
another. Accordingly, there is a rich to as agricultural practices which are
variety of crops grown in different parts listed below:
of the country. Despite this diversity,
(i) Preparation of soil
two broad cropping patterns can be
(ii) Sowing
identified. These are:
(iii) Adding manure and fertilisers
(i) Kharif Crops : The crops which are (iv) Irrigation
sown in the rainy season are called (v) Protecting from weeds
kharif crops. The rainy season in India (vi) Harvesting
is generally from June to September.
(vii) Storage
Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut
and cotton are kharif crops.
3.3 Preparation of Soil
(ii) Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the
winter season (October to March) are The preparation of soil is the first step
called rabi crops. Examples of rabi before growing a crop. One of the most
crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard important tasks in agriculture is to turn
and linseed. the soil and loosen it. This allows the
Besides these, pulses and vegetables roots to penetrate deep into the soil.
are grown during summer at many The loose soil allows the roots to breathe
places. easily even when they go deep into the
soil. Why does the loosening of soil allow
3.2 Basic Practices of Crop the roots to breathe easily?
Production The loosened soil helps in the growth
of earthworms and microbes present in
the soil. These organisms are friends of
the farmer since they further turn and
Why paddy can not be loosen the soil and add humus to it.
grown in the winter But why the soil needs to be turned
season? and loosened?
You have learnt in the previous
classes that soil contains minerals,
water, air and some living organisms.
Paddy requires a lot of In addition, dead plants and animals
water. Therefore, it is get decomposed by soil organisms. In
grown only in the rainy this way, various nutrients in the dead
season. organisms are released back into the
Cultivation of crops involves several soil. These nutrients are again
activities undertaken by farmers over a absorbed by plants.
period of time. You may find that these Since only a few centimetres of the
activities are similar to those carried out top layer of soil supports plant growth,
by a gardener or even by you when you turning and loosening of soil brings the
grow ornamental plants in your house. nutrient-rich soil to the top so that
These activities or tasks are referred plants can use these nutrients. Thus,
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 27
turning and loosening of soil is very Plough : This is being used since
important for cultivation of crops. ancient times for tilling the soil, adding
The process of loosening and turning fertilisers to the crop, removing the
of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. weeds and turning the soil. This is made
This is done by using a plough. Ploughs of wood and is drawn by a pair of bulls
are made of wood or iron. If the soil is or other animals (horses and camels).
very dry, it may need watering before It contains a strong triangular iron strip
ploughing. The ploughed field may have called ploughshare. The main part of the
big clumps of soil called crumbs. It is plough is a long log of wood which is
necessary to break these crumbs. called a ploughshaft. There is a handle
Levelling the field is beneficial for at one end of the shaft. The other end is
sowing as well as for irrigation. Levelling attached to a beam which is placed on
of soil is done with the help of a leveller. the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls and a
Sometimes, manure is added to the man can easily operate the plough
soil before tilling. This helps in proper [Fig. 3.1 (a)].
mixing of manure with soil. The soil is
The indigenous wooden plough is
moistened before sowing.
increasingly being replaced by iron
Agricultural Implements ploughs nowadays.
Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary Hoe : It is a simple tool which is used
to break soil clumps to get better yield. for removing weeds and for loosening
This is done with the help of various the soil. It has a long rod of wood or
tools. The main tools used for this purpose iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of
are the plough, hoe and cultivator. iron is fixed to one of its ends and

beam

ploughshaft

ploughshare

Fig. 3.1 (a) : The plough

28 BIOLOGY
works like a blade. It is pulled by Activity 3.1
animals [Fig. 3.1 (b)].
Take a beaker and fill half of it
grip beam with water. Put a handful of
handle
wheat seeds and stir well. Wait for
some time.
bent plate
Are there seeds which float on
rod
Fig. 3.1 (b) : A hoe water? Would those be lighter or
heavier than those which sink? Why
Cultivator : Nowadays ploughing is would they be li ghter? Damaged
done by tractor-driven cultivator. The seeds become hollow and are thus
use of cultivator saves labour and time. lighter. Therefore, they float on water.
[Fig. 3.1 (c)]. Th i s i s a g o od m et ho d f o r
separating good, healthy seeds from
the damaged ones.
B ef or e so w i ng , o ne o f t h e
important tasks is to know about the
tools used for sowing seeds [Fig. 3.2
(a), (b)].
Traditional tool : The tool used
tra ditionally f or sowing see ds is
Fig. 3.1 (c) : Cultivator driven by a tractor shaped like a funnel [Fig. 3.2 (a)]. The
seeds are filled into the funnel,
3.4 Sowing passed down through two or three
Sowing is an important part of crop pipe s having sharp ends. These
production. Before sowing, good quality, ends pierce into the soil and place
clean and healthy seeds of a good seeds there.
variety—are selected. Farmers prefer to
use seeds which give high yield.

Selection of Seeds

One day I saw my mother

put some gram seeds in a
vessel and pour some water
on them. After a few
minutes some seeds started
to float on top. I wonder why
some seeds float on water!
Fig. 3.2 (a) : Traditional method of sowing
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 29
 sufficient sunlight, nutrients and water
from the soil. At times a few plants
may have to be removed to prevent
overcrowding.

3.5 Adding Manure and

Fertilisers
The substances which are added to the
soil in the form of nutrients for the
healthy growth of plants are called
manure and fertilisers.
Fig. 3.2 (b) : A seed drill
Seed drill : Nowadays the seed drill [Fig. I saw a healthy crop growing
3.2 (b)] is used for sowing with the help in a farm. In the neighbouring
farm, the plants were weak.
of tractors. This sows the seeds
Why do some plants grow
uniformly at equal distance and depth.
better than others?
It ensures that seeds get covered by the
soil after sowing. This protects seeds
Soil supplies mineral nutrients to
from being eaten by birds. Sowing by
the crop plants. These nutrients are
using a seed drill saves time and labour.
essential for the growth of plants. In
certain areas, farmers grow crop after
crop in the same field. The field is never
There is a nursery near my left uncultivated or fallow. Imagine what
school. I found that little happens to the nutrients?
plants were kept in small Continuous cultivation of crops
bags. Why are they makes the soil poor in nutrients.
kept like this? Therefore, farmers have to add manure
to the fields to replenish the soil with
nutrients. This process is called
manuring. Improper or insufficient
Seeds of a few plants
such as paddy are first
manuring results in weak plants.
grown in a nursery. When Manure is an organic substance
they grow into seedlings, obtained from the decomposition of
they are transplanted to plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump
the field manually. Some plant and animal waste in pits at open
forest plants and flowering places and allow it to decompose. The
plants are also grown in decomposition is caused by some
the nursery. microorganisms. The decomposed
matter is used as organic manure.
Appropriate distance between the You have already learnt about
seeds is necessary to avoid overcrowding vermicomposting in Class VI. Refer to
of plants. This allows plants to get pg.no. 99.
30 BIOLOGY
Activity 3.2 better growth of plants? In which glass
was the growth fastest?
Take moong or gram seeds and
Fertilisers are chemicals which
germinate them. Select three equal
are rich in a particular nutrient. How
sized seedlings. Take three empty
are they different from manure?
glasses or similar vessels. Mark them
Fertilisers are produced in factories.
A, B and C. To glass A add little
Some examples of fertilisers are—
amount of soil mixed with a little
urea, ammonium sulphate, super
cow dung manure. In glass B put
phosphate, potash, NPK (Nitrogen,
the same amount of soil mixed with
Phosphorus, Potassium).
a little urea. Take the same amount
of soil in glass C without adding The use of fertilisers has helped
anything [Fig. 3.3(a)]. Now pour the farmers to get better yield of crops
same amount of water in each glass such as wheat, paddy and maize. But
and plant the seedlings in them. excessive use of fertilisers has made
Keep them in a safe place and water the soil less fertile. Fertilisers have
them daily. After 7 to 10 days also b ec om e a so ur ce o f wa te r
observe their growth [Fig. 3.3(b)]. polluti on. Therefore, in order to
maintain the fertility of the soil, we
have to substitute fertilisers with
organic manure or leave the field
uncultivated (fallow) in between two
crops.
The use of manure improves soil
texture as well as its water retaining
capacity. It replenishes the soil with
nutrients.
Fig. 3.3 (a ) : Preparation of the experiment Another method of replenishing
the soil with nutrients is through crop
rotation. This can be done by growing
different crops alternately. Earlier,
farmers in northern India used to
grow legumes as fodder in one season
and wheat in the next season. This
helped in the replenishment of the
soil with nitrogen. Farmers are being
encouraged to adopt this practice.
In the previous classes, you have
Fig. 3.3 (b) : Growing seedlings with manure
and fertiliser
learnt about Rhizobium bacteria.
These are present in the nodules of
Did plants in all the glasses grow at roots of leguminous plants. They fix
the same pace? Which glass showed atmospheric nitrogen.
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 31
 Table 3.1 : Differences between Fertiliser and Manure

S. No. Fertiliser Manure

1. Fertiliser is a man-made Manure is a natural substance obtained

inorganic salt. by the decomposition of cattle dung
and plant residues.

2. Fertiliser is prepared in Manure can be prepared in the fields.

factories.

3. Fertiliser does not provide Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.
any humus to the soil.

4. Fertilisers are very rich in Manure is relatively less rich in plant

plant nutrients like nitrogen, nutrients.
phosphorus and potassium.

Table 3.1 gives the differences protects the crop from both frost and
between a fertiliser and manure. hot air currents. To maintain the
moisture of the soil for healthy crop
Advantages of Manure : The organic
growth, fields have to be watered
manure is considered better than
regularly.
fertilisers. This is because
The supply of water to crops at
 it enhances the water holding regular intervals is called irrigation.
capacity of the soil. The time and frequency of irrigation
 it makes the soil porous due to which varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and
exchange of gases becomes easy. season to season. In summer, the
 it increases the number of friendly frequency of watering is higher. Why is
microbes. it so? Could it be due to the increased
 it improves the texture of the soil. rate of evaporation of water from the soil
and the leaves?
3.6 Irrigation
All living beings need water to live.
Water is important for proper growth I am very careful this
and development. Water is absorbed by year about watering
the plant roots. Along with water, the plants. Last
minerals and fertilisers are also summer my plants
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% dried up and died.
water. Water is essential because
germination of seeds does not take Sources of irrigation : The sources of
place under dry conditions. Nutrients water for irrigation are— wells,
dissolved in water are transported to tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams
each part of the plant. Water also and canals.
32 BIOLOGY
 Traditional Methods of
Irrigation
The water available in wells,
lakes and canals is lifted up
by different methods in
different regions, for taking
it to the fields.
Cattle or human labour is
used in these methods. So
these methods are cheaper,
but less efficient. The various
traditional ways are:
(i) moat (pulley -system)
(ii) chain pump

Fig. 3.4 (a) : Moat

Fig. 3.4 (b) : Chain pump Fig. 3.4 (c) : Dhekli

(iii) dhekli, and

(iv) rahat (Lever system)
[Figs. 3.4 (a)- (d)].
Pumps are commonly
used for lifting water. Diesel,
biogas, electricity and
solar energy is used to run
these pumps.

Fig. 3.4 (d) : Rahat

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 33
Modern Methods of
Irrigation
Modern methods of irrigation
help us to use water
economically. The main
methods used are as follows:
(i) Sprinkler System: This
system is more useful on the
uneven land where sufficient
water is not available. The
perpendicular pipes, having
rotating nozzles on top, are
joined to the main pipeline
Fig. 3.5 (a) : Sprinkler system
at regular intervals. When
water is allowed to flow
through the main pipe under pressure (ii) Drip system : In this system, the
with the help of a pump, it escapes from water falls drop by drop directly near
the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled the roots. So it is called drip system. It
on the crop as if it is raining. is the best technique for watering fruit
Sprinkler is very useful for lawns, coffee plants, gardens and trees [Fig. 3.5(b)].
plantation and several other crops Water is not wasted at all. It is a boon in
[Fig. 3.5 (a)]. regions where availability of water is poor.

Fig. 3.5 (b) : Drip System

34 BIOLOGY
3.7 Protection from Weeds
Boojho and Paheli went to a nearby
wheat field and saw that there were
some other plants in the field, growing
along with wheat plants.

Have these other

plants been planted
purposely?

