Review

Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Structural Ceramics for

Tribological Applications: Principles, Techniques, Microstructure
and Properties
Wei-Jian Miao, Shu-Qi Wang *, Zi-Heng Wang, Fan-Bin Wu, Yun-Zhuo Zhang, Jia-Hu Ouyang * , Ya-Ming Wang
and Yong-Chun Zou

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China;
[email protected] (W.-J.M.); [email protected] (Z.-H.W.); [email protected] (F.-B.W.);
[email protected] (Y.-Z.Z.); [email protected] (Y.-M.W.); [email protected] (Y.-C.Z.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.-Q.W.); [email protected] (J.-H.O.)

Abstract: Additive manufacturing technology has the advantages of precise manufactur-

ing, high levels of customization, and large-scale molding; it can achieve the design of
complex geometric structures and structural/functional integrated components, which
is difficult to realize using traditional manufacturing technology, especially for different
tribological applications. Ceramic materials are widely used in industries such as high-
end manufacturing in aviation, aerospace, energy, and biomedicine due to their excellent
wear resistance, high temperature stability, and hardness. The tribological properties of
ceramic parts determine their versatility and durability during the application process.
The rise of additive manufacturing technology in the field of ceramics has opened up the
possibility of creating ceramics with excellent friction and wear properties and overcom-
ing the limitations of traditional manufacturing processes. Although several studies on
3D printing of wear-resistant/self-lubricating metal- or polymer-based parts have been
published, there has until now been no comprehensive review of additive manufacturing
of advanced structural ceramics and composites for the purpose of reducing friction and
enhancing wear-resistant properties. This article discusses the currently used ceramic
additive manufacturing technology and processes, the ceramic materials used in the field of
Received: 7 January 2025 tribology, and how the combination of these two can improve the tribological properties of
Revised: 18 February 2025 ceramic components from the perspective of micro- and macrostructures. Finally, specific
Accepted: 3 March 2025 tribological applications of additively manufactured ceramics in various industrial and
Published: 5 March 2025 biomedical fields are also introduced.
Citation: Miao, W.-J.; Wang, S.-Q.;
Wang, Z.-H.; Wu, F.-B.; Zhang, Y.-Z.; Keywords: additive manufacturing; 3D printing; ceramic; tribology
Ouyang, J.-H.; Wang, Y.-M.; Zou, Y.-C.
Additive Manufacturing of Advanced
Structural Ceramics for Tribological
Applications: Principles, Techniques,
Microstructure and Properties.
1. Introduction
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112. https:// Friction, wear, and lubrication are phenomena that constantly occur on interacting
doi.org/10.3390/lubricants13030112 surfaces in relative motion in nature. In industrial production and applications, friction
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. and wear have complex effects on mechanical structures and physical and chemical char-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. acteristics of material contact surfaces. It is important to understand the nature of these
This article is an open access article interactions and solve the technological problems associated with interfacial contact. About
distributed under the terms and 23% of the world’s total energy consumption comes from frictional contact, of which 20%
conditions of the Creative Commons
is used to overcome friction, and 3% is used to remanufacture worn parts and spare equip-
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
ment due to friction- and wear-related failures [1]. Advanced ceramic-based self-lubricating
licenses/by/4.0/).

Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants13030112

Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 2 of 38

materials are expected to become promising candidates for use in high-temperature en-
vironments above 1000 ◦ C due to their low specific density, good mechanical properties,
and excellent oxidation resistance [2,3]. However, ceramic materials usually have relatively
high friction coefficients and wear rates under the conditions of high temperatures and
dry sliding wear, as well as heavy loads or high sliding speeds [4], which is not conducive
to the stable and safe operation of equipment over long periods. Nowadays, humanity is
facing challenges related to sustainable, ecological, and green development, and unneces-
sary friction and wear will have a harmful impact on industry. Therefore, it is crucial to
promote the development and innovation of friction-reducing and wear-resistant materials
and technologies.
Additive manufacturing (AM) technology has the advantages of complex structural
design, rapid prototyping, the precise regulation of shapes/properties, etc.; it has been
confirmed to be applicable to the production of structural/functional integrated parts using
metals, polymers, ceramics or combinations of multi-materials [5–9]. The ultraviolet-light-
assisted direct ink writing (DIW) method was used to produce polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE)-polyimide architectures for tribological applications in aerospace, aviation, and
microelectronics [9]. After post-heat treatment, the 3D-printed PTFE-filled photosensi-
tive polyimide bearing was effectively verified, and it exhibited excellent self-lubricating
properties with a low friction coefficient of only 0.09 and a low wear rate [8]. Additive
manufacturing technology has showcased bright application prospects in a variety of fields.
It has received particular attention in tribology, in areas such as aviation, aerospace, energy,
metallurgy, electronic industries, and biomedical implants. The manufactured parts include
impellers, bearings, bushings, screws and nuts, blast nozzles, cutting tools, dental crown,
implants, hip prostheses, bone tissue engineering, pumps, dies, valves, seals, and other
rotatory or sliding tribo-components.
Although several studies on 3D-printing of wear-resistant/self-lubricating metal-
or polymer-based parts have been published, no comprehensive review has yet been
conducted on additive manufacturing of advanced structural ceramics and composites for
the purpose of reducing friction and enhancing wear resistance. It is equally important
that additively manufactured ceramic components treated with friction-reducing and anti-
wear processes are good candidates for load-bearing applications under extreme working
conditions such as high contact pressure, high sliding speeds, elevated temperatures, severe
oxidation and chemical reactivity, and nuclear radiation environments. So far, AM-based
ceramic parts with excellent friction and wear properties have been implemented [4,10–13].
Hence, the combination of 3D printing’s customizability and high precision with high-
performance ceramic materials facilitates an innovative approach to the design and creation
of lubrication structures. Interestingly, a variety of advanced structural materials such
as circular-cored square/hexagonal honeycomb topologies, highly rigid 3D egg boxes,
‘lollipops’, inverted ‘Y’ structures, etc., can be 3D printed into tribological components for
structural/functional integrated applications [14–16].

2. Ceramic Additive Manufacturing Technology and Process

Ceramic 3D printing technology and processes can be classified based on the nature
of raw materials, the process involved, and the molding mechanism used. According to
the ASTM/ISO 52900:2021 standard for additive manufacturing technologies, the methods
are divided into seven categories: material extrusion, material jetting, barrel photopoly-
merization, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, directed energy deposition, and binder
jetting [17]. Similarly, Sun et al. [18] classified ceramic additive manufacturing processes
into four main types based on the inherent formation mechanisms of various additive manu-
facturing technologies: extrusion-based technology, photopolymerization-based technology,
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 3 of 38

powder-fusion-based technology, and powder-bonding-based technology. Therefore, the

advantages and limitations of these technologies are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of various ceramic additive manufacturing
technologies.

Forming
Technology Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
Mechanism
Economy and simplicity; high
Fused deposition modelling Slow molding speed
utilization rate of ceramic [19–21]
(FDM) and low precision.
consumables.
Extrusion
Printing at normal
Small molding size and
Direct ink writing (DIW) temperatures; multi- [12,22,23]
low precision.
material adaptability.
The molding speed is
High-precision large-size slow and the
Stereolithography (SLA) [24–27]
molding; environment
requirements are harsh.
Photosensitive Small molding size; the
Higher print speeds and
polymerization Digital light processing lifting method can
accuracy of laying compared [4,11,28–36]
(DLP) easily damage the
with SLA.
sample surface.
Complex microscopic 3D
Two-photon polymerization High manufacturing
structures and nanoscale [37,38]
(TPP) cost.
feature sizes.
High ceramic material
Slow molding speed;
Selective laser melting (SLM) utilization; high finished [39,40]
rough surface.
product density.
Powder melting Rough surface; the
High ceramic material
instrument needs to be
Selective laser sintering (SLS) utilization; No debinding and [39,41]
warmed up and cooled
sintering process required.
down.
Complex structure
Powder molding is limited;
Binder jet 3D printing (BJP) Adhesive is easy to remove. [42–44]
Bonding difficult to utilize
fine powder.