In a field many other undesirable

plants may grow naturally along with Fig. 3.6 : Spraying weedicide
the crop. These undesirable plants are
called weeds.
The removal of weeds is called Do weedicides have any
weeding. Weeding is necessary since effect on the person handling
weeds compete with the crop plants for the weedicide sprayer?
water, nutrients, space and light. Thus,
As already mentioned, the
they affect the growth of the crop. Some
weedicides are sprayed during the
weeds interfere even in harvesting and
vegetative growth of weeds before
may be poisonous for animals and
flowering and seed formation. Spraying
human beings.
of weedicides may affect the health of
Farmers adopt many ways to remove
farmers. So they should use these
weeds and control their growth. Tilling
chemicals very carefully. They should
before sowing of crops helps in uprooting
cover their nose and mouth with a piece
and killing of weeds, which may then
of cloth during spraying of these
dry up and get mixed with the soil. The
chemicals.
best time for the removal of weeds is
before they produce flowers and seeds.
The manual removal includes physical
3.8 Harvesting
removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting Harvesting of a crop is an important
them close to the ground, from time to task. The cutting of crop after it is
time. This is done with the help of a mature is called harvesting. In
khurpi. A seed drill [Fig. 3.2(b)] is also harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut
used to uproot weeds. close to the ground. It usually takes 3
Weeds are also controlled by using to 4 months for a cereal crop to mature.
certain chemicals, called weedicides, Harvesting in our
like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the country is either done
fields to kill the weeds. They do not manually by sickle (Fig.
damage the crops. The weedicides are 3.7) or by a machine called
diluted with water to the extent harvester. In the harvested
required and sprayed in the fields with crop, the grain seeds need Fig. 3.7 :
a sprayer. (Fig. 3.6). to be separated from Sickle

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 35

the chaff. This process is called
threshing. This is carried out with the Harvest Festivals
help of a machine called ‘combine’ which After three or four months of hard
is in fact a harvester as well as a thresher work there comes the day of the
(Fig. 3.8). harvest. The sight of golden fields
of standing crop, laden with grain,
fills the hearts of farmers with joy
a nd a se n se of w e ll -b e in g . Th e
eff orts of the p ast seas on have
borne fruit and it is time to relax
and enjoy a little. The period of
harvest is, thus, of great joy and
happiness in all parts of India. Men
and women celebrate it with great
e n t hu s i a s m . S p e c i a l f e s t i v a l s
associated with the harvest season
are Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali,
Nabanya and Bihu.
Fig. 3.8 : Combine

3.9 Storage
After harvesting, sometimes
Storage of produce is an important
stubs are left in the field, which
are burnt by farmers. Paheli is task. If the harvested grains are to be
worried. She knows that it kept for longer time, they should be
causes pollution. It may also safe from moisture, insects, rats and
catch fire and damage the crops microorganisms. Harvested grains have
lying in the fields. more moisture. If freshly harvested
grains (seeds) are stored without
Farmers with small holdings of land
drying, they may get spoilt or attacked
do the separation of grain and chaff by
by organisms, making them unfit for
winnowing (Fig. 3.9). You have already
use or for germination. Hence, before
studied this in Class VI.
storing them, the grains are properly
dried in the sun to reduce the moisture
in them. This prevents the attack by
insect pests, bacteria and fungi.

I saw my mother putting

some dried neem leaves
in an iron drum
containing wheat.
I wonder why?
Fig. 3.9 : Winnowing machine
36 BIOLOGY
 Fig. 3.10 (a) : Silos for storage of grains 3.10 Food from Animals
Activity 3.3
Make the following Table in your
note book and complete it.
S.No. Food Sources
1. Milk Cow, Buffalo, She-
goat, She-camel . . .
2.
3.
4.
After completing this Table, you
must have seen that, like plants,
animals also provide us with different
kinds of food. Many people living in the
coastal areas consume fish as a major
Fig. 3.10 (b) : Storage of grains in part of their diet. In the previous classes
gunny bags in granaries you have learnt about the food that we
obtain from plants. We have just seen
Farmers store grains in jute bags or that the process of crop production
metallic bins. However, large scale involves a number of steps like selection
storage of grains is done in silos and of seeds, sowing, etc. Similarly, animals
granaries to protect them from pests reared at home or in farms, have to be
like rats and insects [Fig. 3.10 (a) provided with proper food, shelter and
and (b)]. care. When this is done on a large scale,
Dried neem leaves are used for it is called animal husbandry.
storing food grains at home. For storing
large quantities of grains in big
godowns, specific chemical treatments Fish is good for health.
are required to protect them from pests We get cod liver oil from fish
and microorganisms. which is rich in vitamin D.
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 37
K EY WORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
AGRICULTURAL  In order to provide food to our growing
PRACTICES population, we need to adopt certain
agricultural practices.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
 Same kind of plants cultivated at a place
CROP constitute a crop.
 In India, crops can be broadly categorised into
FERTILISER
two types based on seasons - rabi and kharif
GRANARIES crops.
 It is necessary to prepare soil by tilling and
HARVESTING levelling. Ploughs and levellers are used for
this purpose.
IRRIGATION
 Sowing of seeds at appropriate depths and dis-
KHARIF tances gives good yield. Good variety of seeds
are sown after selection of healthy seeds.
MANURE Sowing is done by seed drills.
 Soil needs replenishment and enrichment
PLOUGH
through the use of organic manure and
RABI fertilisers. Use of chemical fertilisers has
increased tremendously with the introduc-
SEEDS tion of new crop varieties.
 Supply of water to crops at appropriate inter-
SILO
vals is called irrigation.
SOWING  Weeding involves removal of unwanted and
uncultivated plants called weeds.
STORAGE  Harvesting is the cutting of the mature crop
manually or by machines.
THRESHING
 Separation of the grains from the chaff is
WEEDS called threshing.
 Proper storage of grains is necessary to pro-
WEEDICIDE tect them from pests and microorganisms.
 Food is also obtained from animals for which
WINNOWING
animals are reared. This is called animal
husbandry.

Exercises
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the blanks.
float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a
place is called _____________.
(b) The first step before growing crops is _____________ of the soil.

38 BIOLOGY
 (c) Damaged seeds would _____________ on top of water.
EXERCISES (d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _____________ and
_____________ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B
(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle
(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung
urine and plant waste
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize
3. Give two examples of each.
(a) Kharif crop
(b) Rabi crop
4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.
(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing

5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve

water.

7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.

8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in

a field.

9. What are weeds? How can we control them?

10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow chart of
sugarcane crop production.

Sending crop to
sugar factory Irrigation Harvesting Sowing

1 2 3 4

Preparation of Ploughing the

soil Manuring
field

5 6 7
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 39
 11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues given below.

EXERCISES Down
1. Providing water to the crops.
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.
5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.

Across
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Sow some seeds in the soil and arrange to water them by drip
irrigation. Observe daily.
(i) Do you think it can save water?
(ii) Note the changes in the seed.
2. Collect different types of seeds and put them in small bags.
Label them.
3. Collect pictures of some other agricultural machines and paste
them in a file. Write their names and uses.
4. Project Work
Visit a farm, nursery or a garden nearby. Gather information about
(i) importance of seed selection.
(ii) method of irrigation.

40 BIOLOGY
 (iii) effect of extreme cold and extreme hot weather on the plants.
(iv) effect of continuous rain on the plants.
(v) fertilisers/manure used.

An Example for Field Trip Work

Himanshu and his friends were very anxious and curious to go to Thikri village.
They went to Shri Jiwan Patel’s farmhouse. They had taken bags to collect
some seeds and other things.
Himanshu: Sir namaskar, I am Himanshu. Here are my friends Mohan, David
and Sabiha. We want some information about crops. Please guide
us.
Shri Patel : Namaskar and welcome all of you. What are your queries?
Sabiha : When did you start this work and what are the main crops that
you grow?
Shri Patel : About 75 years ago, my grandfather started this work. The main
crops that we grow are wheat, gram, soyabean and moong.
David : Sir, can you tell us the difference between traditional and modern
agricultural practices?
Shri Patel : Earlier we used traditional tools like sickle, bullock plough, trowel,
etc., and depended on rain water for irrigation. But now we use
modern methods of irrigation. We use implements like tractors,
cultivators, seed drill and harvester. We get good quality seeds.
We carry out soil testing and use manure and fertilisers. New
information about agriculture is obtained through radio, T.V. and
other sources. As a result we are able to get good crops on a large
scale. This year we got 9 to 11 quintals of gram crop/acre and 20
to 25 quintals of wheat/acre. In my opinion awareness of new
technology is important for better crop yield.
Mohan : Sabiha, come here and see some earthworms. Are they helpful
to the farmers?
Sabiha : Oh Mohan! we learnt about it in Class VI. Refer to pg.no. 99.
Shri Patel : Earthworms turn the soil and loosen it for proper aeration, so
they help the farmer.
David : Can we have some seeds of the crops you grow here?
[They put some seeds, fertilisers and soil sample in the bags.]
Himanshu: Sir, we are thankful to you for making this visit pleasant and for
providing useful information.

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 41

 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

D
o you recall the processes of Table 4.1
digestion, circulation and
respiration which you have S. No. Animal Young one
studied in your previous classes? These 1. Human Baby
processes are essential for the survival
of every individual. You have also learnt 2. Cat
about the process of reproduction in 3. Dog
plants. Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. Imagine what 4. Butterfly
would have happened if organisms had 5. Hen Chick
not reproduced. You will realise that
reproduction is very important as it 6. Cow
ensures the continuation of similar 7. Frog
kinds of individuals, generation after
generation. Just as in plants, there are two modes
You have already learnt in your by which animals reproduce. These are:
previous class about reproduction in (i) Sexual reproduction, and
plants. In this chapter, we shall learn (ii) Asexual reproduction.
how reproduction takes place in
animals. 4.2 Sexual Reproduction
4.1 Modes of Reproduction Try to recall reproduction in plants which
you studied in Class VII. You will
Have you seen the young ones remember that plants that reproduce
of different animals? Try to name some sexually have male and female
of the young ones by completing reproductive parts. Can you name these
Table 4.1 shown in examples at S. No. parts? In animals also, males and
1 and 5. females have different reproductive parts
You must have seen the young or organs. Like plants, the reproductive
ones of various animals being born. parts in animals also produce gametes
Can you tell how chicks and that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote
caterpillars are born? How are kittens which develops into a new individual.
and puppies born? Do you think that This type of reproduction beginning
these young ones looked the same from the fusion of male and female
before they were born as they do now? gametes is called sexual reproduction.
Let us find out. Let us find out the reproductive parts
42 BIOLOGY
in humans and study the process of Indeed, each sperm is a single cell with
reproduction in them. all the usual cell components.

Male Reproductive Organs

Head
The male reproductive organs include
a pair of testes (singular, testis), two
sperm ducts and a penis (Fig. 4.1). The Middle piece
testes produce the male gametes called
sperms. Millions of sperms are
produced by the testes. Look at Fig. 4.2
which shows the picture of a sperm.
Though sperms are very small in size,
Tail
each has a head, a middle piece and a
tail. Does it appear to be a single cell?
Fig. 4.2 : Human sperm

What purpose does the

Sperm tail in a sperm serve?
duct

Female Reproductive Organs

The female reproductive organs are a pair
of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
Penis the uterus (Fig. 4.3). The ovary produces
Oviduct

Ovary
Testis
Uterus

Fig. 4.1: Male reproductive

organs in humans
Fig. 4.3 : Female reproductive organs in
humans

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 43
female gametes called ova (eggs)
(Fig. 4.4). In human beings, a single Sperms
matured egg is released into the oviduct
by one of the ovaries every month.
Uterus is the part where development
of the baby takes place. Like the sperm,
an egg is also a single cell.

Nucleus Ovum

Fig. 4.5 : Fertilisation

you know that the zygote is the

beginning of a new individual?