2.1. Ceramic 3D Printing Technology Based on Extrusion Molding Mechanisms

Extrusion molding refers to the process of extruding a fluid ceramic material paste
through a nozzle of a certain caliber in a continuous flow method to form an ideal geometric
shape, thereby forming and producing ceramic parts [45]. It is divided into two methods
according to the nozzle design, the deposition characteristics of the binder, and the extrusion
mode of ceramic materials: fused deposition modelling (FDM) and DIW processes. At
present, this process is the most commonly used additive manufacturing technology for
composite ceramics due to its adaptability of combining multiple materials with ceramics.
Three different processes are used to achieve the additive manufacturing of composite
materials. The first method uses multiple separate nozzles to store a variety of different
raw materials and switches the order during the printing process to achieve the formation
of a multi-material structure [46]. The second method uses a single nozzle to adjust the
feed switch of raw materials to control the ratio of different raw materials, which realizes
the possibility of manufacturing ceramic multi-materials with functional gradients [12].
The third method involves pre-mixing before co-extrusion to selectively produce different
raw materials [22].
Fused deposition modelling (or the fused deposition of ceramics), also known as
fused filament manufacturing, builds parts layer by layer by selectively depositing molten
material in a predetermined path. It uses thermoplastic resins in the form of filaments
 polymers, printing out ceramic green bodies in the FDM process, and then performing a
debinding and sintering process to remove the polymer components to obtain the final
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 ceramic products. In fact, because the viscosity and elasticity of pre-ceramic polymers can
4 of 38
be adjusted and converted into filaments through melt extrusion, the consumables used
can be spherical [19]. FDM can now produce SiC ceramic components with complex
structures for use
incorporated withindifferent
high-temperature environments,
volume fractions as shown
of ceramic in Figure
precursor 1a [20]. to form the
or particles
The DIW process involves preparing polymers and other ingredients into liquid or
final physical object [47] Currently, FDM is the most successful industrialized 3D printing
semi-liquid sprayable substances and releasing the mixed substances onto the substrate
technology, with the advantages of the low price of consumables, a simple and economical
through a nozzle or a pen-like dispenser [9,12]. The paste material is then extruded from
process, and high production efficiency.
the nozzle and quickly solidifies after deposition to form the desired 3D structure, as
When FDM is combined with ceramic materials, the polymer-derived ceramics route
shown in Figure 1b. For the manufacturing of ceramic materials, it is necessary to
is also adopted, using pre-ceramic polymers as precursors of the target ceramics, providing
consolidate them through an oven process after DIW printing. Compared with FDM, the
molding capabilities
raw ink materials are through
extrudedthe molding
at room technology
temperature andofhave
thermoplastic polymers,and
broad compatibility printing
out
high process flexibility, but the ceramic ink used must exhibit properties such as stability, and
ceramic green bodies in the FDM process, and then performing a debinding
sintering process
viscoelasticity, andtoaremove thecontent
high solid polymer incomponents to obtain the extruded
order to be continuously final ceramic
fromproducts.
the
In fact, because the viscosity and elasticity of pre-ceramic polymers can be
nozzle without clogging [48]. Fan et al. [12] were able to control the material compositionadjusted and
converted into filaments
and its gradient through
by adjusting melt extrusion,
the relative flow ratesthe consumables
of different used
slurries, canthe
and beprepared
spherical [19].
FDM
gears can
madenowof produce
graphene/AlSiC2Oceramic components
3 composites with a with complex
gradient structures
mechanism, whichfor had
use in
an high-
temperature
excellent wearenvironments,
resistance. as shown in Figure 1a [20].

Figure 1. Ceramic 3D printing technology based on the extrusion molding mechanism: (a) the
FDM process and the SiC green body and sintered body printed with different parameters [20],
copyright (2023), with permission from Elsevier. (b) Ink direct writing 3D printing ceramic process
and equipment and manufactured graphene/Al2 O3 ceramics [12], copyright (2023), with permission
from Wiley-VCH GmbH.

The DIW process involves preparing polymers and other ingredients into liquid or
semi-liquid sprayable substances and releasing the mixed substances onto the substrate
through a nozzle or a pen-like dispenser [9,12]. The paste material is then extruded from
the nozzle and quickly solidifies after deposition to form the desired 3D structure, as shown
in Figure 1b. For the manufacturing of ceramic materials, it is necessary to consolidate them
through an oven process after DIW printing. Compared with FDM, the raw ink materials
are extruded at room temperature and have broad compatibility and high process flexibility,
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 5 of 38

but the ceramic ink used must exhibit properties such as stability, viscoelasticity, and a high
solid content in order to be continuously extruded from the nozzle without clogging [48].
Fan et al. [12] were able to control the material composition and its gradient by adjusting
the relative flow rates of different slurries, and the prepared gears made of graphene/Al2 O3
composites with a gradient mechanism, which had an excellent wear resistance.
The binder system of extrusion 3D printing requires a suitable debinding process to
remove it. Table 2 summarizes the binder systems and debinding processes involved in
FDM and DIW. Wax-based binder system is used as a ceramic skeleton binder. In ceramic
additive manufacturing, thermal debinding is required to eliminate these binders [49].
Kong et al. [20] performed thermal debinding on SiC blanks printed by extrusion with a
wax-based binder. Chen et al. [50] performed thermal debinding on FDM-printed zirconia
and found that the hardness and flexural strength of the sintered parts were 1486 ± 87 HV
and 495 ± 11.8 MPa, respectively.

Table 2. Binder systems and corresponding debinding processes of extrusion-based 3D printing.

Solid
Process Ceramics Binder System Dispersant Debinding Process Ref.
Content
Heat debinding at 1400 ◦ C in
- SMP-730 - [19]
Ar (Including sintering).
SiC
Heat debinding at 130, 280,
48 vol% PW/HDPE/LDPE/SA PEG [20]
FDM 335 and 570 ◦ C for 5 h.
N-heptane solvent
cBN 60 vol% Al/TiN/HDPE/EVA/PW - debinding and heat [21]
debinding at 580 ◦ C.
Heat debinding at 550 ◦ C
Al2 O3 65 wt.% Water/methyl cellulose PEG [23]
for 1 h.
Graphene Heat debinding at 350 ◦ C
80.0 wt.% PVA/CA/TEOA Na2 CO3 /H3 PO4 [12]
DIW /Al2 O3 and 700 ◦ C for 2 h and 2 h.
Methylcellulose/deionized
Phosphoric acid Heat debinding at 300 ◦ C for
ZrO2 (3Y) 60 vol% water/ammonium [22]
ester solution 3 h and 600 ◦ C for 4 h.
polymethacrylate

Moreover, solvent debinding is a kind of debinding process that uses solvents such as
n-heptane, trichloroethane, and dichloromethane [51] to remove small molecular weight
binders of paraffin and stearic acid. It has the advantages of avoiding partial shape defects
and reducing the total debinding time. Many efforts have been made to combine these two
to use a step-by-step debinding process, in which interconnected pore paths are formed
during the solvent debinding process; this helps the decomposition gas produced by the
pyrolysis of the remaining binder to be discharged from the part followed by the thermal
debinding process. Liu et al. [21] used a two-step debinding method for solvent debinding
and thermal debinding to remove the wax-based binder of FDM-printed cubic boron nitride
using n-heptane. The bending strength and hardness of the sintered cBN samples reached
maximum values of 1000.1 MPa and 4221.5 HV at a sintering temperature of 1500 ◦ C.
Lim et al. [52] used a mixed solvent debinding method of cyclohexane and ethanol, as
well as a combined method of thermal debinding to degrease a green zirconia body based
on screw-extrusion 3D printing. The sintered specimens that underwent this debinding
method had a density of 97.5%, a Vickers hardness of 12.3 GPa, and a fracture toughness of
5.5 MPa·m1/2 .
Since solvent debinding mostly uses various toxic and polluting organic solvents,
catalytic debinding or water-based binder systems are selected. Yi et al. [53] conducted cat-
alytic debinding on NiFe2 O4 -Cu-20Ni metal–ceramic and polyoxymethylene (POM)-based
binder composite samples. At 120 ◦ C, POM can be rapidly decomposed into formaldehyde
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 6 of 38

in an acidic atmosphere. The optimal average flexural strength of the sintered NiFe2 O4 -
based composite sample is 173.5 MPa, which is close to that (178.4 MPa) of the sample
produced by traditional injection molding. Sarraf et al. [54] developed a mixture of ethylene
vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a binder for environmental protection,
which could be successfully treated by solvent debinding in water.

2.2. Ceramic 3D Printing Technology Based on Photopolymerization Mechanisms

Ceramic additive manufacturing based on photopolymerization uses a ceramic resin
slurry system or a polymer ceramic precursor (pre-ceramic polymer, PCP) as the raw
material in the fluid photosensitive liquid system. Photopolymerization, also known as
photocuring, refers to the phenomenon whereby, when polymer monomers are exposed
to light of a specific wavelength, a cross-linking polymerization reaction is initiated to
solidify the liquid resin [55,56]. As shown in Figure 2a, in the ceramic resin slurry system,
the photosensitive resin is cross-linked and polymerized to form a network structure that
wraps the ceramic powder particles, making them dispersed and forming a solid ceramic
polymer [57]. According to the type of light used in photopolymerization, as well as the
process parameters and equipment, there are three kinds of printing technologies: stere-
olithography (SLA) [58], digital light processing (DLP) [59] and two-photon polymerization
(TPP) [60,61]. The subsequent post-processing process, including thermal debinding and
sintering, removes organic resin components and densification, which is similar to the
sol–gel injection molding process for producing ceramic manufacturing methods. This
section focuses on the development of the SLA, DLP, and TPP processes in the technology
of ceramic additive manufacturing.
SLA technology was proposed and developed by C. Hull in 1986 and later commer-
cialized by 3D Systems Co., Ltd. [58]. SLA is a process that uses a light source of a specific
wavelength (usually in the UV range) to selectively cure the surface of a liquid in a tank con-
taining mainly photopolymerizable monomers and very small amounts of other additives
(photoinitiators). DLP technology is similar to SLA in that it is based on the polymerization
of photopolymerizable monomers by the absorption of single photons [59]. With the devel-
opment of stereolithography, new nanofabrication technologies have emerged, including
two-photon polymerization (TPP), which relies on TPA, a nonlinear optical phenomenon
that was theoretically proposed by Göppert Mayer in 1931 and experimentally observed
by Kaiser and Garrett 30 years after the advent of lasers [60,61]. As shown in Figure 2b,c,
compared to traditional single-photon absorption, the molecule transitions from the ground
state to the excited state when absorbing two photons instead of one photon. TPA can
be divided into non-degenerate and degenerate cases. In the non-degenerate case, two
photons are absorbed sequentially and there is a real intermediate state. In the degenerate
case, two photons are absorbed simultaneously and there is a temporary virtual state. The
probability of TPA is proportional to the square of the laser intensity (non-degenerate
case) or proportional to the product of the intensities of the two laser beams (degenerate
case) [62]. Therefore, TPA-based TPP is able to break the diffraction limit and show high
resolution in the 3D printing of complex structures with feature sizes below 200 nm [62–64].
The photoactivated polymerization process (i.e., the liquid monomer becomes a solid
resin) is typically performed on a point-to-line, line-to-layer, and then layer-by-layer basis,
while the light is scanned across the liquid surface. When the polymerization of a layer is
complete, the barrel or platform supporting the produced part falls and rises according to
the thickness of the layer, depending on whether the 3D printing process is a bottom-up
or top-down variety. Some devices require a scraper to smooth the liquid surface before
printing the next layer. SLA is capable of manufacturing parts with high surface quality at
 Lubricants 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 39
Lubricants 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 39
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 7 of 38

at a fine resolution of microns. A schematic diagram of a typical SLA technique is shown

atina Figure
fine resolution
3a [65].ofof microns. A schematic diagram of a typical SLA technique is shown
a fine resolution microns. A schematic diagram of a typical SLA technique is shown in
in Figure
The3a [65]. stereolithographic process is achieved by adding ceramic powder to a
ceramic
Figure 3a [65].
The ceramic
photocurable stereolithographic
medium. process is achieved
Ceramic stereolithography (CSL)by can
adding ceramic
be used powder to a a
to manufacture
The ceramic stereolithographic process is achieved by adding ceramic powder to a
photocurable medium. ceramic
variety of advanced Ceramic parts
stereolithography
with complex (CSL) can be used
geometric to due
shapes manufacture a
to its high
photocurable medium. Ceramic stereolithography (CSL) can be used to manufacture a
variety of advanced
resolution ceramic
[66]. CSL has madeparts
significant complex ingeometric
with progress shapes
recent years, due it
enabling totoits high
produce
variety
resolution
of [66].
advanced ceramicsignificant
CSL ceramic
has made
parts with complex geometric shapes due to its high res-
high-performance parts, such asprogress in in
those used recent years, enabling
the extreme it to produce
high-temperature and
olution [66].
high-performance CSL has made
ceramic significant
parts, such as progress
those used in
in recent
the years,
extreme enabling it to and
high-temperature produce
high-pressure environments of the aerospace industry [67].
high-performance ceramic parts,
high-pressure environments of the such as those
aerospace used [67].
industry in the extreme high-temperature and
high-pressure environments of the aerospace industry [67].

Figure2.2.Principle
Figure Principle ofof photopolymerization:
photopolymerization: (a) (a)light
lighttransmission
transmission between
between ceramic slurries
ceramic [57],[57],
slurries
Figure 2.
copyright Principle
copyright(2019), of
(2019), with photopolymerization:
with permission
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American transmission
American Chemical between
Society.
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(b) One-photon
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Figure3.3.Ceramic
Figure Ceramic 3D3D printing
printing technology basedon
technology based onphotopolymerization
photopolymerization mechanisms:
mechanisms: (a) SLA
(a) SLA
diagram
Figure 3.[65],
diagram [65],copyright
Ceramic (2018),
3D printing
copyright with permission
permission
(2018), technology from
basedfrom Elsevier.(b)(b)
on Elsevier. Flow
photopolymerization
Flow chart
chart of the
mechanisms:
of the steps
steps in
in(a)the the CSL
SLA
CSL
process:
process: 1. Preparation of a suitable photocurable ceramic suspension by mixing ceramic powder and
diagram 1. Preparation
[65], copyright of a suitable
(2018), with photocurable
permission fromceramic suspension
Elsevier. (b) Flow by mixing
chart of the ceramic
steps in powder
the CSL
photosensitive
process: resin;resin;
1. Preparation
and photosensitive 2.of
Printing ceramic
a2.suitable
Printing parts;
photocurable
ceramic 3.ceramic
parts;Debinding and
suspension
3. Debinding andpolymer removal;
by mixing
polymer ceramic
removal; 4.4. Sintering
Sintering the
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Principle with permission
of ceramic
from Elsevier.
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 8 of 38

As shown in Figure 3b, the CSL process includes the following main steps: mixing
ceramic powders with photosensitive resin, dispersing these ceramic powders evenly in
the solution via high-speed stirring, preparing a high-solid-content-loading, low-viscosity
ceramic slurry, and then directly curing the ceramic slurry layer by layer on a photocuring
machine to obtain a blank ceramic part, which is then heated and debinded to remove the
internal organic components, and finally sintering to obtain a densified ceramic part [66].
The ceramic photocuring slurry is composed of ceramic powders, a photocuring monomer,
a photoinitiator, a dispersant, diluent, etc. The ceramic photocuring molding process has a
fast-molding speed and a short production cycle. As long as the platform is large enough,
multiple parts can be printed at the same time. The photocuring molding accuracy is
±0.01 mm, and the surface morphology of the parts is better than those produced using
the traditional FDM process.
Compared with the raw resin, the addition of ceramic powder significantly increases
the viscosity and light transmittance of the resin, making the processing of ceramic slurry
more difficult [70,71]. The sedimentation and rheological properties of the slurry are key
parameters in the 3D printing process. During the photocuring process, the slurry is mostly
in a static state, so it is particularly important to inhibit the sedimentation of ceramic
particles in the slurry. When the ceramic powder is precipitated in the resin medium, the
sedimentation rate depends on the resistance of the medium to the ceramic particles. The
resistance can be divided into pressure and friction resistances. Since the relative movement
speed between the ceramic particles and the resin is low, the pressure resistance is low,
and only the friction resistance needs to be considered [72]. Liu et al. [24] manufactured
ZrO2 -Al2 O3 composite ceramic parts with an actual density of 3.75 g/cm3 , a hardness of
14.1 GPa, and a fracture toughness of 4.05 MPa·m1/2 based on SLA-3D printing technology
followed by debinding and sintering.
The difference between DLP and SLA is that its photopolymerization process relies
on the digital light source of the imaging projector instead of the ultraviolet laser. DLP
technology generally cures the photosensitive ceramic/resin composite slurry layer by
layer through a projector that generates a cross-sectional light image with a wavelength
of 405 nm [10]. Compared with the point-line surface layer-by-layer scanning printing
process of SLA, the light projection speed of DLP improves the manufacturing efficiency of
the ceramic photocuring process. At the same time, the ability to generate high-resolution
images with a minimum size of less than 50 µm also improves the printing accuracy and
resolution [73].
In order to solve the problem associated with the printed layers influencing the me-
chanical and tribological properties of the finished products, Zhang et al. [28] proposed a
DLP-based continuous ceramic printing technology using a composite oxygen-rich mem-
brane. A composite oxygen-rich membrane consisting of a microporous PET membrane
and a PDMS coating was designed. The oxygen control inhibition effect and low surface
energy ensured the appropriate dead zone thickness, as shown in Figure 3c [28]. The
surface roughness of final printed product was only 0.127 µm.
TPP technology was first applied to photosensitive resins to produce simple 3D
structures [74]. In 1997, Maruo et al. [75] used polyurethane acrylate resin to prepare a spiral
structure with a diameter of 7 µm, demonstrating the feasibility of TPP in manufacturing
complex 3D microstructures. The use of polymer materials to manufacture high-precision
3D structures has inspired the use of nanomanufacturing processes to manufacture ceramic
components with complex 3D microstructures and nanoscale feature sizes. The TPP
process has better micron-resolution processing capabilities than SLA, so it can be used to
manufacture higher-precision ceramic parts.
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 9 of 38

Prediger et al. [37] used a high-resolution two-photon lithography to manufacture

transparent polycrystalline magnesium aluminate spinel ceramic structures with micron-
level resolution. After debinding, sintering, and hot isostatic pressing, a transparent
spinel ceramic with a surface roughness (Sq) of 10 nm and a minimum feature size of
less than 13 µm was obtained. Chai et al. [38] used a femtosecond laser and two-photon
polymerization to manufacture 3D ceramic green bodies, aiming to form a high-quality
3D glass-ceramic microstructure from a continuous -Si-O-Si-O-Zr-O- inorganic skeleton.
After sintering, a three-dimensional microcrystalline glass nanolattice glass ceramic with
perfect integrity and a smooth surface was obtained. This technology is highly important
for the production of microstructured ceramics for wear-resistant optic devices, photonics
or photocatalysis, and tribological applications. After printing the ceramic green body, it
needs to be heat treated to obtain pure ceramic parts. First, it is necessary to determine the
appropriate thermal debinding curve to remove the organic phase (binder) in the green
body. During the process, both high shrinkage and rapid gas generation should be avoided
so that the final performance of the product will not be reduced.
Table 3 shows the slurry systems and corresponding debinding processes for pho-
topolymerization 3D-printing ceramics. Thermal debinding is the most commonly used
debinding method, which utilizes the oxidation or pyrolysis of organic matter at high tem-
peratures. Therefore, it is also divided into air debinding and vacuum or inert atmosphere
debinding. In order to determine the appropriate debinding temperature and remove
the resin without generating defects, the weight loss is monitored by thermogravime-
try/differential scanning calorimetry (TGA-DSC). The photosensitive resins used, such
as HDDA, TMPTA and DCPDA, have a debinding temperature of 300–500 ◦ C in an air
atmosphere [29].

Table 3. Slurry systems and corresponding debinding processes of SLA, DLP, and TPP.

Process Ceramics Solid Content Polymer System Dispersant Debinding Process

Heat debinding at
Di-TMPTA/HDDA/
ZrO2 /Al2 O3 [24] 46.8 vol% - 550 ◦ C for 10 h and
Irgacure 184
800 ◦ C for 3 h in Ar.
Heat debinding at
HAP [25] - Acrylic resin -
1050 ◦ C in Ar.
SLA
Heat debinding at
SiC [26] 45 vol% HDDA/TMPTA KOS110 and 17000
800 ◦ C for 2 h in N2.
Heat debinding at
Si3 N4 [27] 66 wt.% TMPTA/TPO Solsperse 85000 600 ◦ C for 5 h in N2
and then 10 h in air.
Heat debinding at
40 vol% [28] RGD840/PAA KH-570 350 ◦ C for 6 h and at
750 ◦ C for 3 h.
Heat debinding at
HDDA/PPTTA/PEG/
60 wt.% [31] - 600 ◦ C 3 h in vacuum
ZrO2 U600/1-Octanol
and then in air.
DLP
AAU/HDDA/
1-hydroxy cyclohexyl Phosphoric acid Heat debinding from
80 wt.% [29]
phenyl ketone/ ester solution 350 ◦ C to 500 ◦ C.
SIE-MIX80
dispersion agent Heat debinding at
Al2 O3 [11] 65.7 wt.% ULC F6/methyl alcohol
2145 650 ◦ C for 2 h.
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 10 of 38

Table 3. Cont.