Fusing
nuclei
Fig. 4.4 : Human Ovum

Boojho recalls that the size

of eggs in animals varies.
The egg may be very small
as in humans, much larger
as in hens. Ostrich egg is
Fig. 4.6 : Zygote
the largest!
The process of fertilisation is the
meeting of an egg cell from the mother
Fertilisation
and a sperm cell from the father. So,
The first step in the process of the new individual inherits some
reproduction is the fusion of a sperm characteristics from the mother and
and an ovum. When sperms come in some from the father. Look at your
contact with an egg, one of the sperms brother or sister. See if you can recognise
may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of some characters in them similar to those
the egg and the sperm is called of your mother or your father.
fertilisation (Fig. 4.5). During Fertilisation which takes place
fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and inside the female body is called internal
the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. fertilisation. Internal fertilisation
This results in the formation of a occurs in many animals including
fertilised egg or zygote (Fig. 4.6). Did humans, cows, dogs and hens.
44 BIOLOGY
 Have you heard of female lays hundreds of eggs. Unlike
test tube babies? hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by
a shell and it is comparatively very
Boojho and Paheli’s teacher once told
delicate. A layer of jelly holds the eggs
them in the class that in some
women oviducts are blocked. These together and provides protection to the
women are unable to bear babies eggs (Fig. 4.7).
because sperms cannot reach the egg
for fertilisation. In such cases,
doctors collect freshly released egg
and sperms and keep them together
for a few hours for IVF or in vitro
fertilisation (fertilisation outside the
body). In case fertilisation occurs,
the zygote is allowed to develop for
about a week and then it is placed in
the mother’s uterus. Complete
development takes place in the
uterus and the baby is born like any
other baby. Babies born through this
technique are called test-tube
babies. This term is actually Fig. 4.7 : Eggs of frog
misleading because babies cannot
grow in test tubes. As the eggs are laid, the male
deposits sperms over them. Each
You will be surprised to know that sperm swims randomly in water with
in many animals fertilisation takes the help of its long tail. The sperms
place outside the body of the female. come in contact with the eggs. This
In these animals, fertilisation takes results in fertilisation. This type of
place in water. Let us find out how fertilisation in which the fusion of a
this happens. male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called
Activity 4.1 external fertilisation. It is very
Visit some ponds or slow-flowing common in aquatic animals such as
streams during spring or rainy fish, starfish, etc.
season. Look out for clusters of
frog’s eggs floating in water.
Write down the colour and size of
the eggs.
Why do fish and
During spring or rainy season, frogs frogs lay eggs in
hundreds whereas a
and toads move to ponds and slow-
hen lays only one
flowing streams. When the male and
egg at a time?
female come together in water, the

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 45
 How could a single cell
Though these animals lay become such a big
hundreds of eggs and release individual?
millions of sperms, all the eggs
do not get fertilised and develop
Development of Embryo
into new individuals. Fertilisation results in the formation of
This is because the eggs and zygote which begins to develop into an
sperms get exposed to water embryo [Fig. 4.8(a)]. The zygote divides
movement, wind and rainfall. repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells
Also, there are other animals in [Fig. 4.8(b)]. The cells then begin to form
the pond which may feed groups that develop into different
on eggs. Thus, production tissues and organs of the body. This
of large number of eggs and developing structure is termed an
sperms is necessary to embryo. The embryo gets embedded in
ensure fertilisation the wall of the uterus for further
of at least development [Fig. 4.8(c)].
a few of them. The embryo continues to develop in
the uterus. It gradually develops body

Uterus

Ovary
Zygote

(b)
Embed-
ding
embryo Uterus
Ovulation wall

(a)

Develop-
ing
embryo
(c)
Fig. 4.8 : (a) Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote; (b) Ball of cells
(enlarged); (c) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged)
46 BIOLOGY
parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, takes place inside the egg shell during
ears etc. The stage of the embryo in this period? After the chick is completely
which all the body parts can be developed it bursts open the egg shell.
identified is called a foetus (Fig. 4.9). In animals which undergo external
When the development of the foetus fertilisation, development of the embryo
is complete, the mother gives birth to takes place outside the female body.
the baby. The embryos continue to grow within
their egg coverings. After the embryos
develop, the eggs hatch. You must have
Uterus
seen numerous tadpoles swimming in
ponds and streams.
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give
birth to young ones while some animals
lay eggs which later develop into young
ones. The animals which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous
animals. Those animals which lay eggs
are called oviparous animals. The
following activity will help you
understand better and differentiate
Fig. 4.9 : Foetus in the uterus between viviparous and oviparous
animals.
Internal fertilisation takes place in
hens also. But, do hens give birth to Activity 4.2
babies like human beings and cows?
Try to observe eggs of the following
You know that they do not. Then, how
organisms – frog, lizard, butterfly
are chicks born? Let us find out.
or moth, hen and crow or any other
Soon after fertilisation, the zygote
bird. Were you able to observe eggs
divides repeatedly and travels down the
of all of them? Make drawings of
oviduct. As it travels down, many
the eggs that you have observed.
protective layers are formed around it.
The hard shell that you see in a hen’s The eggs of a few animals are easy
egg is one such protective layer. to observe because their mothers lay
After the hard shell is formed around them outside their bodies. These are
the developing embryo, the hen finally examples of oviparous animals. But you
lays the egg. The embryo takes about 3 would not be able to collect the eggs of
weeks to develop into a chick. You must a dog, cow or cat. This is because they
have seen the hen sitting on the eggs do not lay eggs. The mother gives birth
to provide sufficient warmth. Did you to the young ones. These are examples
know that development of the chick of viviparous animals.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 47
 Can you now give some more features that are present in the adult are
examples of viviparous and oviparous not found in these young ones. Then
animals? what happens to the tadpoles or
caterpillars thereafter?
Young Ones to Adults You must have seen a beautiful moth
The new individuals which are born or emerging out of the cocoon. In the case
hatched from the eggs continue to grow of tadpoles, they transform into adults
till they become adults. In some capable of jumping and swimming. The
animals, the young ones may look very transformation of the larva into an adult
different from the adults. Recall the life through drastic changes is called
cycle of the silkworm (egg → larva or metamorphosis. What about the
caterpillar → pupa → adult) you studied changes that we observe in our body as
in Class VII. Frog is another such we grow? Do you think we too undergo
example (Fig. 4.10). metamorphosis? In human beings, body
Observe the different stages of frog parts similar to those present in the
starting from the egg to the adult stage. adults are present from the time of birth.
We find that there are three distinct
stages, that is, egg → tadpole (larva) → 4.3 Asexual Reproduction
adult. Don’t the tadpoles look so So far, we have learnt about
different from the adults? Can you reproduction in some familiar animals.
imagine that these tadpoles would some But what about very small animals like
day become frogs? Similarly, the hydra and microscopic organisms like
caterpillar or the pupa of silkworm looks amoeba? Do you know how they
very different from the adult moth. The reproduce? Let us find out.

(b) Early tadpole

(a) Eggs

(c) Late tadpole

(d) Adult
frog
Fig. 4.10 : Life cycle of frog

48 BIOLOGY
Activity 4.3
Get permanent slides of
hydra. Observe them using
hand lens or a microscope.
Look out for any bulges
from the parent body.
Count the number of
bulges that you see in
different slides. Also, note
the size of the bulges. Draw
the diagram of hydra, as
you see it. Compare it with
Fig. 4.11 : Budding in Hydra
the Fig. 4.11.

In each hydra, there may be one or

more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are
called buds. Recall the presence of buds
in yeast. In hydra too the new individuals
develop as outgrowths from a single (a)
parent. This type of reproduction in
which only a single parent is involved is
called asexual reproduction. Since new
individuals develop from the buds in Dividing nucleus
hydra, this type of asexual reproduction
is called budding. (b)
Another method of asexual
reproduction is observed in the
microscopic organism, amoeba. Let us
see how this happens.
You have already learnt about the
structure of amoeba. You will recall that (c)
amoeba is a single-celled organism
[Fig. 4.12(a)]. It begins the process of
reproduction by the division of its
nucleus into two nuclei [Fig. 4.12(b)]. Daughter amoe-
bae
This is followed by division of its body
into two, each part receiving a nucleus
[Fig. 4.12(c)]. Finally, two amoebae are
produced from one parent amoeba (d)
[Fig. 4.12(d)]. This type of asexual
Fig. 4.12 : Binary fission in Amoeba
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 49
reproduction in which an animal there are other methods by which a
reproduces by dividing into two single parent reproduces young ones.
individuals is called binary fission. You will study about these in your
Apart from budding and binary fission, higher classes.

Story of Dolly, the Clone

Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism. Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first
time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
Scotland. They successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly [Fig. 4.13 (c)]. Dolly was
born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.

(a) Finn Dorsett sheep (b) Scottish blackface ewe (c) Dolly

Fig. 4.13
During the process of cloning Dolly, a cell was collected from the mammary
gland of a female Finn Dorsett sheep [Fig. 4.13 (a)]. Simultaneously, an egg was
obtained from a Scottish blackface ewe [Fig. 4.13 (b)]. The nucleus was removed
from the egg. Then, the nucleus of the mammary gland cell from the Finn Dorsett
sheep was inserted into the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had
been removed. The egg thus produced was implanted into the Scottish blackface
ewe. Development of this egg followed normally and finally Dolly was born. Though
Dolly was given birth by the Scottish blackface ewe, it was found to be absolutely
identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken. Since the
nucleus from the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe was removed, Dolly did not
show any character of the Scottish blackface ewe. Dolly was a healthy clone of
the Finn Dorsett sheep and produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on 14th February 2003 due to a certain
lung disease.
Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals.
However, many die before birth or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are
many-a-times found to be born with severe abnormalities.

50 BIOLOGY
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ASEXUAL Ü There are two modes by which animals
REPRODUCTION reproduce. These are: (i) Sexual reproduction,
and (ii) Asexual reproduction.
BINARY FISSION Ü Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male
and female gametes is called sexual
BUDDING reproduction.
Ü The reproductive organs in the female include
EGGS ovaries, oviducts and uterus.
Ü The reproductive organs in male include
EMBRYO testes, sperm ducts and penis.
Ü The ovary produces female gametes called ova
EXTERNAL
and the testes produce male gametes called
FERTILISATION sperms.
Ü The fusion of ovum and sperm is called fertilisation.
FERTILISATION The fertilised egg is called a zygote.
Ü Fertilisation that takes place inside the female
FOETUS
body is called internal fertilisation. This is
observed in human beings and other animals
INTERNAL
such as hens, cows and dogs.
FERTILISATION Ü Fertilisation that takes place outside the
female body is called external fertilisation. This
METAMORPHOSIS is observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.
Ü The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an
OVIPAROUS ANIMALS
embryo.
Ü The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
SEXUAL
uterus for further development.
REPRODUCTION Ü The stage of the embryo in which all the body
parts are identifiable is called foetus.
SPERMS
Ü Animals such as human beings, cows and dogs
which give birth to young ones are called
VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS
viviparous animals.
ZYGOTE Ü Animals such as hen, frog, lizard and butterfly
which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Ü The transformation of the larva into adult
through drastic changes is called
metamorphosis.
Ü The type of reproduction in which only a single
parent is involved is called asexual
reproduction.
Ü In hydra, new individuals develop from buds.
This method of asexual reproduction is called
budding.
Ü Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two.
This type of asexual reproduction is called
binary fission.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 51
 Exercises

1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.

2. Describe the process of fertilisation in human beings.

3. Choose the most appropriate answer.

(a) Internal fertilisation occurs

(i) in female body.

(ii) outside female body.

(iii) in male body.

(iv) outside male body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of

(i) fertilisation (ii) metamorphosis (iii) embedding (iv) budding

(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is

(i) none (ii) one (iii) two (iv) four

4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )

(c) External fertilisation takes place in frog. ( )

(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )

(e) Egg laid after fertilisation is made up of a single cell. ( )

(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )

(g) Fertilisation is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )

(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )

(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilisation. ( )

(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. ( )

5. Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.

6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual

reproduction in animals.

7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?

8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples.

9. Differentiate between internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.

52 BIOLOGY
 10. Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.
EXERCISES Across
1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.

6. The type of fertilisation in hen.

7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of hydra.
8. Eggs are produced here.

Down

2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.

3. Another term for in vitro fertilisation.

4. These animals lay eggs.

5. A type of fission in amoeba.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Visit a poultry farm. Talk to the manager of the farm and try to
find out the answers to the following.
(a) What are layers and broilers in a poultry farm?
(b) Do hens lay unfertilised eggs?
(c) How can you obtain fertilised and unfertilised eggs?
(d) Are the eggs that we get in the stores fertilised or
unfertilised?
(e) Can you consume fertilised eggs?
(f) Is there any difference in the nutritional value of fertilised
and unfertilised eggs?

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 53
 2. Observe live hydra yourself and learn how they reproduce by doing
the following activity:
During the summer months collect water weeds from ponds or
ditches along with the pond water and put them in a glass jar. After
a day or so you may see several hydra clinging to the sides of the jar.
Hydra is transparent, jelly-like and with tentacles. It clings to the
jar with the base of its body. If the jar is shaken, the hydra will
contract instantly into a small blob, at the same time drawing its
tentacles in.
Now take out few hydras from the jar and put them on a watch
glass. Using a hand lens or a binocular or dissection microscope,
observe the changes that are taking place in their body. Note down
your observations.
3. The eggs we get from the market are generally the unfertilised ones.
In case you wish to observe a developing chick embryo, get a fertilised
egg from the poultry or hatchery which has been incubated for 36
hours or more. You may then be able to see a white disc-like structure
on the yolk. This is the developing embryo. Sometimes if the heart
and blood vessels have developed you may even see a red spot.
4. Talk to a doctor. Find out how twinning occurs. Look for any twins
in your neighbourhood, or among your friends. Find out if the twins
are identical or non-identical. Also find out why identical twins
are always of the same sex? If you know of any story about twins,
write it in your own words.
For more information on animal reproduction, you can visit :
l www.saburchill.com
l www.teenshealth.org/teen/sexual-health

Did You Know?

An interesting organisation is observed in a honey bee hive, a colony of
several thousand bees. Only one bee in the colony lays eggs. This bee is
called the queen bee. All other female bees are worker bees. Their main job
is to build the hive, look after the young and feed the queen bee adequately
to keep her healthy so that she can lay eggs. A queen bee lays thousands of
eggs. The fertilised eggs hatch into females, while the unfertilised eggs give
rise to males, called drones. It is the job of the worker bees to maintain the
temperature of the hive at around 35°C to incubate the eggs.

54 BIOLOGY
 REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

I
n the previous chapter, you have you are no longer a child but are on
learnt how animals reproduce. It is the way to becoming an adult.
only after ‘growing up’ to a certain
age that human beings and many other
animals can reproduce. Why can I wonder how long this
humans reproduce only after a certain period marked by changes
age? in the body will last!
In this chapter, you will learn about
changes that take place in the human
body after which a person becomes
capable of reproduction. It is a strange period of life
In Chapter 4, you have learnt about when you are neither a child nor
human reproductive organs. Here, we an adult. I wonder whether this
shall discuss the role that hormones play period between childhood and
in bringing about changes that make a adulthood had a special name!
child grow into an adult.
Growing up is a natural process. The
5.1 Adolescence and Puberty period of life, when the body undergoes
changes, leading to reproductive
Boojho was celebrating his 12th
maturity, is called adolescence.
birthday. After his friends left, Boojho
Adolescence begins around the age of 11
and Paheli began chatting with their
and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
parents. Paheli studies in an all-girls
Since this period covers the ‘teens’ (13 to
school. She started laughing. She 18 or 19 years of age), adolescents are
remarked that many of Boojho’s school also called ‘teenagers’. In girls,
friends, whom she met after a year, had adolescence may begin a year or two
suddenly shot up in height. Some of earlier than in boys. Also, the period of
them were looking very funny with a adolescence varies from person to person.
hairy line above their lips. Her mother The human body undergoes several
explained that the boys had grown up. changes during adolescence. These
Growth begins from the day one is changes mark the onset of puberty. The
born. But upon crossing the age of 10 most important change which marks
or 11, there is a sudden spurt in growth puberty is that boys and girls become
which becomes noticeable. The capable of reproduction. Puberty ends
changes taking place in the body are when an adolescent reaches
part of growing up. They indicate that reproductive maturity.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 55
 the tallest and who might be the
shortest in your class.
Paheli and Boojho
realised that sudden
Age in % of full height
increase in height and
hairy line above the lips Years Boys Girls
in boys were signs of
adolescence. They 8 72% 77%
wanted to know more
about other changes at 9 75% 81%
puberty.
10 78% 84%

11 81% 88%

12 84% 91%
5.2 Changes at Puberty
13 88% 95%
Increase in Height
The most conspicuous change during 14 92% 98%
puberty is the sudden increase in 15 95% 99%
height. At this time the long bones, that
is, the bones of the arms and the legs 16 98% 99.5%
elongate and make a person tall.
17 99% 100%
Activity 5.1
18 100% 100%
The following chart gives the
average rate of growth in height of
boys and girls with age. The figures
in columns 2 and 3, give the Calculation for full height (cm)
percentage of the height a person Present height (cm)
has reached at the age given in × 100
% of full height at this age
column 1. For example, by the age (as given in the chart)
11, a boy has reached 81% of his
probable full height, while a girl Example:
has reached 88% of her full
height. These figures are only A boy is 9 years old and 120 cm
representative and there may be tall. At the end of the growth period
individual variations. he is likely to be
Use the Table for your friends
and work out how tall they are likely 120
× 1 0 0 cm = 160 cm tall
to be. Find out who is likely to be 75

56 BIOLOGY
Activity 5.2 There is no need for Paheli to worry.
All parts of the body do not grow at the
Use the data given in Activity 5.1 to same rate. Sometimes the arms and
draw a graph. Take age on the X-
legs or hands and feet of adolescents
axis and per cent growth in height
look oversized and out of proportion with
on the Y-axis. Highlight the point
the body. But soon the other parts catch
representing your age on the
up and result in a proportionate body.
graph. Find out the percentage of
You must have noticed that height
height you have already reached.
Calculate the height you might of an individual is more or less similar
eventually reach. Tally your graph to that of some family member. This is
with the one given here (Fig. 5.1). because height depends on the genes
inherited from parents. It is, however,
very important to eat the right kind of
food during these growing years. This
helps the bones, muscles and other
parts of the body get adequate
nourishment for growth. You will find
nutritional needs of adolescents
discussed later in the lesson.

Change in Body Shape

Have you noticed that boys in your class
have broader shoulders and wider
chests than boys in junior classes? This
Fig. 5.1 : Graph showing percentage of height is because they have entered the age of
with age puberty when shoulders generally
broaden as a result of growth. In girls,
Initially, girls grow faster than boys the region below the waist becomes
but by about 18 years of age, both reach wider.
their maximum height. The rate of In boys, the muscles of the body grow
growth in height varies in different more prominently than in the girls.
individuals. Some may grow suddenly
Thus, changes occurring in adolescent
at puberty and then slow down, while
boys and girls are different.
others may grow gradually.
Voice Change
Did you notice that sometimes the voice
of some of the boys in your class cracks?
I am worried. Though I
At puberty, the voice box or the larynx
have become taller, my
face looks much smaller
begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice
compared to my body. boxes. The growing voice box in boys can
be seen as a protruding part of the throat
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 57
called Adam’s apple (Fig. 5.2). In girls, and pimples on the face at this time
the larynx is hardly visible from the because of the increased activity of these
outside because of its small size. glands in the skin.
Generally, girls have a high pitched voice,
whereas boys have a deep voice. In Development of Sex Organs
adolescent boys, sometimes, the muscles Look up Fig. 4.1 and 4.3 of the
of the growing voice box go out of control previous lesson which show sex
and the voice becomes hoarse. This state organs of humans. At puberty, male
may remain for a few days or weeks after sex organs like the testes and penis
which the voice becomes normal. develop completely. The testes also
begin to produce sperms. In girls, the
ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to
Adam’s mature. Also ovaries start releasing
apple mature eggs.

Reaching Mental, Intellectual and

Emotional Maturity
Adolescence is also a period of change
in a person’s way of thinking.
Adolescents are more independent than
before and are also self conscious.
Intellectual development takes place
Fig. 5.2 : Adam’s apple in a grown up boy
and they tend to spend considerable
time thinking. In fact, it is often the time
in one’s life when the brain has the
greatest capacity for learning.
Many of my classmates Sometimes, however, an adolescent may
have a hoarse voice. Now I feel insecure while trying to adjust to
know why? the changes in the body and mind. But
as adolescent learners, you should
Increased Activity of Sweat and
know that there is no reason to feel
Sebaceous Glands
insecure. These changes are a natural
During puberty the secretion of sweat part of growing up.
glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands)
increases. Many young people get acne 5.3 Secondary Sexual
A few glands such as sweat glands,
Characters
oil glands and salivary glands release You have learnt in Chapter 4, that
their secretions through ducts. testes and ovaries are the reproductive
Endocrine glands release hormones organs. They produce the gametes,
directly into the bloodstream. So, that is, sperms and ova. In girls,
they are also termed ductless glands.
breasts begin to develop at puberty
58 BIOLOGY
and boys begin to grow facial hair, that glands or ductless glands in the body.
is, moustaches and beard. As these The testes and ovaries secrete sex
features help to distinguish the male hormones. You have just learnt that
from the female they are called these hormones are responsible for the
secondary sexual characters. Boys male and female secondary sexual
also develop hair on their chest. In characters. Further, the sex hormones
both, boys and girls, hair grows under are under the control of hormones
the arms and in the region above the from the pituitary gland (Fig. 5.3). The
thighs or the pubic region. pituitary secretes many hormones, one
of which makes ova mature in the
Both Boojho and Paheli wish to know ovaries and sperms form in the testes.
what initiates changes at puberty.

The changes which occur at

adolescence are controlled by
hormones. Hormones are chemical
substances. These are secretions from
endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
The male hormone or testosterone
begins to be released by the testes at
the onset of puberty. This causes
changes in boys about which you have
just learnt, for example, the growth of
facial hair. Once puberty is reached in
girls, ovaries begin to produce the
female hormone or estrogen which
makes the breasts develop. Milk
secreting glands or mammary glands
develop inside the breasts. The
production of these hormones is under
the control of another hormone secreted
from an endocrine gland called
pituitary gland.
Fig. 5.3 : The onset of puberty is controlled by
hormones
5.4 Role of Hormones in
Initiating Reproductive
Function Paheli and Boojho have now
understood that puberty marks the
Endocrine glands release hormones beginning of the reproductive period
into the bloodstream to reach a when one becomes capable of
particular body part called target site. reproduction. But they want to know
The target site responds to the if reproductive life, once begun,
hormone. There are many endocrine continues, or it ends some time.

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 59

5.5 Reproductive Phase of Menstrual cycle is controlled by
Life in Humans hormones. The cycle includes the
maturation of the egg, its release,
Adolescents become capable of thickening of uterine wall and its
reproduction when their testes and breakdown if pregnancy does not
ovaries begin to produce gametes. The occur. In case the egg is fertilised it
capacity for maturation and production begins to divide and then gets
of gametes lasts for a much longer time embedded in the uterus for further
in males than in females. development as you have learnt in
In females, the reproductive phase Chapter 4 (Fig. 4.8).
of life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years
of age) and generally lasts till the age 5.6 How is the Sex of the
of approximately 45 to 50 years. The Baby Determined?
ova begin to mature with the onset of
puberty. One ovum matures and is
released by one of the ovaries once in
about 28 to 30 days. During this I heard my mother and my
period, the wall of the uterus becomes aunt talking about my cousin
thick so as to receive the egg, in case who is going to have a baby.
it is fertilised and begins to develop. They were discussing whether
This results in pregnancy. If she would give birth to a boy
fertilisation does not occur, the or a girl. I wonder what makes
released egg, and the thickened lining the fertilised egg develop
either into a boy or a girl!
of the uterus along with its blood
vessels are shed off. This causes
Boy or Girl?
bleeding in women which is called
menstruation. Menstruation occurs Inside the fertilised egg or zygote is the
once in about 28 to 30 days. The first instruction for determining the sex of
menstrual flow begins at puberty and the baby. This instruction is present in
is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years the thread-like structures, called
of age, the menstrual cycle stops. chromosomes in the fertilised egg.
Stoppage of menstruation is termed Recall from Chapter 1, that
menopause. Initially, menstrual cycle chromosomes are present inside the
may be irregular. It take some time to nucleus of every cell. All human beings
become regular. have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the
nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes
out of these are the sex chromosomes,
named X and Y. A female has two X
Paheli says that the chromosomes, while a male has one X
reproductive life of a and one Y chromosome. The gametes
woman lasts from (egg and sperm) have only one set of
menarche to menopause. chromosomes. The unfertilised egg
Is she right?
always has one X chromosome. But
60 BIOLOGY
sperms are of two kinds. One kind has secreted by the pituitary stimulate
an X chromosome, and the other kind testes and ovaries to produce their
has a Y chromosome. hormones. You have already learnt that
See Fig. 5.4. When a sperm the pituitary gland is an endocrine
containing X chromosome fertilises the gland. It is attached to the brain.
egg, the zygote would have two X Apart from the pituitary, the testes
chromosomes and develop into a female and the ovaries, there are other endocrine
child. If the sperm contributes a Y glands in the body such as thyroid,
chromosome to the egg (ovum) at pancreas and adrenals (Fig. 5.5).
fertilisation, the zygote would develop
into a male child.
sperms pituitary
gland