Process Ceramics Solid Content Polymer System Dispersant Debinding Process

Heat debinding
ZrO2 (3Y)/Al2 O3 135,340 and 535 ◦ C for
45 vol% HDDA/photoinitiator -
[35] a certain amount
of time.
Water debinding at
40 ◦ C for 24 h; heat
HAP [30] 43 vol% ADMATEC Disperbyk-103
debinding at 600 ◦ C
for 1 h.

DLP HDDA/TMPTA/PEGDA
47.5 vol% [32] /BAPO/Polyethylene KOS110 -
glycol
SiO2 /SiC HDDA/TMPTA/
50–60 vol% [34] KOS110 -
3D13/BAPO
HDDA/TMPTA/ Heat debinding at
40 vol% [33] KH570/BYK111
PEA/TPO 1000 ◦ C in Ar. [33]
HDDA/TMPTA/Omnirad Heat debinding at
Si3 N4 [36] 45 vol% -
380 600 ◦ C for 3 h
Heat debinding at
MAS [37] - polymer photoresist MEEAA
600 ◦ C.
TPP
ZrO2 Heat debinding at
- SZ2080 -
glass–ceramic [38] 600 ◦ C.

The sintering process requires heating the debinded ceramic to a necessary sintering
temperature, and eliminating the pores in the component through shrinkage to obtain a
high-density ceramic component [33].

2.3. Ceramic 3D Printing Technology Based on a Powder Melting Mechanism

Ceramic additive manufacturing technology based on powder melting mechanisms
uses a high-power laser beam or electron beam as a heat source. During the powder bed
spreading process, a powder bed of various materials, including loose ceramic particles, is
selectively melted or sintered to solidify into a finished product, as shown in Figure 4a [76].
Depending on whether the powder bed is melted or directly sintered and solidified, this is
divided into two processes: selective laser melting (SLM) and selective laser sintering (SLS).
An important factor affecting the microstructure and mechanical properties of SLM
products in the SLM process concerns the properties of the ceramic powder (in addition
to their composition and purity, morphology, size, and uniformity of size distribution).
Compared with irregularly shaped powders, samples made from granular powders have
higher density and less porosity and defects [77]. The high-temperature melting mechanism
of SLM/SLS is compatible with metal materials, which makes this process applicable to
the AM production of a variety of metals, ceramics, and multi-materials. In addition, some
researchers use various coating technologies such as magnetron sputtering, cold-spray,
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and other processes to form a thin metal layer on the
ceramic powder to achieve the uniform distribution of metal binder in the ceramic powder
and surface modification of the ceramic powder [40,78]. Shishkovsky et al. [39] produced
ZrO2 ceramic samples using the SLM process (Figure 4b).
The multi-material adaptability of SLM/SLS enables it to be used to make ceramic
composite materials. Multiple-material laser powder bed melting technology can be
achieved by pre-mixing or adding a hopper. Shishkovsky et al. [39] made a mixture
of ZrO2 and Al into ZrO2 -Al2 O3 composite ceramics by converting molten Al into Al2 O3
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 11 of 38

during
Lubricants 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW the SLS process (Figure 4c). Davydova et al. [40] verified the use of SLM
11 of process
39 to
make B4 C/Co metal ceramics (Figure 4d).

Figure
Figure 4. Principles
4. Principles of SLS/SLM
of SLS/SLM based on
based on powder bedpowder bed and ceramic
and manufactured manufactured ceramic
objects: (a) Sche- objects:
(a) illustration
matic Schematic of illustration of the
the SLS/SLM SLS/SLM
process: process:
① laser, ⃝1 laser, ⃝
② scanner scanner
system,2 ③ pool, ④⃝
moltensystem, 3 molten pool,
printed
⃝ printed
4
object, object,
⑤ powder ⃝⑥
bed, powder
5 bed, ⃝ build
build platform,
6 platform,
⑦ powder ⃝ powder
roller,
7 roller,
and ⑧ new and ⃝stock
powder new [76],
powder
8 stock [76],
copy-
copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier. (b) ZrO sample produced via the SLM process [39].
2
right (2020), with permission from Elsevier. (b) ZrO2 sample produced via the SLM process [39]. (c)
(c) Corundum–zirconium ceramics for the catalytic process produced via SLS processes [39], copy-
Corundum–zirconium ceramics for the catalytic process produced via SLS processes [39], copyright
right (2007), with permission from Elsevier. (d) B4 C/Co sample produced via the SLM process [40],
(2007), with permission from Elsevier. (d) B4C/Co sample produced via the SLM process [40], copy-
copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier.
right (2015), with permission from Elsevier.

Compared with extrusion-based and light-curing additive manufacturing technologies,

2.4. Ceramic 3D Printing Technology Based on the Powder Bonding Mechanism
the SLM and SLS processes can be used to obtain finished products without the post-
Binder jet 3D printing (BJP) is similar to the SLM and SLS processes. It is based on a
processing of ceramics (debinding and sintering), but the surface roughness and printing
powder bed system and requires high-flowability powders with a D50 particle size in the
accuracy are relatively low.
range of 20–50 µm, but smaller spherical particles can be printed depending on the flow-
ability [79]. Currently,
2.4. Ceramic the BJT
3D Printing process is
Technology relatively
Based on themature
Powderin terms of
Bonding shaping the prod-
Mechanism
ucts of metals and polymers, but it lags behind in the field of ceramic materials. For ex-
Binder jet 3D printing (BJP) is similar to the SLM and SLS processes. It is based on
ample, the instruments used to produce sand molds and cores for metal casting have a
a powder
low green densitybed system and requires
for producing ceramichigh-flowability
materials [80]. The powders with aby
layers formed D50 particle size in
depositing
the
fine dryrange of 20–50
powders µm,
usually but asmaller
reach packingspherical
density ofparticles
less thancan
50%beofprinted depending
the theoretical den- on the
flowability [79]. Currently, the BJT process is relatively mature in
sity. Fine particles also struggle to achieve flowability. These factors together hinder den-terms of shaping the
products
sification of metals
during and Therefore,
sintering. polymers,layer-wise
but it lagsslurry
behind in the field
deposition of ceramic
(LSD) materials.
technology has For
example, the instruments used to produce sand molds and cores
been developed for the purposes of shaping the products of ceramic materials. It is basedfor metal casting have a
onlow green density
spreading ceramic for producing
slurry through ceramic
a scrapermaterials
instead of[80].
usingThe layers
dry formed
powder, as inby depositing
tradi-
fineprocesses.
tional dry powders usually reach
Each deposited a then
layer is packing drieddensity of less
and printed than
with 50% of the theoretical
a high-packing-den-
sity powderFine
density. layer using a also
particles printstruggle
head. The toequipment used is shown
achieve flowability. Thesein factors
Figure 5together
[81,82]. hinder
Material jetting technology
densification is a process
during sintering. similar layer-wise
Therefore, to BJP; it combines ceramic powder
slurry deposition (LSD)withtechnology
building material to form a depositable ink. It has a higher resolution but
has been developed for the purposes of shaping the products of ceramic materials. It is limited material
selection
based on (mostly zirconium
spreading oxide,
ceramic aluminum
slurry through oxide, etc.). instead of using dry powder, as in
a scraper
traditional processes. Each deposited layer is then dried and printed with a high-packing-
density powder layer using a print head. The equipment used is shown in Figure 5 [81,82].
Material jetting technology is a process similar to BJP; it combines ceramic powder with
building material to form a depositable ink. It has a higher resolution but limited material
selection (mostly zirconium oxide, aluminum oxide, etc.).
 Lubricants2025,
Lubricants 2025,13,
13, 112
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 39
12 of 38

Binder
Figure5.5.Binder
Figure jetjet printing
printing process:
process: (a) BJT
(a) BJT principles
principles [81],[81], copyright
copyright (2019),
(2019), with permission
with permission from from
Elsevier.(b)
Elsevier. (b)Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of aofBJT
a BJT fabrication
fabrication sample
sample [82], [82], copyright
copyright (2024),(2024), with permission
with permission
fromMDPI.
from MDPI.