thyroid gland

adrenal
gland

eggs
pancreas

position of
the ovary in
the female

boy girl testis

Fig. 5.4 : Sex determination in humans

Now you know that the sex

chromosomes of the father determine Fig. 5.5 : Position of endocrine glands in the
the sex of an unborn baby. The belief human body
that the mother is responsible for the
Boojho and Paheli had once visited
sex of her baby is completely wrong and
their aunt who was a doctor and
to blame her for this is totally
remembered that a boy named Kaka
unjustified.
had a very big and bulging throat. Their
5.7 Hormones other than aunt had told them that Kaka was
suffering from ‘goitre’, a disease of the
Sex Hormones thyroid gland. Kaka’s thyroid gland was
Look at Fig. 5.3 again. The hormones not producing the hormone thyroxine.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 61
Their aunt also told them that their This change from larva to adult is
uncle was suffering from ‘diabetes’ called metamorphosis (Fig. 4.10).
because his pancreas was not producing Metamorphosis in insects is controlled
the hormone insulin in sufficient by insect hormones. In a frog, it is
quantities. Boojho and Paheli then controlled by thyroxine, the hormone
asked their aunt about the adrenal produced by thyroid. Thyroxine
glands, which are also shown in the production requires the presence of
chart hung on the wall of her clinic. iodine in water. If the water in which
The aunt told them that adrenal glands the tadpoles are growing does not
secrete hormones which maintain the contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles
correct salt balance in the blood. cannot become adults.
Adrenals also produce the hormone
adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust
to stress when one is very angry, If people do not have
embarrassed or worried. enough iodine in their diet,
Thyroid and adrenals secrete their will they get goitre caused
hormones when they receive orders by lack of thyroxine?
from the pituitary through its hormones.
Pituitary also secretes growth hormone Activity 5.3
which is necessary for the normal
growth of a person. Collect information from magazines
or from doctors and prepare a note
on the importance of consuming
iodised salt. You can also look for
this information on the internet.
Are there hormones in
other animals also? Have
they any role to play in 5.9 Reproductive Health
reproduction? The physical and mental well being of
an individual is regarded as an
5.8 Role of Hormones in individual’s health. To keep the body
healthy, every human being, at any age,
Completing the Life needs to have a balanced diet. The
History of Insects and person must also observe personal
Frogs hygiene and undertake adequate
You have already learnt about the life physical exercise.
history of the silk moth and the frog. During adolescence, however, these
The caterpillar has to pass through become even more essential as the body
various stages to become an adult moth. is growing.
Recall from Class VII the stages of the
life history of the silk moth. Similarly, Nutritional Needs of the Adolescents
the tadpole passes through certain Adolescence is a stage of rapid growth
stages to become a frog (Chapter 4). and development. Hence the diet for an
62 BIOLOGY
adolescent has to be carefully planned. Activity 5.5
You have already learnt what a balanced
Get ideas from the pictures given
diet is. Recall that a balanced diet
in Fig.5.6. Prepare charts or posters
means that the meals include proteins,
and paste them in the class so that
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins in you are aware of the diet for
requisite proportions. Our Indian meal adolescents. You may use your
of roti/rice, dal (pulses) and vegetables creative ideas and present it like an
is a balanced meal. Milk is a balanced advertisement. You may even
food in itself. Fruits also provide organise a competition on this topic.
nourishment. For infants, mother’s milk
provides all the nourishment that they
need.
Iron builds blood and iron-rich food
meat
such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat,
vegetables
citrus, Indian gooseberry (amla) are
good for adolescents.
milk and
Check items for lunch and dinner eggs
in your meal. Is the meal balanced and
nutritious? Does it include cereals
which give energy and milk, meat, nuts
and pulses which provide proteins for
growth? Also, does it include fats and
fruits
sugar that give energy? What about
fruits and vegetables which are
protective foods? Chips and packed or
tinned snacks, though very tasty
should never replace regular meals as
they do not have adequate nutritional
value.
grains
Activity 5.4
Fig. 5.6 : Nutritious items of food
Make a group with your friends.
Write down the items of food in your Personal Hygiene
breakfast, lunch and dinner you
Everyone should have a bath at least
had on the previous day. Identify
once everyday. It is more necessary for
the items responsible for proper
teenagers because the increased activity
growth. Also identified the junk
of sweat glands sometimes makes the
food that you consumed the
body smelly. All parts of the body should
previous day.
be washed and cleaned everyday. If

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 63

cleanliness is not maintained there are Activity 5.6
chances of catching bacterial infection.
Girls should take special care of Collect data on the number of
cleanliness during the time of menstrual children in your class who exercise
flow. They should keep track of their regularly and who do not exercise
menstrual cycle and be prepared for the regularly. Did you notice any
onset of menstruation. Use sanitary difference in their fitness and
napkin or clean homemade pads. health? Prepare a report on the
Change pads after every 4–5 hours as benefits of regular exercise.
per the requirement.
Physical exercise
Say “NO” to Drugs
Walking and playing in fresh air keeps Adolescence is a period of much
the body fit and healthy. All young boys activity in the body and mind which
and girls should take walks, exercise is a normal part of growing up. So do
and play outdoor games. not feel confused or insecure. If
Myths, Taboos, Do’s and Don’ts
anybody suggests that you will get
relief if you take some drugs, just say
You have learnt here and from Chapter
4 the scientific facts related to human ‘No’ unless prescribed by the doctor.
reproduction. There are many wrong Drugs are addictive. If you take them
notions which you should now be able once, you feel like taking them again
to discard as informed adolescents. For and again. They harm the body in the
example, there are myths and taboos long run. They ruin health and
regarding bodily changes that happiness.
adolescents experience. Some of these
are given below and you can now argue You must have heard about AIDS
why these are myths and not facts. which is caused by a dangerous virus,
1. A girl becomes pregnant if HIV. This virus can pass on to a
she looks at boys during normal person from an infected
menstruation. person by sharing the syringes used
2. The mother is responsible for the for injecting drugs. It can also be
sex of her child.
3. A girl should not be allowed to transmitted to an infant from the
work in the kitchen during infected mother through her milk. The
menstruation. virus can also be transmitted through
You may come across many other sexual contact with a person infected
myths and taboos. Discard them. with HIV.

Adolescent Pregnancy
You might be knowing that in our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years
for girls and 21 years for boys. This is because teenage mothers are not prepared
mentally or physically for motherhood. Early marriage and motherhood cause
health problems in the mother and the child. It also curtails employment
opportunities for the young woman and may cause mental agony as she is not
ready for responsibilities of motherhood.

64 BIOLOGY
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ADAM’S APPLE Ü Humans become capable of reproduction af-

ADOLESCENCE ter puberty sets in. Children between the ages

of 11 and 19 years are called adolescents.
ADRENALIN Ü The onset of puberty brings about growth of
the reproductive organs. Hair grow at
BALANCED DIET
various places on the body. Breasts develop
ENDOCRINE GLANDS in girls and facial hair (moustache and beard)
appear in boys. Voice of boys becomes hoarse
ESTROGEN
as voice box enlarges during adolescence.
HORMONES Ü Children gain height during adolescence.
Ü The onset of puberty and maturity of repro-
INSULIN
ductive parts are controlled by hormones.
LARYNX Ü Hormones are secretions of endocrine glands
which pour them directly into the blood stream.
PITUITARY GLAND
Ü Pituitary gland secretes hormones which in-
PUBERTY clude growth hormone and hormones that
make other glands such as the testes, ova-
REPRODUCTIVE ries, thyroids and adrenals, secrete hor-
HEALTH mones. Pancreas secretes insulin, thyroid

SECONDARY SEXUAL produces thyroxine and adrenals produce

CHARACTERS adrenalin.
Ü Testosterone is the male hormone and es-
SEX CHROMOSOMES trogen, the female hormone. The uterine wall
in females prepares itself to receive the de-
TARGET SITE
veloping fertilised egg. In case there is no
TESTOSTERONE fertilisation, the thickened lining of the uter-
ine wall breaks down and goes out of the body
THYROXINE
along with blood. This is called menstruation.
VOICE BOX Ü Sex of the unborn child depends on whether
the zygote has XX or XY chromosomes.
Ü It is important to eat balanced food and main-
tain personal hygiene during adolescence.

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 65

 Exercises

1. What is the term used for chemical secretions of endocrine glands

responsible for changes taking place in the body?

2. Define adolescence.

3. What is menstruation? Explain.

4. List changes in the body that take place at puberty.

5. Prepare a Table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands

and hormones secreted by them.
6. What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.

7. Choose the correct option.

(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because

(i) proper diet develops their brains.

(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their
body.
(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.

(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers.

(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their

(i) menstruation starts.

(ii) breasts start developing.

(iii) body weight increases.

(iv) height increases.

(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of

(i) chips, noodles, coke.

(ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.

(iii) rice, noodles and burger.

(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.

8. Write notes on—

(a) Adam’s apple.

(b) Secondary sexual characters.

(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.

66 BIOLOGY
 9. Word game : Use the clues to work out the words.
EXERCISES Across
3. Protruding voice box in boys
4. Glands without ducts
7. Endocrine gland attached to brain
8. Secretion of endocrine glands
9. Pancreatic hormone
10. Female hormone
Down
1. Male hormone
2. Secretes thyroxine
3. Another term for teenage
5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream
6. Voice box
7. Term for changes at adolescence

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 67

 10. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they
grow in age. Draw graphs showing height and age for both boys and
girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions can be drawn from
these graphs?

Age Height (cm)

(Years) Boys Girls
0 53 53
4 96 92
8 114 110
12 129 133
16 150 150
20 173 165

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Find out from your elder relatives about their awareness of the
legal status of early marriage. You yourself may get information
on it from your teacher, parents, a doctor or the internet. Write a
two-minute speech explaining why early marriage is not good for
the couple.
2. Collect newspaper cuttings and information in magazines about
HIV/AIDS. Write a one page article of 15 to 20 sentences on HIV/
AIDS.
3. In our country, according to 2011 census, there are 940 adolescent
females for every 1000 males. Find out.
(a) the concerns of the community regarding this low ratio.
Remember that the chance of having a boy or a girl is equal.
(b) what amniocentesis is and how useful this technique is. Why
is its use for identification of sex of the unborn child banned
in India?
4. Put your ideas together and write a short note on the importance
of knowing facts about reproduction.
For more information visit :
l www.teenshealth.org/teen/sexual_health/
l www.adolescenthealth.com

68 BIOLOGY
 CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Professor
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 6.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation
classmates. Other children in the class
to your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 6.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves? deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Professor
6.1 Deforestation and Its Ahmad that if cutting of trees continues,
Causes rainfall and the fertility of the soil will
A great variety of plants and animals
exist on earth. They are essential for the
well-being and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other decrease. Moreover, there will be
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for increased chances of natural calamities
some of the purposes mentioned below: such as floods and droughts.
l Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
l Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
l Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 69
amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Biosphere is that part of the earth in
to global warming as carbon dioxide traps which living organisms exist or which
the heat rays reflected by the earth. The supports life. Biological diversity or
increase in temperature on the earth biodiversity, refers to the variety of
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce organisms existing on the earth, their
rainfall. This could cause droughts. interrelationships and their
Deforestation is a major cause which relationship with the environment.
leads to the change in soil properties.
Physical properties of the soil get affected Professor Ahmad organises a visit to
by plantation and vegetation. Recall from a biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho
Class VII how trees prevent soil erosion. and their classmates. He selects a place
Fewer trees result in more soil erosion. named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
Removal of the top layer of the soil exposes knows that the plants and animals found
the lower, hard and rocky layers. This here are similar to those of the upper
soil has less humus and is less fertile. Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
Gradually the fertile land gets converted to the lower western ghats. Professor
into deserts. It is called desertification. Ahmad believes that the biodiversity
Deforestation also leads to a found here is unique. He requests
decrease in the water holding capacity Madhavji, a forest employee, to guide the
of the soil. The movement of water from children inside the biosphere reserve. He
the soil surface into the ground explains that preserving areas of such
(infiltration rate) is reduced. So, there biological importance make them a part
are floods. The other properties of the of our national heritage.
soil like nutrient content, texture etc., Madhavji explains to the children
also change because of deforestation. that apart from our personal efforts and
We have studied in Class VII that we efforts of the society, government
get many products from forests. Refer pg.
no.77. List these products. Will we face To protect our flora and fauna and their
shortage of these products if we continue habitats, protected areas called
cutting trees? wildlife sanctuaries, national parks
and biosphere reserves have been
Activity 6.2 earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
grazing, felling trees, hunting and
Animal life is also affected by poaching are prohibited there.
deforestation. How? List the points Wildlife Sanctuary : Areas where
and discuss them in your class. animals are protected from any
disturbance to them and their habitat.
6.3 Conservation of Forest and National Park : Areas reserved for
Wildlife wild life where they can freely use the
habitats and natural resources.
Having become aware of the effects of Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are protected land for conservation of wild
worried. They go to Professor Ahmad life, plant and animal resources and
and ask him how forests and wildlife traditional life of the tribals living in
can be saved. the area.