TheLSD
The LSDprocess
process uses
uses anan alginate
alginate binder
binder system
system to prepare
to prepare ceramic
ceramic slurries,
slurries, in which
in which
sodiumalginate
sodium alginateis is a linear
a linear copolymer
copolymer composed
composed of blocks
of blocks of b-Dof mannuronic
b-D mannuronic acid (M)
acid (M)
anda-L-guluronic
and a-L-guluronic acid
acid (G)(G) residues.
residues. When When divalent
divalent ions ions are added
are added to thetoG-block-rich
the G-block-rich
sodiumalginate
sodium alginateforforcross-linking,
cross-linking,strongstrongandandbrittle
brittlegels
gelscan
canbebeformed
formed[83].
[83].Zocca
Zocca etet
al.al. [42]
processed submicron Al2 O3 powders based on the LSD printing process, selecting Cu2+ as
[42] processed submicron Al 2 O 3 powders based on the LSD printing process, selecting
Cu as the cation
the2+ cation for alginate
for alginate cross-linking;
cross-linking; they produced
they produced samples
samples withwith a density
a density com-
comparable to
parable to that of standard pressed samples (both in the green
that of standard pressed samples (both in the green and after sintering). and after sintering).
The
Thebinder
binder system
system of of
BJPBJP needs to be
needs toremoved
be removed via an
viaappropriate
an appropriatedebinding process,
debinding process,
as
asshown
showninin Table
Table4. Unlike
4. Unlikeotherother
additive manufacturing
additive processes
manufacturing used for ceramic
processes used forma- ceramic
terials, the BJP
materials, theprocess using using
BJP process an alginate binder system
an alginate bindercontains only 0.3 wt.%
system contains onlyof0.3thewt.%
total of the
slurry, so debinding can be achieved by simply rinsing with deionized water. Although
total slurry, so debinding can be achieved by simply rinsing with deionized water. Although
the parts have good clarity and surface quality after cleaning, the colloidal state limits the
the parts have good clarity and surface quality after cleaning, the colloidal state limits the
minimum size of the printed features. According to some results for Al2O3 produced using
minimum size of the printed features. According to some results for Al O3 produced using
the binder jetting process, the relative density after sintering is 58.0–62.5% 2[42]. Huang et
the binder jetting process, the relative density after sintering is 58.0–62.5% [42]. Huang
al. [44] obtained ZrO2 ceramic samples with a relative density of 50.99–54.27% after the
et al. [44] obtained
solid-phase sinteringZrO 2 ceramic samples
of BJP-processed withMylena
materials. a relative density
et al. of 50.99–54.27%
[84] prepared an aqueous after the
solid-phase
suspension ofsintering
0.05 vol.%ofTiBJP-processed materials. Mylena et al. [84] prepared an aqueous
3SiC2, 2 wt.% PEI, and 40 wt.% glycerol; they used the BJP pro-
suspension of 0.05 vol.%
cess to manufacture MAX phase Ti SiC , 2
3 materials.
2 wt.% PEI, and 40 wt.% glycerol; they used the BJP
process to manufacture MAX phase materials.
Table 4. Binder systems and corresponding debinding processes of BJP.
Table 4. Binder systems and corresponding debinding processes of BJP.
Ceramics Solid Content Binder System Debinding Process
Al2OCeramics
3 [42] 60 vol.% Sodium alginate/Cu
Solid Content 2+ Water-based
Binder System debinding.
Debinding Process
45% Sodium Heat debindingWater-based
WC-12%Co
Al2 O3[43][42] 60 vol.% - in air.
(Binder saturation) alginate/Cu2+ debinding.
WC-12%Co
16.99% 45%
Glass/ZrO 2 [44] [43] - - Heat debinding
Heat debinding
at 600 °C. in air.
(Binder (Binder saturation)
saturation)
16.99% Deionized wa- - Heat debinding at
Glass/ZrO [44]
Ti3SiC2 [84] 2 0.05(Binder
vol.% saturation) - 600 ◦ C.
ter/PEI/Glycerol
Deionized
Ti3 SiC2 [84] 0.05 vol.% -
water/PEI/Glycerol
2.5. 4D Printing of Structural Ceramics

2.5. The 4D printing

4D Printing of structural
of Structural ceramics is an advanced additive manufacturing tech-
Ceramics
nology based on 3D printing. It uses stimuli-responsive materials to create structures that
The 4D printing of structural ceramics is an advanced additive manufacturing tech-
can change shape in response to environmental stimuli (such as heat, light, humidity, wa-
nology based on 3D printing. It uses stimuli-responsive materials to create structures
ter, chemicals, magnetic fields, etc.) in the fourth dimension of “time” [85,86]. 4D printing
thatsignificant
has can change shape in
potential in the
response
highlyto environmental
efficient stimuli
manufacturing of (such as parts
ceramic heat, with
light,com-
humidity,
water, chemicals,
plex structures. magnetic fields, etc.) in the fourth dimension of “time” [85,86]. 4D
printing has significant
Two methods are usedpotential
to achieveinceramic
the highly efficient
4D printing: manufacturing
one of ceramic parts
involves using anisotropic
with complex structures.
shrinkage during the sintering process to produce shape changes in the printed ceramic
Two methods are used to achieve ceramic 4D printing: one involves using anisotropic
shrinkage during the sintering process to produce shape changes in the printed ceramic
parts, which requires the sequential 3D printing of ceramic resins with different solid
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 13 of 38

contents to achieve anisotropic shrinkage and shape changes during sintering [87]. The
second method involves reshaping the 3D printed green body with the help of an external
force or mold, and combining it with the subsequent sintering process [88]. For example,
the 4D printing of elastomer-derived ceramics is achieved using DIW to manufacture YSZ
ceramics [89].

3. Ceramic Materials Systems for Tribological Applications

Ceramic materials are often used as rotatory or sliding tribo-components in relative
motion due to their excellent wear resistance and corrosion resistance. Scholars also verify
their tribological properties using different additive manufacturing technologies to produce
ceramic parts. Ceramic systems used in tribological applications are divided into oxide
ceramics, non-oxide ceramics, bioceramics, MAX phases, and composite ceramics according
to the property requirements of various ceramic materials.

3.1. Oxide Ceramics

The most widely used oxide ceramics are alumina and zirconia. According to the
collected data, the process of sintering additive manufactured oxide ceramics and the
corresponding mechanical properties are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. Sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of oxide ceramics.

Bending Fracture Vickers

Sintering Sintering Relative
Composition Strength Toughness Hardness Ref.
Process Parameters Density (%)
(MPa) (MPa·m1/2 ) (GPa)
PLS 1 in air;
1650 ◦ C (1 h); 97.2/98.7 (PS) 252 - 15/18 [23]
PS 2 in air.
Al2 O3 PLS in air 1600 ◦C(2 h); 75.7–85.7 130.56–182.25 - - [4]
PLS in air 1540/1600 ◦ C 98.0/98.7 - - - [42]
PLS in air 1600 ◦ C 96.91 362.24 - - [11]
11.92 ± 0.42
98.3 (Dense);
PLS in air 1450 ◦ C (5 h) - - (50 vol%); 2.44 [28]
86.7 (porous)
(50 vol%)
PLS in air 1500 ◦ C (2 h) 99 - 6.3 12.62 [29]
1700–1550 ◦ C
ZrO2 Rapid
PLS in air 98.1 488.96 ± 79.84 2.63 ± 0.2 11.52 ± 0.57 [22]
cooling;
1550 ◦ C (5 h)
PLS in air; 54.27/94.49
1400–1550 ◦ C 76.48 ± 3.25 - - [44]
LGI 3 . (LGI)
PLS in air 1500 ◦C 97.14 - 6.038 13.0597 [31]
1 2 3
PLS: pressureless sintering. PS: pressured sintering. LGI: liquid glass infiltration.

3.1.1. Al2 O3
Alumina is the most widely used ceramic material in various industrial fields and
it was the first ceramic material used for the study of additive manufacturing. Alumina
ceramic powder is usually spherical and has good flowability, whether it is made into pow-
der feedstock or slurry. It is involved in various ceramic 3D printing technologies. Badev
et al. [90] conducted a systematic study on the photopolymerization kinetics of different
ceramic suspensions; they found that, the lower the refractive index and absorption rate
of the ceramic powder, the higher the photocuring efficiency. Since alumina has a low
absorption rate and a low refractive index of ultraviolet rays, it is the most suitable ceramic
material for additive manufacturing processes based on the photopolymerization effect.
When polymer additives are used, after additive manufacturing, the alumina ceramics
need to undergo post-processing debinding and sintering. During the debinding stage,
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 14 of 38

the oxide ceramics themselves are chemically stable products in an oxidizing atmosphere,
so the debinding process does not need to be isolated from air contact. At the same time,
debinding in an air atmosphere is also conducive to the oxidation of the carbon in organic
components into gases such as CO and CO2 , leaving them blank.
Al2 O3 can be solid-state sintered to a high density in a temperature range of 1540 ◦ C to
1650 ◦ C, so no other sintering aids are generally required. It can also be used as a sintering
aid for the sintering of other ceramic phases [26].

3.1.2. ZrO2
Due to their excellent fracture toughness, wear resistance, high temperature resistance,
and biocompatibility, ZrO2 ceramics are widely used as structural and functional materials,
such as grinding balls, heating tubes, artificial joint structures, and thermal protective
coatings [22,44,91]. At present, zirconium oxide is mainly used as a material for preparing
crowns and implants in oral dentistry. Since zirconium oxide has good osteoconductivity,
it is conducive to bone formation when it comes into contact with bone. In addition,
zirconium oxide does not produce allergic reactions or change taste. As it is a frequent
feature of dental and orthopedic applications, the tribological behavior of zirconium oxide
has been widely investigated.
Zirconia-based ceramics can be stabilized in the tetragonal or cubic phase, depending
on the dopant used (Y2 O3 , MgO), its concentration, and the heat treatment process. Zirconia
is usually stabilized with 3 mol.% yttria, which converts into tetragonal zirconia and
enhances mechanical properties and surface characteristics. Yu et al. [22] produced yttria-
stabilized zirconia (YSZ) parts with smooth surfaces via extrusion 3D printing, with a
relative density of 98.1%, a Vickers hardness of 11.52 ± 0.57 GPa, and a fracture toughness
of 2.63 ± 0.2 MPa·m1/2 . Huang et al. [44] used liquid glass to infiltrate into porous zirconia
ceramics based on the BJT process and increased its relative density from 54.27% to 94.49%.
The excellent mechanical properties of sintered zirconia are related to the stress caused
by the transformation of the tetragonal to the monoclinic phase and a toughening effect. The
increase in volume during the transformation leads to the development of a compression
zone, which shields the propagating crack tip, thereby inhibiting the further propagation
of the crack and successfully improving the toughness [92].

3.2. Non-Oxide Ceramics

As typical non-oxide ceramics, silicon carbide and silicon nitride have excellent chem-
ical stability and wear resistance, and they are widely used in tribological applications.
Table 6 presents the sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of non-
oxide ceramics based on different additive manufacturing technologies.

Table 6. Sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of non-oxide ceramics.

Relative Bending Fracture Vickers

Sintering Sintering Sintering
Composition Density Strength Toughness Hardness Ref.
Additives Process Parameters
(%) (MPa) (MPa·m1/2 ) (GPa)
1200–1950 ◦ C
Al2 O3 /Y2 O3 PLS 1 in Ar 91.0–96.9 225 ± 27 - 19.35 ± 0.28 [20]
(1.5 h)
- VS 2 /LSI 3 1650 ◦ C (1 h) 89.4 - - - [33]
SiC 1400 ◦ C (5 h)
PLS in Ar
and then
SiO2 and then 97.7 268.66 ± 10.19 - - [93]
1550 ◦ C
VS/LSI
(0.5 h)
SMP-730 Si/SiC PLS in Ar 1400 ◦ C 71.0 47.2 ± 5.5 - - [19]
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 15 of 38

Table 6. Cont.

Relative Bending Fracture Vickers

Sintering Sintering Sintering
Composition Density Strength Toughness Hardness Ref.
Additives Process Parameters
(%) (MPa) (MPa·m1/2 ) (GPa)
SiO2 /MgO/ 1700 ◦ C,
PS 4 in N2 96.0 ± 0.5 - - - [27]
Y2 O3 2 MPa (2 h)
Si3 N4
1650 ◦ C,
Al2 O3 /Y2 O3 PS in N2 98.5 770 ± 35 13.3 ± 1.1 - [36]
6 MPa (3 h)
1 PLS: pressureless sintering. 2 VS: vacuum sintering. 3 LSI: liquid silicon infiltration. 4 PS: pressure sintering.

3.2.1. SiC
SiC is a covalent bond compound. Both silicon and carbon atoms are tetravalent ele-
ments. The outermost layer contains four valence electrons. They adopt sp3 hybridization
and share a sp3 hybrid orbital to form a covalent tetrahedral structure. The Si-C bond-
ing energy is about 4.6 eV. This high bonding energy gives it excellent properties, such
as good chemical stability, good heat resistance, high strength, a low thermal expansion
coefficient, and a wide band gap [94]. SiC is widely used as a hot-section components in the
field of aerospace due to its excellent high-temperature mechanical properties (toughness,
high-temperature stability, and wear resistance); for instance, it is processed into turbine
bearings, nozzles, and reflectors [26,95]. Many structural parts used in aircraft are sub-
jected to high-speed aerodynamic friction from air or other objects, which requires better
wear resistance, especially at elevated temperatures. In addition, many efforts have also
been made to improve the toughness, high temperature resistance, and wear resistance of
3D-printed SiC ceramic parts by introducing various additive manufacturing technologies.
Cheype et al. [19] used a pre-ceramic polymer SMP-730, along with Si and SiC fillers,
to manufacture 3D SiC based on the FDM process, which was able to achieve a quasi-net
shape with a volume shrinkage of 9.1%. However, due to the accuracy of the FDM process,
the printed part features were 400 µm. Kong et al. [20] studied SiC green bodies sintered at
temperatures of 1200–1950 ◦ C and noticed that the density of SiC was the highest at 1950 ◦ C.
In this case, the density, Vickers hardness, and three-point bending strength of the sintered
SiC sample were 3.11 g/cm3 , 19.35 ± 0.28 GPa and 225 ± 27 MPa, respectively. Ding
et al. [26] used SLA combined with the PIP process to print SiC ceramic optical mirrors,
with a final relative density of 93.5%, significantly improving the final density and strength
of the product. When using ceramic additive manufacturing technology based on the
photopolymerization mechanism, it is necessary to consider the high refractive index and
light absorption rate of SiC. According to the measurement results of the Beijing Institute
of Technology, the absorbance of SiC particles under a light source with a wavelength of
405 nm reaches 0.417. The higher the absorbance, the less light acts on the polymer network
and the worse the curing ability [96]. Tang et al. [34] proposed introducing low-absorbency
SiO2 fillers to reduce the absorbance of SiC slurry. Cao et al. [97] directly pre-oxidized
the SiC raw powders to obtain a SiC@SiO2 core–shell form to reduce the ultraviolet light
absorption rate. Guo et al. [98] used the tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) sol–gel method to
form a low-absorption, sparse, and porous SiO2 coating on the surface of the SiC powder
through a non-uniform precipitation process.
The thermal debinding of non-oxide ceramics such as SiC, Si3 N4 and B4 C in an air
atmosphere will lead to oxidation. Therefore, they generally undergo thermal debinding in
a vacuum or inert atmosphere. The organic matter is converted into pyrolytic carbon (PRC)
at high temperatures. For SiC ceramics, residual pyrolytic carbon can also react with the
introduced SiO2 to obtain SiC [97].
The sintering of SiC ceramics produced by additive manufacturing is usually main-
tained at a temperature of 1500~1800 ◦ C in an inert atmosphere, combined with the LSI
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 16 of 38

process to obtain highly densified SiC ceramics [93,98]. The higher the relative density of
SiC, the better the wear resistance. The liquid silicon infiltration (LSI) process introduces a
molten Si phase into the porous green body after debinding, and the Si phase reacts with
pyrolytic carbon to obtain SiC, further improving the relative density of the ceramic parts.

3.2.2. Si3 N4
Si3 N4 is a ceramic material with high hardness, high wear resistance, and excellent
thermal shock stability and biocompatibility. It has been widely used in various fields, as
objects such as ceramic cutting tools, bearing balls, artificial joints, turbo-rotors etc. [99,100].
However, due to the characteristics and molds of the traditional ceramic molding processes,
it is very challenging to prepare Si3 N4 ceramic parts with complex structures and large
sizes. Additive manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a molding process that does not
require molds and has high work efficiency and high molding accuracy [101]. The Young’s
modulus and flexural strength of Si3 N4 are as high as 310 GPa and 1.35 GPa, respectively,
and the theoretical density is lower than that of many other ceramics, at only 3.20 g/cm3 .
Therefore, structural parts designed using 3D printing can maintain strength and wear
resistance while being lightweight.
Huang et al. [27] manufactured porous honeycomb Si3 N4 ceramic parts based on SLA
technology, with a specific compressive strength of 681.7 MPa·cm3 /g, which is higher than
that of conventional manufacturing technologies, and the surface roughness was 1.327 µm,
which is significantly lower than other manufacturing processes. Although Si3 N4 has been
shown to resist bacterial proliferation and induce bone regeneration, it is extremely difficult
to prepare Si3 N4 dental implants using traditional technologies. Zou et al. [36] prepared
Si3 N4 dental implants with a relative density of 98.50% based on DLP technology, and their
mechanical properties are comparable to those of traditionally produced Si3 N4 ceramics.
The densification of Si3 N4 requires the addition of sintering aids (including Al2 O3 ,
Y2 O3 , MgO, and SiO2 , etc.). High-temperature liquid phase sintering is beneficial to
the promotion of densification at temperatures of 1650~1825 ◦ C in an inert atmospheric
environment [27,36,102].

3.3. Bioceramics
The chemical formula of hydroxyapatite (HAP) is Ca10 (PO4 )6 (OH)2 . It is a type of
calcium phosphate ceramic. Its crystal structure is very similar to human bone tissue,
which is why it has excellent biocompatibility with bone tissue [103]. At the same time,
hydroxyapatite also has a good osteoconductivity, which is sufficient to form strong chem-
ical bonds and mechanical interlocking with bones [104]. Therefore, it is necessary to
investigate how to use 3D printing technology to manufacture artificial bones, artificial
teeth, etc., and to further evaluate their tribological properties in simulated human envi-
ronments. Table 7 shows the sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties
of the collected bioceramics produced via 3D printing. Duan et al. [41] used carbonated
hydroxyapatite to manufacture nanocomposite microspheres based on SLS technology,
which have higher wear resistance than human bones. According to the results reported
by Mohammadi et al. [30,105], the sintering temperature of the debinded hydroxyapatite
samples is set between 1200 and 1300 ◦ C, which ensures the high-density microstructure
of the samples. Chen et al. [25] proved that the HAP samples based on 3D printing did
not undergo chemical reactions during the sintering process, and a high-purity HAP was
obtained, retaining its biocompatibility.
Fluorapatite (FAp) glass–ceramics are composed of a glass phase and a needle-like
FAp crystal phase, with a crystal structure similar to that of enamel [106]. They have
broad application prospects in dental restoration due to their high performance in terms of
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 17 of 38

biocompatibility, aesthetic properties, and mechanical properties [106–108]. Yang et al. [108]
prepared a new type of FAp microcrystalline glass sample via SLA-3D printing, which had
a similar microstructure to and better mechanical properties than glass–ceramics prepared
using the traditional dry pressing method.

Table 7. Sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of bioceramics.

Bending Compressive
Sintering Sintering Relative
Composition Strength Strength Modulus Ref.
Process Parameter Density (%)
(MPa) (MPa)
1200 or 1300 ◦ C
- 98.0–98.9 100 - - [30]
HAP (1 h)
PLS 1 in Ar 1250 ◦ C - - - - [25]
Based on SLS Compressive:
CHAP SLS 66.8 ± 2.5 - 0.6–0.7 [41]
parameters 6.1–7.3 MPa
FAp glass–
PLS 1000 ◦ C (0.5 h) - 205.97 - Elastic: 97.06 GPa [108]
ceramics
1 PLS: Pressureless sintering.