70 BIOLOGY
agencies also take care of the forests 6.4 Biosphere Reserve
and animals. The government lays down
rules, methods and policies to protect Children along with Professor Ahmad
and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries, and Madhavji enter the biosphere
national parks, biosphere reserves etc., reserve area. Madhavji explains that
are protected areas for conservation biosphere reserves are the areas meant
of plants and animals present in for conservation of biodiversity. As you
that area. are aware that biodiversity is the variety
of plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 6.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
6.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 6.1).

Table 6.1 : Protected Areas for Conservation

Protected Areas — National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve

In my district

In my state

In my country

↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY

Fig. 6.1 : Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 71
Activity 6.4 green wealth of the forest. They are
very happy to see tall teak trees and
List the factors disturbing the animals inside the forest. Suddenly,
biodiversity of your area. Some of Paheli finds a rabbit and wants to
these factors and human activities catch it. She starts running after it.
may disturb the biodiversity Professor Ahmad stops her. He
unknowingly. List these human explains that animals are comfortable
activities. How can these be checked?
and happy in their own habitat. We
Discuss in your class and write a
should not disturb them. Madhavji
brief report in your notebook.
explains that some animals and plants
typically belong to a particular area.
6.5 Flora and Fauna The plants and animals found in a
As the children walk around the particular area are termed flora and
biosphere reserve they appreciate the fauna respectively of that area.

Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara, blue-
bull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna
of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 6.2).

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 6.2 : (a) Wild dog (b) Cheetal (c) Wolf (d) Leopard (e) Fern (f) Jamun tree

72 BIOLOGY
Activity 6.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
6.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
forest. Children are surprised to see a endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 6.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Professor
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 6.3 (a)] as two examples of the

Fig. 6.3 (b) : Giant squirrel

Species is a group of population

which are capable of interbreeding.
This means that the members of a
species can reproduce fertile offspring
only with the members of their own
species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species
have common characteristics.

Activity 6.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 6.3 (a) : Wild Mango
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 73
6.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat?
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi In your opinion, will the animals
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. be comfortable in a zoo or in their
Professor Ahmad explains that killing natural habitat?
(poaching) or capturing animals in general
is strictly prohibited and punishable 6.8 National Park
by law in all such places. Wildlife On the roadside there was another
Sanctuaries like reserve forests provide board on which was written ‘Satpura
protection and suitable living conditions National Park’.
to wild animals. He also tells them that Children are now eager to go there.
people living in wildlife sanctuaries are Madhavji tells them that these reserves
allowed to do certain activities such as are large and diverse enough to protect
grazing by their livestock, collecting whole sets of ecosystems. They preserve
medicinal plants, firewood, etc. flora, fauna, landscape and historic
objects of an area. Satpura National
Some of the threatened wild animals
Park is the first Reserve Forest of India.
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed
The finest Indian teak is found in this
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, forest. There are more than one hundred
python, rhinoceros, etc., are National Parks in India.
protected and preserved in our wild
life sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries Rock shelters are also found inside
have unique landscapes—broad level the Satpura National Park. These are
forests, mountain forests and bush evidences of prehistoric human life
lands in deltas of big rivers. in these jungles. These give us an
idea of the life of primitive people.
It is a pity that even protected forests Rock paintings are found in these
are not safe because people living in the shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
neighbourhood encroach upon them have been identified in Pachmarhi
and destroy them. Biosphere Reserve.
Children are reminded of their visit Figures of animals and men
fighting, hunting, dancing and
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also
playing musical instruments are
places where animals receive protection. depicted in these paintings. Many
tribals still live in the area.

What is the difference between As children move ahead, they see a

a zoo and a wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 6.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
government to protect the tigers in the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the
country. The objective of this project
conditions provided to the animals.
was to ensure the survival and
Were they suitable for the animals?
maintenance of the tiger population in
Can animals live in artificial setting
the country.
74 BIOLOGY
 Are tigers still found in this
forest? I hope I can see a tiger!

Tiger (Fig. 6.4) is one of the many

species which are slowly disappearing
from our forests. But, the Satpura Tiger
Reserve is unique in the sense that a
significant increase in the population of
tigers has been seen here. Once upon a Fig. 6.6 : Barasingha
time, animals like lions, elephants, wild
animals has become difficult because of
disturbances in their natural habitat.
Professor Ahmad tells them that in order
to protect plants and animals strict rules
are imposed in all National Parks.
Human activities such as grazing,
poaching, hunting, capturing of animals
or collection of firewood,
medicinal plants, etc. are
not allowed
Fig. 6.4 : Tiger
buffaloes (Fig. 6.5) and barasingha (Fig. Are only big animals
facing extinction?
6.6) were also found in the Satpura
National Park. Animals whose numbers Madhavji tells Paheli that small
are diminishing to a level that they might animals are much more in danger of
face extinction are known as the becoming extinct than the bigger
endangered animals. Boojho is animals. At times, we kill snakes,
reminded of the dinosaurs which became frogs, lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly
extinct a long time ago. Survival of some without realising their importance in
the ecosystem. By killing them we are
harming ourselves. They might be
small in size but their role in the
ecosystem cannot be ignored. They
form part of food chains and food
webs, about which you learnt in
Class VI.
An ecosystem is made of all the
plants, animals and microorganisms in
an area along with non-living
components such as climate, soil,
Fig. 6.5 : Wild buffalo river deltas etc.
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 75
 Tawa Reservoir to relax for some time.
Paheli observes some of the birds near
the river. Madhavji tells the children
that these are migratory birds. These
I wonder if there is
any record of all birds have flown here from other parts
endangered species! of the world.
Migratory birds fly to far away areas
every year during a particular time
because of climatic changes. They fly
6.9 Red Data Book for laying eggs as the weather in their
natural habitat becomes very cold and
Professor Ahmad explains about Red inhospitable. Birds who cover long
Data Book to the children. He tells distances to reach another land are
them that Red Data Book is the known as migratory birds as Paheli
source book which keeps a record of learnt in Class VII. Refer pg. no.77.
all the endangered animals and
plants. Red Data Book is maintained 6.11 Recycling of Paper
internationally by an organisation.
Professor Ahmad draws attention of
India also maintains Red Data Book
the children to another cause of
for plants and animals found
deforestation. He tells them that it
in India.
takes 17 full grown trees to make one
6.10 Migration tonne of paper. Therefore, we should
save paper. Professor Ahmad also tells
The excursion party then enters that paper can be recycled five to seven
deeper into the forest under the times for use. If each student saves at
guidance of Madhavji. They sit near the least one sheet of paper in a day, we
can save many trees in a year. We
should save, reuse used paper and
recycle it. By this we not only save
trees but also save energy and water
needed for manufacturing paper.
What would happen if we
Moreover, the amount of harmful
had no wood? Is there
chemicals used in paper making will
any alternative
available to wood? also be reduced.
I know that paper is one
of the important products
we get from forests.
I wonder whether Is there any permanent
there are any alternatives solution to the problem
available for paper! of deforestation?

76 BIOLOGY
6.12 Reforestation retain our green wealth for future
generations, plantation of more trees is
Professor Ahmad suggests that the the only option.
answer to deforestation is reforestation. Professor Ahmad told them that in
Reforestation is restocking of the India we have the Forest (Conservation)
destroyed forests by planting new trees. Act. This act is aimed at preservation
The planted trees should generally be and conservation of natural forests and
of the same species which were found meeting the basic needs of the people
in that forest. We should plant at least living in or near the forests.
as many trees as we cut. Reforestation After some rest Madhavji asks the
can take place naturally also. If the children to start heading back because
deforested area is left undisturbed, it re- it is not advisable to stay in the
establishes itself. In natural reforestation jungle after sunset. On getting back,
there is no role of human beings. We Professor Ahmad and the children
have already caused tremendous thank Madhavji for guiding them
damage to our forests. If we have to through this exciting experience.

Did You Know?

Forest Products
Forests play an important role in the socio-economic development of a country. They are
rich sources of many products. Some of them are timber, fire wood, sandal wood, tamarind,
bamboo, soap nuts, soap pods, gums, oils, spices, aromatic substances, fodder, medicinal
products, lac, honey, fruits, tubers etc.

Did You Know?

Migration of birds
Migration is a natural process. Different birds fly over long distances in order to find the
best ecological conditions, habitats for feeding and breeding. This is called migration of
birds.
Birds must remain warm to survive at cold regions of the earth. Hence they migrate
to warmer regions when winter season sets in. They come back after the winter is over.
India is one of the destinations of many of these birds. Siberian crane migrates from
Siberia of Russia to places like Bharatpur in Rajasthan
and Sulthanpur in Haryana.
While flying at high altitudes the heat generated by
their flight muscles help the bird to cope up with cool
conditions present there.
Some migratory birds travel as much as 15000 kms
to escape the extreme climatic conditions at home town.
Birds may use the magnetic field of the earth to find direciton.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 77

KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
BIODIVERSITY Ü Wildlife sanctuary, national park and bio-

BIOSPHERE RESERVE sphere reserve are names given to the areas

meant for conservation and preservation of
DEFORESTATION forest and wild animals.
DESERTIFICATION Ü Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms in a specific area.
ECOSYSTEM
Ü Plants and animals of a particular area are
ENDANGERED known as the flora and fauna of that area.
SPECIES Ü Endemic species are found only in a particular
area.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Ü Endangered species are those which are facing
EXTINCT the danger of extinction.
Ü Red Data Book contains a record of
FAUNA
endangered species.
FLORA Ü Migration is the phenomenon of movement of

MIGRATORY BIRDS a species from its own habitat to some other

habitat for a particular time period every year
NATIONAL PARK for a specific purpose like breeding.
Ü We should save, reuse and recycle paper to
RED DATA BOOK
save trees, energy and water.
REFORESTATION Ü Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed
forests by planting new trees.
SANCTUARY

Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks.

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is
called .
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as .
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of changes.
2. Differentiate between the following.
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
(c) Endangered and extinct species
(d) Flora and fauna
78 BIOLOGY
 3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following.
EXERCISES
(a) Wild animals

(b) Environment

(c) Villages (Rural areas)

(d) Cities (Urban areas)

(e) Earth

(f) The next generation

4. What will happen if.

(a) we go on cutting trees.

(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.

(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.

5. Answer in brief.

(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?

(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?

(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?

(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?

(e) What is Red Data Book?

(f) What do you understand by the term migration?

6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter,

trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects?
Discuss and prepare a brief report.

7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.

8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

9. Find out about national parks in your state. Identify and show their location
on the outline map of India.

10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 79

 11. Complete the word puzzle.

EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.

Extended Learning - Activities and Projects

1. Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this
academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
2. Promise yourself that this year you will gift at least 5 plants to your
friends and relatives on their achievements, or on occasions like
birthdays. Ask your friends to take proper care of these plants and
encourage them to gift plants to their friends on such occasions. At
the end of the year count the plants that have been gifted through
this chain.

80 BIOLOGY
 3. Is it justified to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.

4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with

photographs and sketches of the flora and fauna.
5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you find the most interesting and why?

6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.

Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.

7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian

elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.

Did You Know?