3.4. MAX Phases

The MAX phase is a hexagonally symmetrical crystal structure composed of layered
carbides or nitrides; it appears in the form of Mn+1 AXn , where M is an early transition
metal, A is an element from Group III or Group IV of the periodic table, X is carbon or
nitrogen, and n ranges from 1 to 6 [3,109]. This series of materials has good tribological
properties because it combines the advantages of metals and ceramics. MAX phases are
composed of covalent layers stacked with metal layers. They have thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, and damage tolerance similar to that of metals. In the meantime,
they also have good wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and high oxidation resistance at
high temperatures, similarly to ceramics [84,110]. MAX-phase compounds such as Ti3 AlC2 ,
Ti3 SiC2 , Ti3 AlC, and Cr2 AlC have been reported to reduce the coefficient of friction and
wear rate in rotatory or sliding tribo-contacts.
In addition to traditional sintering technology, recent research has focused on additive
manufacturing technologies such as binder jetting [84], extrusion printing [110,111], and
laser sintering [112] to synthesize MAX-phase ceramics. Recently, a combined process of
additive manufacturing technology and reactive melt infiltration was applied to the manu-
facturing of MAX-phase-based ceramics. Moreover, 3D printing helps to pre-design porous
preforms with specific pore distributions and microstructures, while RMI fills the pores of
the former, promoting the near-net-shape manufacturing of MAX-phase-based ceramics
and facilitating the manufacturing of bulk compounds with complex shapes [109,113].
Table 8 shows the sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of the
collected MAX phases produced using 3D printing. Nan et al. [110] combined LSI and the
near-net-shape fabrication process of 3D printing to manufacture Ti3 SiC2 -based ceramics,
with comprehensive properties of 293 MPa in bending strength and 7.2 GPa in Vickers
hardness. Tabares et al. [111] manufactured Ti3 SiC2 and Cr2 AlC samples via extrusion
3D printing and explored the fluidity and extrusion requirements of raw materials. The
final densities of the as-sintered samples were relatively high, 90% and 93% for Ti3 SiC2
and Cr2 AlC, respectively. Krinitcyn et al. [112] used SLS/SLM technology to manufac-
ture Ti3 AlC2 materials and copper-added composites; they found that laser energy can
effectively be used to adjust the amount of TiC.
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 18 of 38

3.5. Composite Ceramics

Composite ceramics combine the characteristics of multiple materials, using materials
such as ceramics and metals to obtain composite materials with higher mechanical strength
and tribological properties. Many efforts have been made to verify the convenience of
additive manufacturing technology in multi-material manufacturing, using 3D printing to
print composite ceramics (Table 9).

Table 8. Sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of MAX phases.

Bending Vickers
Sintering Sintering Relative
Composition Strength Hardness Ref.
Process Parameters Density (%)
(MPa) (GPa)
PLS 1 in Ar/LSI 2 1600–1700 ◦ C (1 h) 92–97.6 52–293 7.2–10.8 [110]
Ti3 SiC2
VS 3 1300 ◦ C (6 h) 90 - - [111]
Cr2 AlC PLS in Ar 1300 ◦ C (4 h) 93 - - [111]
P = 60 and 80 W;
Ti3 AlC2 SLS/SLM in Ar v = 100 mm/s; - - - [112]
d = 400 µm
1 PLS: pressureless sintering. 2 LSI: liquid silicon infiltration. 3 VS: vacuum sintering.

It is common practice to use one type of ceramic as a second phase to reinforce or

toughen another type of ceramic. Zirconia-toughened alumina ceramic (ZTA) is a compos-
ite ceramic that introduces ZrO2 as a second phase into Al2 O3 -based ceramics and sinters to
form an intergranular or intragranular structure. Because ZrO2 is filled at the grain bound-
aries of Al2 O3 , it helps to prevent the extension of the fracture line and improves the fracture
toughness of Al2 O3 [114]. Liu et al. [24] prepared ZTA ceramics based on SLA technology,
using a sintering temperature of 1550 ◦ C to obtain a maximum density of 3.78 g/cm3 ,
and they designed and manufactured ZTA ceramic gears. Shishkovsky et al. [39] synthe-
sized porous refractory YSZ ceramics via the selective laser sintering/melting of a mixture
of zirconium dioxide, aluminum, and/or alumina powders; they examined the surface
macro- and microstructures via optical metallography. The structure was relatively dense,
smooth, and uniform, and could be used as a refractory and wear-resistant coating. Leucite
(KAlSi2 O6 ) is a glass ceramic material [81] that can also be reinforced with zirconia. Branco
et al. [115] prepared leucite–zirconia parts with different zirconia contents and observed
that reinforcement with 25% ZrO2 could distinctly reduce the wear rate. The incorpora-
tion of fiber-reinforced materials is considered a promising approach to advancing the
state-of-the-art in 3D printed ceramic composites, where advances have been made in fiber
alignment using high shear processes for discrete fiber reinforcements. Research into the
printing of continuous fibers has also included customizing or modifying printing equip-
ment to improve material strength [116]. Shen et al. [117] added Al2 O3 whiskers to FAp
glass–ceramics to improve its molding accuracy and mechanical and tribological properties.
After adding 15 wt.% Al2 O3 whiskers, the wear volume of the composite material was
clearly reduced.

Table 9. Sintering process and corresponding mechanical properties of composite ceramics.

Sintering Sintering Sintering Relative Mechanical

Composition Ref.
Additives Process Parameter Density (%) Properties
Fracture toughness:
- PLS 1 in Ar 1500 ◦ C (1 h) 89.3 4.05 MPa·m1/2 ; [24]
ZTA
Hardness: 14.1 GPa
Y2 O3 PLS in air 1600 ◦ C (3 h) 98.79 - [35]
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 19 of 38

Table 9. Cont.

Sintering Sintering Sintering Relative Mechanical

Composition Ref.
Additives Process Parameter Density (%) Properties
820 ◦ C (5 min) and
ZrO2 /leucite - VS 2 then 950 ◦ C 61.5–82.5 - [115]
(10 min)
Graphene Fracture toughness:
ZrO2 /MgO PLS in N2 1550 ◦ C (2 h) 96.2 [12]
/Al2 O3 3.2–4.5 MPa·m1/2
P = 200 W; Hardness:
B4 C/Co - SLM in Ar 63 [40]
d = 70 µm 2900–3200 HV
Fracture toughness:
1485 ◦ C (0.5 h) ~100 17 ± 1; [43]
- PS 3 in Ar
WC-12%Co Hardness: 1256 HV
Hardness:
1500 ◦ C, 100 bar - [82]
11.0–11.8 GPa
Compressive
PLS in inert ◦C strength: 2449 MPa;
WC-10Co Y2 O3 1440 (1 h) - [118]
atmosphere Elastic modulus:
38.8 GPa.
Bending strength:
113 MPa;
VC/Cr3 C2 /NbC/ Hardness:
WC-Fe-Ni-Co VS 1300 ◦ C (4 h) 95–99 [119]
Y2 O3 /Nd2 O3 1820 ± 290 HV
(Y2 O3 ), 1570 ± 230
HV (Cr3 C2 )
Hardness:
SiC-Ti3 AlC2 - VS 1200–1300 ◦ C (4 h) - [120]
290 ± 15 HV
Bending strength:
- VS 1200–1300 ◦ C (4 h) - [120]
784 ± 9 MPa
TiC-Ti3 AlC2
P = 164–200 W; Hardness:
- SLS/SLM in Ar 93–95 [121]
v = 0.12–0.36 m·s–1 2.29 ± 0.1 GPa
P = 164–200 W;
TiC-Ti3 AlC - SLS/SLM in Ar 93–95 - [121]
v = 0.12–0.36 m·s–1
1 PLS: pressureless sintering. 2 VS: vacuum sintering. 3 PS: pressure sintering.

Doping ceramics with other materials or elements can tailor their structure and wear
resistance. Fan et al. [12] doped Al2 O3 with a new type of graphene and manufactured a
graphene/Al2 O3 gear with gradient mechanics based on the DIW process. The gear uses
alumina-based composites with different graphene concentrations from the center to the
periphery, thereby improving the wear resistance of the 3D-printed gear.
Ceramic materials can be combined with metals such as nickel and cobalt to make
wear-resistant and corrosion-resistant cermets with high toughness for use in cutting tools
or drilling system components [40,78]. Boron carbide, which is often used, has good
mechanical properties, high wear resistance, significant chemical resistance, and very low
density. Davydova et al. [40] manufactured three-dimensional B4 C/Co cermet objects based
on SLM with a hardness of 2900–3200 HV. Enneti and Prough [43] verified the feasibility of
the BJP process to manufacture WC-12%Co components with a high fracture toughness of
17 ± 1 MPa·m1/2 and excellent wear resistance.
Lebedev et al. [118] investigated the effect of submicron tungsten carbide powder on
the mechanical properties of WC-10Co-cemented carbide manufactured based on extrusion
3D printing. It was found that the WC-Co alloy with a bimodal grain structure has a better
combination of hardness and impact abrasive wear resistance, in which fine grains prevent
abrasive wear and coarse grains prevent impact wear. Krinitcyn et al. [119] used the alloy
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 20 of 38

Fe-Ni-Co as a binder to manufacture WC-Co-based composites based on extrusion 3D

printing. They used the five different sintering aids of VC, Cr3 C2 , NbC, Y2 O3 and Nd2 O3 .
The addition of Y2 O3 can improve density, and the addition of Cr3 C2 can improve oxidation
resistance. Both can improve the hardness of the sample, which are 1820 ± 290 HV and
1570 ± 230 HV, respectively.
Adding MAX phases into composite ceramics is one of the most promising approaches
to improving wear resistance and reducing the friction coefficient. This is because the RMI
process can introduce Ti3 SiC2 or Ti3 AlC2 into fiber-reinforced ceramic matrix composites
(such as SiC- and TiC-based composites) to enhance their mechanical and tribological
properties [113,120,121]. Krinitcyn et al. [120,121] studied SiC-Ti3 AlC2 , TiC-Ti3 AlC2 , and
TiC-Ti3 AlC composites based on 3D printing, and the wear mechanism of the TiC-Ti3 AlC2
composites involved the TiC particles being completely torn out from the sample. Liu
et al. [122] fabricated high-solid-loading Ti3 AlC2 /binder composites with reasonable me-
chanical properties using 3D printing technology based on fused filament fabrication.