1. India has more than half of the world’s wild tigers, 65% of the Asian
elephants, 85% of the great one-horned rhinoceros and 100% of the
Asian lions.
2. India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. It
contains two of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world – Eastern
Himalayas and the Western Ghats. These areas are very rich in
biodiversity.
3. One of the most important factors that threatens wildlife today is habitat
destruction due to encroachment.
4. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened
or 2.9% of the world’s total number of threatened species. Eastern
Himalayas hotspot has merely 163 globally threatened species
including several animal and plant species. India contains globally
important population of some of Asia’s rarest animals such as the
Bengal fox, Marbled cat, Asiatic lion, Indian elephant, Asiatic wild ass,
Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Wild asiatic water buffalo, etc.
For knowing more, you may contact:
l Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Govt. of India
Environment, Forest and Wildlife Department
Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi -110003
Website: http://envfor.nic.in

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 81

 POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

P
aheli and Boojho were very excited You already know that air consists
to know that Taj Mahal in Agra of a mixture of gases. By volume, about
is one of the seven wonders of the 78% of this mixture is nitrogen and
world. But they were disappointed to about 21% is oxygen. Carbon dioxide,
hear that the beauty of this monument argon, methane, ozone and water
in white marble is being threatened by vapour are also present in very small
air pollution in the area surrounding the quantities.
Taj. They were eager to know if
something can be done to control the Activity 7.1
air and water pollution. You may have covered your nose
We are all aware that our while passing a brick kiln emitting
environment is not what it used to be. smoke or started coughing while
Our elders talk about the clean water walking on a busy road (Fig. 7.1).
and fresh air that was available in their On the basis of your experience,
times. Now the media regularly reports compare the quality of air at the
on the falling quality of the places given below:
environment. We ourselves feel the
l A park and a busy road.
impact of the falling quality of air and
water in our lives. The number of people l A residential area and an
suffering from diseases of the industrial area.
respiratory system, for example, is l A busy traffic intersection at
steadily rising. different times of the day e.g.
We shudder to imagine a time when early morning, afternoon and
clean air and water may no longer be evening.
available! You have learnt about the l A village and a town.
importance of air and water in your
previous classes. In this chapter, we will
study about the harmful changes taking
place in our surroundings and their
effects on our lives.

7.1 Air Pollution

We can survive for some time without
food, but we cannot survive even for a
few minutes without air. This simple fact
Fig. 7.1 : A congested road in a city
tells us how important clean air is to us.
82 BIOLOGY
 One of your observations in the Activity 7.2
above activity could be the differences
You might have read in the
in the amount of smoke in the
newspapers that respiratory
atmosphere. Do you know where the
problems amongst children
smoke could have come from? Addition
are rising day by day. Conduct a
of such substances to the atmosphere
survey of households in your
modifies it. When air is contaminated
neighbourhood and among friends
by unwanted substances which have to find out how many children are
a harmful effect on both the living and suffering from respiratory problems.
the non-living, it is referred to as air
pollution. Many respiratory problems are
caused by air pollution. Let us now try
7.2 How does Air Get Polluted? to find out the substances or pollutants
which are present in the polluted air.
The substances which contaminate the
Have you noticed how rapidly the
air are called air pollutants. Sometimes,
number of vehicles is increasing in our
such substances may come from
cities?
natural sources like smoke and dust
Vehicles produce high levels of
arising from forest fires or volcanic pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon
eruptions. Pollutants are also added to dioxide, nitrogen oxides and smoke (Fig.
the atmosphere by certain human 7.3). Carbon monoxide is produced
activities. The sources of air pollutants from incomplete burning of fuels such
are factories (Fig. 7.2), power plants, as petrol and diesel. It is a poisonous
automobile exhausts and burning of gas. It reduces the oxygen-carrying
firewood and dung cakes. capacity of the blood.

Fig. 7.3 : Air pollution due to automobiles

Do you know?
If the vehicles registered in Delhi are
lined up one after the other, the total
length would be nearly equal to the
combined lengths of the two longest
Fig. 7.2 : Smoke from a factory rivers in the world, Nile and Amazon!

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 83

 Boojho remembers seeing a thick Activity 7.3
fog-like layer in the atmosphere,
especially during winters. This is smog Prepare a table using the pollutants
which is made up of smoke and fog. mentioned above. You may even add
Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen more data to the following Table.
which combine with other air pollutants Table 7.1
and fog to form smog. The smog causes Air Pollutants Sources Effects
breathing difficulties such as asthma,
cough and wheezing in children.
Many industries are also responsible
for causing air pollution. Petroleum
refineries are a major source of gaseous 7.3 Case Study—
pollutants like sulphur dioxide and The Taj Mahal
nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is Over the past 2 decades, India’s most
produced by combustion of fuels like coal famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal
in power plants. It can cause respiratory located in Agra (Fig. 7.4), has become a
problems, including permanent lung matter of concern. Experts have warned
damage. You have already studied about that pollutants in air are discolouring
the burning of fossil fuels in Chapter 3 its white marble. So, it is not only living
of Physical Sciences. organisms that get affected by polluted
Other kinds of pollutants are air but non-living things like buildings,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are monuments and statues also get
used in refrigerators, air conditioners affected.
and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the The industries located in and around
ozone layer of the atmosphere. Recall Agra like rubber processing, automobile,
that the ozone layer protects us from chemicals and especially the Mathura
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Have oil refinery, have been responsible for
you heard of the ozone hole? Try to find producing pollutants like sulphur
out about it. Thankfully, less harmful dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
chemicals are now being used in place gases react with the water vapour
of CFCs. present in the atmosphere to form
In addition to the above mentioned sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids
gases, automobiles which burn diesel drop down with rain, making the rain
and petrol, also produce tiny particles acidic. This is called acid rain. Acid rain
which remain suspended in air for long corrodes the marble of the monument.
periods (Fig. 7.3). They reduce visibility. The phenomenon is also called “Marble
When inhaled, they cause diseases. cancer”. Suspended particulate matter,
Such particles are also produced during such as the soot particles emitted by
industrial processes like steel making Mathura oil refinery, has contributed
and mining. Power plants give out tiny towards the yellowing of the marble.
ash particles which also pollute the The Supreme Court has taken
atmosphere. several steps to save the Taj. It has

84 BIOLOGY
 Fig. 7.4 : Taj Mahal
ordered industries to switch to cleaner and a part is reflected back into space.
fuels like CNG (Compressed Natural A part of the reflected radiation is
Gas) and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum trapped by the atmosphere. The trapped
Gas). Moreover, the automobiles should radiations further warm the earth. If you
switch over to unleaded petrol in the have seen a greenhouse in a nursery
Taj zone. or elsewhere, recall that the sun’s heat
Discuss with your elders and see is allowed to get in but is not allowed to
what they have to say about the go out. The trapped heat warms the
condition of the Taj, 20 or 30 years ago! green house. The trapping of radiations
Try to procure a picture of the Taj Mahal by the earth’s atmosphere is similar.
for your scrap book. That is why it is called the greenhouse
effect. Without this process, life would
not have been possible on the earth.
But now it threatens life. Excess of CO2
I am reminded of the in the air is one of the gases responsible
chapter on crops. I for this effect.
wonder whether acid You know that CO2 is one of the
rain affects the soil and components of air. You have also studied
plants also.

7.4 Greenhouse Effect

But how does CO2 content
You know that the sun’s rays warm the
rise in the atmosphere and
earth’s surface. A part of the radiation become excessive?
that falls on the earth is absorbed by it
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 85
the role of carbon dioxide in plants. But towards this effect. Like CO2, they are
if there is excess of CO2 in the air, it also called greenhouse gases.
acts as a pollutant. Global warming has become a major
Can you help Paheli find out the concern for governments worldwide.
answer to her question? Many countries have reached an
On the one hand, CO2 is continuously agreement to reduce the emission of
being released because of human greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol
activities. On the other hand, area under is one such agreement.
forests is decreasing. Plants utilise CO2 Boojho is surprised to hear that an
from the atmosphere for photosynthesis, increase in the earth’s temperature by
thereby decreasing the amount of CO2 even as little as 0.5 °C can have such a
in the air. Deforestation leads to an serious effect! Paheli tells him that she
increase in the amount of CO2 in the air had read in the newspapers recently
because the number of trees which that the Gangotri glacier in the
consume CO 2 is reduced. Human Himalayas has started melting because
activities, thus, contribute to the of global warming.
accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere.
CO2 traps heat and does not allow it to 7.5 What can be Done?
escape into space. As a result, the
What can we do to reduce air
average temperature of the earth’s
pollution?
atmosphere is gradually increasing. This
There are many success stories in
is called global warming.
our fight against air pollution. For
Other gases like methane, nitrous
example, a few years ago, Delhi was one
oxide and water vapour also contribute
of the most polluted cities in the world.
It was being choked by fumes released
Global Warming from automobiles running on diesel and
A Serious Threat! petrol. A decision was taken to switch
Global warming can cause sea levels to fuels like CNG (Fig. 7.5) and
to rise dramatically. In many places,
coastal areas have already been
flooded. Global warming could result
in wide ranging effects on rainfall
patterns, agriculture, forests, plants
and animals. Majority of people living
in regions which are threatened by
global warming are in Asia. A recent
climate change report gives us only
a limited time to keep the
greenhouse gases at the present
level. Otherwise, the temperature
may rise by more than 2 degrees
Celsius by the end of the century, a
level considered dangerous.
Fig. 7.5 : A public transport bus powered by CNG
86 BIOLOGY
unleaded petrol. These measures have fuels for our energy requirements.
resulted in cleaner air for the city. You These could be solar energy,
might know of some other examples hydropower and wind energy.
from your area regarding reduction of
air pollution. Share these with your Activity 7.4
friends. You have various options of
commuting to your school such as
Do you know about the “Say no to
walking, going by bicycle, travelling
crackers” campaign which was
by bus or other public transport,
organised by children from many
schools? This made a big difference using a car individually, travelling
to the air pollution levels around by car pool. Discuss in your class
Diwali. the impact of each of these options
on the quality of air.
The quality of air at various locations
is monitored regularly by government Small contributions on our part can
and other agencies. We can use this make a huge difference in the state of
data to generate awareness about air the environment. We can plant trees and
pollution among friends and nurture the ones already present in the
neighbours. neighbourhood. Do you know about Van
There is a need to switch over to Mahotsav, when lakhs of trees are
alternative fuels instead of the fossil planted in July every year (Fig. 7.6)?

Fig. 7.6 : Children planting saplings

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 87
 Boojho and Paheli once happened to Activity 7.5
go to an area where some people were
burning dry leaves. They started Try to collect samples of water from
coughing because the entire area was a tap, pond, river, well and lake.
Pour each into separate glass
full of smoke. Paheli thought it would
containers. Compare these for
be a better option to put them in a
smell, acidity and colour. Complete
compost pit rather than burning. What
the following Table.
do you think?
Table 7.2
7.6 Water Pollution Smell Acidity Colour
In Class VII you learnt that water is a Tap Water
precious resource. Think and list the
Pond Water
various activities in which we need
water. We saw that water is becoming River Water
scarce due to increase in population, Well Water
industries and agricultural activities.
You have also studied how water Lake Water
becomes “dirty” after we use it for
washing clothes, bathing, etc. This 7.7 How does Water Get
means that we are adding some
materials to the water, which spoil its
Polluted?
quality and change its smell and colour. Case Study
Whenever harmful substances such Ganga is one of the most famous rivers
as sewage, toxic chemicals, silt, etc., get of India (Fig. 7.7). It sustains most of
mixed with water, the water becomes the northern, central and eastern
polluted. The substances that pollute Indian population. Millions of people
water are called water pollutants. depend on it for their daily needs and
Gomukh
Gangotri
Haridwar
UTTRAKHAND
NEW
DELHI UT NEPAL
TA BHUTAN
Kanpur RP
RA
DE BIHAR
SH Patna
Allahabad BANGLADESH
Varanasi
WEST
BENGAL

INDIA Kolkata
Bay of Bengal
Fig. 7.7 : Course of the river Ganga

88 BIOLOGY
livelihood. However, recently a study by People can be seen bathing, washing
the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) clothes and defecating in the river.
found that Ganga is one of the ten most They also throw garbage, flowers,
endangered rivers in the world. The idols of gods and goddesses and non-
pollution levels have been rising for biodegradable polythene bags into
many years. We have reached this stage the river.
because the towns and cities, through At Kanpur the amount of water is
which the river flows, throw large comparatively small and the flow of the
quantities of garbage, untreated sewage, river is very slow. In addition, Kanpur
dead bodies, and many other harmful has more than 5000 industries. These
things, directly into the river. In fact the include fertiliser, detergent, leather and
river is ‘dead’ at many places where paint industries. These industrial units
the pollution levels are so high that discharge toxic chemical wastes into the
aquatic life cannot survive. river.
An ambitious plan to save the river, Based on the above information
called the Ganga Action Plan was think of the answers to the following
launched in 1985. It aimed to reduce questions –
the pollution levels in the river. l What are the factors responsible for
However, the increasing population and pollution of the river ?
industrialisation have already damaged
l What steps can be taken to restore
this mighty river beyond repair. Now, the
the river Ganga to its past glory ?
Government of India has launched a new
l How would the disposal of garbage,
initiative known as National Mission for
etc., affect the living organisms in
Clean Ganga (NMCG) in 2016.
the river ?
Let us take a specific example to
understand the situation. The Ganga Many industries discharge harmful
at Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), has chemicals into rivers and streams,
one of the most polluted stretches of causing the pollution of water
the river (Fig. 7.8). Kanpur is one of (Fig. 7.9). Examples are oil refineries,
the most populated towns in U.P. paper factories, textile and sugar mills

Fig. 7.8 : A polluted stretch of the river Fig. 7.9 : Industrial waste discharged into
Ganga a river
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 89
and chemical factories. These industries food wastes, detergents, microor-
cause chemical contamination of water. ganisms, etc. Can ground water get
The chemicals released include arsenic, polluted by sewage? How? Water
lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity contaminated with sewage may contain
in plants and animals. There are bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
regulations to prevent this. Industries which cause diseases like cholera,
are supposed to treat the waste typhoid and jaundice.
produced before discharging it into The bacteria present in the faeces
waters, but quite often the rules are not of mammals are indicators of the
followed. The soil is also affected by quality of water. If water has these
impure water, causing changes in bacteria, it means that it has been
acidity, growth of worms, etc. contaminated by fecal matter. If such
We have learnt in Chapter 3 the water is used by us, it can cause various
importance of pesticides and weedicides infections.
for the protection of crops. However, all
these chemicals dissolve in water and Do you know?
are washed into water bodies from the Hot water can also be a pollutant !
fields. They also seep into the ground This is usually water from power
to pollute ground water. plants and industries. It is released
Have you seen ponds which look into the rivers. It raises the
green from a distance because they temperature of the waterbody,
have a lot of algae growing in them? adversely affecting the animals and
This is caused by excessive quantities plants living in it.
of chemicals which get washed from the
fields. These act as nutrients for algae 7.8 What is Potable Water
to flourish. Once these algae die, they and How is Water
serve as food for decomposers like Purified ?
bacteria. A lot of oxygen in the water
body gets used up. This results in a
decrease in the oxygen level which may Activity 7.7
kill aquatic organisms.
Let us construct a water filter with
simple, everyday materials.
Recall Activity 7.6
Take a plastic bottle and cut it
You had investigated the sewage into 2 halves at the centre. Use the
disposal system of your locality in upper half as a funnel by putting it
Class VII. upside down in the lower half. Make
Do you remember how the layers in it with paper napkin or a
sewage was collected from your fine cloth followed by, cotton, sand
home and where it went thereafter? and then gravel. Now pour dirty
water through the filter and
Sometimes untreated sewage is
thrown directly into rivers. It contains observe the filtered water.

90 BIOLOGY
 water. Boiling kills the germs present
Discuss the following questions
in the water.
amongst yourselves and with your
l Chlorination is a commonly used
teacher:
chemical method for purifying water.
l Why do we need to filter water
It is done by adding chlorine tablets
before drinking ?
or bleaching powder to the water. We
l Where do you get your drinking
must be cautious. We should not
water from?
use more chlorine tablets than
l What will happen if we drink
specified.
polluted water?
7.9 What Can be Done?
Boojho is very upset. He tells Paheli
that he drank water which looked clear Activity 7.8
and was without any smell, but still he Investigate the level of awareness
fell sick ! about water pollution in your area.
Paheli explains that water which Collect data on the sources of
looks clean may still have disease- drinking water and the methods of
carrying microorganisms and dissolved sewage disposal.
impurities. So, it is essential to purify What are the common water-borne
water before drinking, for example, by diseases in the community? You
boiling. can consult your local doctor/
Water which is suitable for drinking health worker for this.
is called potable water. You have seen Which are the governmental and
how various physical and chemical non-governmental organisations
processes in the sewage treatment working in this field? What are the
plants help to clean water before measures being taken by them for
discharging it into water bodies. generating awareness?
Similarly, municipal bodies treat the
water before supplying it to households.
Laws for industrial units should be
Do you know? strictly implemented so that polluted
water is not disposed off directly into
25% of the world’s population is
without safe drinking water ! rivers and lakes. Water treatment plants
should be installed in all industrial
Let us see how water can be made areas (Fig. 7.10). At our individual levels
safe for drinking: we should consciously save water and
l You have already seen how water is not waste it. Reduce, reuse and recycle
filtered. This is a physical method should be our mantra !
of removing impurities. A popular Think of your daily routine – how
household filter is a candle type can you save water?
filter. We can think of creative ideas like
l Many households use boiling as a reusing water used for washing and for
method for obtaining safe drinking other household tasks. For example,

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 91

 Fig. 7.10 : Water treatment plant
water used for washing vegetables may of our daily lives. Unless we all realise
be used to water plants in the garden. our responsibility and start using
Pollution is no longer a distant environment-friendly processes, the
phenomenon. It is affecting the quality very survival of our planet is in danger.

Do you know?
While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several
litres of water. A tap that drips once every second wastes a few thousand
litres of water every year. Think about it !

92 BIOLOGY
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
AIR POLLUTION Ü Air pollution is the contamination of air by

CHEMICAL impurities which may have a harmful im-

CONTAMINATION pact on the living organisms and the non-

living components.
GLOBAL WARMING Ü Pollutants are the substances which contami-
nate air and water.
GREENHOUSE
Ü Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
EFFECT
dioxide, methane and sulphur dioxide are
POLLUTANTS the major pollutants of air.
Ü Increasing levels of greenhouse gases like
POTABLE WATER
CO2 are leading to global warming.
WATER POLLUTION Ü Water pollution is the contamination of wa-
ter by substances harmful to life.
Ü Sewage, agricultural chemicals and indus-
trial waste are some of the major contami-
nants of water.
Ü Water which is purified and fit for drinking
is known as potable water.
Ü Water is a precious natural resource. We
must learn to conserve it.

Exercises

1. What are the different ways in which water gets contaminated ?

2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air pollution?

3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.

4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town.

Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure the supply of
clean water to all its residents.
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.

6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid rain affect us?

7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?

(a) Carbon dioxide

(b) Sulphur dioxide

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 93

 (c) Methane

EXERCISES (d Nitrogen
8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words.

9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming. You have to deliver the speech
in your class.
10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.

11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect the survival
of aquatic organisms?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. In some cities, a pollution check has been made compulsory for
vehicles. Visit a petrol pump in order to learn about the process of
conducting a pollution check. You may systematically record your
findings in the following areas:

l Average number of vehicles checked per month.

l Time taken to check each vehicle.

l Pollutants checked for.

l The process of testing.

l Permissible levels of emission of various gases.

l Measures taken if the emitted gases are above the

permissible limits.
l How frequently is a pollution check required ?

2. Conduct a survey in your school to investigate various

environment related activities that have been undertaken. The
class can divide itself into two groups, with each group looking at
a different area. For example, one group can find out whether there
is an environment club in the school. What are its objectives ?
What is its calendar of events ? How can you become a member ?

If your school does not have such a club, you even think of starting
one along with a few of your friends.
3. Organise a field visit to a river in or around your town with the
help of your teachers.

94 BIOLOGY
 Observations followed by discussion could focus on

l the history of the river.

l cultural traditions.

l role of the river in meeting the town’s water needs.

l pollution concerns.
l sources of pollution.

l effects of pollution on the people living by the riverside as

well as those living far away.
4. Find out with the help of your teachers and the internet (if possible),
whether there are any international agreements to control global
warming. Which are the gases covered under these agreements?

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 95

 GLOSSARY

A Cell Wall 5

Acid Rain 84 Chemical Contamination 90

Adam’s Apple 58 Chloroplast 7

Adolescence 55 Chromosome 6, 60

Adrenalin 62 Communicable Diseases 17

Agricultural Practices 26, 27 Crop 26

Air Pollution 82 Cytoplasm 4, 5, 6

Algae 6, 90
D
Animal Husbandry 37
Deforestation 69, 70
Antibiotics 14
Desertification 70
Antibodies 15

Asexual Reproduction 42, 48, 49 E

Ecosystem 75
B
Eggs 44-48
Bacteria 11, 13
Embryo 46
Balanced Diet 62
Endangered Species 76
Binary Fission 50
Endemic Species 73
Biodiversity 70, 71
Endocrine Glands 59
Biosphere Reserve 69, 70
Estrogen 59
Budding 49
Eukaryotes 6

C External Fertilisation 45

Cell 1 Extinct 75

Cell Membrane 4

96 BIOLOGY
F L
Fauna 72 Lactobacillus 13

Fermentation 14 Larynx 57

Fertilisation 44 Lightning 20

Fertiliser 27-32, 89
M
Flora 72
Manure 27-32
Foetus 47
Metamorphosis 48
Fossil Fuel 84
Microorganism 11
Fungi 11
Migratory Birds 76, 77

G Multicellular 2

Gene 6
N
Global Warming 70, 86
National Park 74
Granaries 37
Nitrogen Cycle 21
Green House Effect 85
Nitrogen Fixation 20

H Nuclear Membrane 6

Harvesting 27, 35 Nucleolus 6

Hormones 59 Nucleus 6

I O
Insulin 62 Organ 3

Internal Fertilisation 44 Organelles 6

Irrigation 27, 32 Oviparous Animals 47

K P
Kharif 27 Pasteurisation 20

Pathogen 17

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 97

Pituitary Gland 59 T
Plasma membrane 4 Target Site 59

Plastid 7 Testosterone 59

Plough 28 Threshing 36

Pollutants 83 Thyroxine 61

Potable Water 90 Tissue 3

Preservation 19
U
Prokaryotes 6
Unicellular 2
Protozoa 11

Pseudopodia 3
V
Vaccine 15
Puberty 55, 56
Vacuole 7
R
Virus 11
Rabi 27
Viviparous Animals 47
Red Data Book 76
Voice Box 57
Reforestation 77

Reproductive Health 62 W
Water Pollution 82
Rhizobium 20
Weedicide 35
S
Weeds 35
Sanctuary 69
White Blood Cell (WBC) 3
Secondary Sexual Characters 58
Winnowing 36
Seeds 29

Sex Chromosomes 60
Y
Sexual Reproduction 42 Yeast 14, 49

Silo 37 Z
Sowing 29 Zygote 42, 44, 46, 61
Sperms 43

Storage 20, 36

98 BIOLOGY
 Did You Know?
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is a process in which the red worms (a type of earthworms)
convert the organic wastes into manure which is rich in nutrients for plant
growth.
Pr ocess of V
Process er
Ver micomposting:
ermicomposting:
1) Dig a pit of about 30 cm depth or keep a wooden box at a place, which is
neither too hot nor too cool.
2) Spread a net or chicken mesh on the bottom of the pit or the box.
3) Spread some vegetable wastes, peels of fruits, pieces of dried stalks of plants,
husk, dried animal dung, pieces of newspaper over the net.
4) Sprinkle some water to make this layer wet.
5) Keep this layer loose. So that it has sufficient air and moisture.
6) Now release some red worms in the pit/box.
7) Cover pit/box loosely with a gunny bag.
8) Once in a few days, gently mix and move the top layers of pit/box.
9) Powdered egg shells should be mixed with the wastes to help redworms in
grinding their food.
10) Observe the contents of the pit carefully after 3-4 weeks.
11) You will see loose soil like material in the pit/box. It is the vermicompost
which is ready to use.
Advantages of Vermicompost:
Vermicompost
a) imporves the physical stucture of the soil.
b) increases the fertility and water retaining capacity of the soil.
c) helps in germination, plant growth and better crop yield.
d) nurtures soil with plant growth hormones such as auxins, gibberellins etc.

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 99

 NOTES

100 BIOLOGY