4. Microstructure and Tribological Properties of Additively

Manufactured Ceramics
Additively manufactured ceramics generally exhibit limited plastic flow and ductility
at room temperature. The wear mechanisms in dry sliding contact are mainly fatigue and
brittle fracture, supplemented by adhesive wear and abrasive wear. At high temperatures,
the fragments form a protective oxide layer that prevents the excessive wear of the mate-
rial [11]. Many efforts have made to improve the tribological behavior of ceramics in terms
of the ceramic microstructure, surface texture, lubrication, and coatings.
Many tribological evaluation techniques are used to test the tribological properties
of ceramic samples, including wear tests (ASTM B611, ASTM G65), cutting tests, chewing
simulation tests, friction coefficient tests in combination with in situ SEM observations,
etc. [29,35,43,123]. By conducting the above-mentioned tests, the friction coefficient, wear
rate and surface wear morphology of ceramic samples under specific working conditions
can be obtained, so as to study their friction and wear mechanisms to optimize their
tribological behavior.
Table 10 summarizes the current improvements in the methods for fabricating additive
manufactured alumina and zirconia ceramics and the corresponding tribological behav-
ior. Table 11 summarizes preparation methods and tribological behaviors of additively
manufactured ceramic composites.

Table 10. Preparation methods and tribological behaviors of additively manufactured alumina and
zirconia ceramics.

Materials Methods Lubricants Test Conditions Wear Mechanism Results Ref.

• µ: 0.6–0.8
• Abrasion (unlubricated),
RT-600 ◦ C; Load wear (low ~0.25 (lubricated);
Deionized temperature)
30 N; frequency • Wear rate:
water/gear • Adhesion
Al2 O3 DLP
oil/paraffin/
5 Hz; stroke of • 1.7–2.5 × 10−6 [11]
10 mm; counter: wear/oxidation
vegetable oil (unlubricated),
(high
WC ball 2 × 10−7
temperature)
(lubricated)
mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1 .
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 21 of 38

Table 10. Cont.

Materials Methods Lubricants Test Conditions Wear Mechanism Results Ref.

• Abrasive wear
• µ: 0.31–0.41(RT),
RT-700 ◦ C;Load • Bionic
0.62–1.47 (700 ◦ C);
Solid lubricant 5 N; frequency structure
DLP/S1 1 , S2 2 , • Wear depths
with 5 Hz; stroke of carries more [4]
H1 3 , H2 4 (700 ◦ C): 20(S1),
MoS2/hBN 2.5 mm; counter: abrasive
20(S2), 2(H1),
Al2 O3 ball particles and
45(H2) µm.
lubricants
Al2 O3
• Flank wear:
Cutting tests: 208 µm (groove),
Spindle power 241 µm
SLA/chip- 15 kW; maximum • Abrasive wear
(No groove);
breaking - spindle speed • Adhesive [124]
• Ra: 1.53–3.26 µm
groove 4000 rpm; wear
(groove),
workpiece: HT250 2.59–5.30 µm
gray cast iron. (No groove)
• Abrasive wear
RT; load 2 N; • Brittle
sliding speed material • Wear rate:
DLP Deionized
450 r/min; counter: fractures in 1.5 mg/min [29]
water
100 mesh SiC the worn
abrasive grains surface
ZrO2
RT; chewing
simulation tests • Mild abrasive
• Wear rate:
(CS-4.2 SD wear
DIW Artificial saliva 1.5–2.5 × 10−5 [125]
Mechatronik); Load • Delamination
mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1
49 N; frequency • Fatigue
1 Hz
1 S1: concave snake-skin-inspired structure. 2 S2: convex snake-skin-inspired structure. 3 H1: concave honeycomb-
inspired structure. 4 H2: convex honeycomb-inspired structure.

Table 11. Preparation methods and tribological behaviors of various additively manufactured
ceramic composites.

Materials Methods Lubricants Test Conditions Wear Mechanism Results Ref.

RT; Taber wear
• Graphene • Wear rate:
tester
enhances 0.8 × 10−4 ,
(GT-7012-T); load
Graphene/Al2 O3 DIW/gradient heat 1.2 × 10−4
- 5 N; testing speed [12]
mechanics dissipation m3 ·N−1 ·m−1
60 rpm·min−1 ;
and reduces (Graphene/Al2 O3 ,
counter: H-22
wear single Al2 O3 )
grinding wheel
• µ: 0.4–0.5
(unlubricated),
• abrasive
• 0.3–0.4
wear (20 N)
(lubricated).
• adhesive
ASTM G133-95; • Ra: 5.579, 6.245,
wear (30 N)
Load 20/30/40 N; 7.363 µm
DLP Artificial saliva • adhesive [35]
frequency 3 Hz; (unlubricated at
wear and
counter: Si3 N4 . various loads);
slight
ZrO2 (3Y)/Al2 O3 4.121, 5.654,
fatigue wear
6.387 µm
(40 N)
(lubricated at
various loads).
Load 30 N;
friction distance • Mild
• Ra: 4.235 µm
DLP - 5 mm; frequency abrasive [126]
• µ: ~0.35.
3 Hz; counter: wear
Si3 N4 .
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 22 of 38

Table 11. Cont.

Materials Methods Lubricants Test Conditions Wear Mechanism Results Ref.

Load 50 N;
vertical speed of • Two-body
40 mm/s, abrasion
horizontal speed • Leucite
• Wear rate:
DIW/ SDF + KI 20 mm/s, vertical fracture and
ZrO2 /leucite Artificial saliva 1–1.6 × 10−5 [115]
coating movement 2 mm, subsequent
mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1 .
horizontal formation of
movement third-body
0.7 mm and particles
frequency ~1 Hz.
• Wear rate:
• Abrasion of
ASTM B611 and 140.48 ± 2.73
Co matrix
WC-12%Co BJP - ASTM G65 mm3 (B611), [43]
• Pullout of
wear test 3.67 ± 0.66
WC
mm3 (G65).
• Fatigue • µ: 0.406, 0.476,
FAp RT; Load 20 N; wear 0.557
SLA - Stroke 4.5 mm; [108]
glass–ceramics • Adhesive • Wear rate:
Frequency 2 Hz. wear 0.60–1.75 mm3 .

4.1. Tribological Properties of Additively Manufactured Ceramics

The tribological properties of additively manufactured ceramics are related to the
proportion of fillers, as well as the matrix, shape, and particle size. Increasing the filler
content and reducing the gap between filler particles can improve the wear resistance of
the material [13].
The microstructure of the ceramic green body obtained via 3D printing changes af-
ter the debinding and sintering process. The tribological properties of ceramic materials
depend on the microstructure of the green bodies after final sintering. It is reported that
ceramic samples sintered at high temperatures usually have larger grain sizes and uniform
grain distribution, resulting in a uniform hardness distribution and reduced local stress
concentration, thereby reducing local wear on the friction surface [100,127]. In addition, ce-
ramics formed at high temperatures usually have a dense surface layer, forming a hard and
wear-resistant coating, reducing direct contact with other materials, and thereby reducing
friction and wear. High-temperature sintering also provides better thermal stability, making
it more difficult for the material to undergo structural and performance changes at high
friction temperatures, thus making the material more resistant to wear. Ceramic samples
sintered at lower temperatures may have more grain boundaries and particle structure
defects, increasing the irregularity of the friction surface, thereby increasing the friction and
wear coefficient [128]. Zhang et al. [29] tested the wear rate of DLP-printed ZrO2 samples;
they found that, when the sintering temperature was increased to the optimal temperature
of 1400–1500 ◦ C, the microstructure became denser and the wear rate was the lowest;
however, further increasing the sintering temperature to 1600 ◦ C resulted in coarser grains
and uneven grains, which increased the wear rate. Post-processing treatments (such as PIP
and RMI) can improve tribological properties by increasing the density and mechanical
properties of materials [26]. For example, the LSI process fills the gaps of the substrate
with silicone liquid to react with it, reducing the porosity of the material and ultimately
improving the wear resistance of the composite material [93,110].
Ramezani et al. [11] compared the wear rates and friction coefficients of Al2 O3 sam-
ples manufactured via additive manufacturing and traditional manufacturing processes.
Under an applied load of 30 N and a frequency of 5 Hz, the friction coefficient of the
additively manufactured parts under dry sliding wear conditions was 0.6–0.8, and the
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 23 of 38

wear rate was 1.7–2.5 × 10−6 mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1 . Under gear oil lubrication conditions, the
friction coefficient of the additively manufactured parts was ~0.25, and the wear rate was
2 × 10−7 mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1 . These values were slightly greater than those of the traditional
manufactured process parts. However, the difference between the two was not obvious,
especially in terms of wear resistance. Zhang et al. [126] studied the influence of the prop-
erties of ZrO2 ceramic slurry on the printing accuracy and tribological properties of ZrO2
micro-ceramic gears based on VPP-3D printing; they found that the appropriate dispersant
content can improve the wear resistance of the gear by improving the dispersibility and
stability of the slurry, reducing the sintering shrinkage and producing a high-density sam-
ple. Patil et al. [129] compared the friction coefficient and surface roughness of horizontally
printed and vertically printed ZrO2 samples using stereolithography technology; they
found that the friction coefficient of both was about 0.7, but the surface roughness value
were 0.567 ± 0.139 µm and 0.379 ± 0.080 µm, respectively. This is because the vertically
printed surface has fewer voids and lower liquid retention. Yang et al. [108] investigated
the effects of laser power and scanning speed on the tribological properties of FAp glass–
ceramics; they found that using proper exposure to completely cure the resin is beneficial
to the densification of the sample during debinding and sintering, producing the lowest
friction coefficient and better wear resistance. On the other hand, insufficient or excessive
exposure will lead to defects in the resin and severe adhesive wear and fatigue wear in the
wear test.

4.2. Surface Texture

There are many types of surface textures, including convex bodies, concave pits, and
concave grooves, as shown in Figure 6 [130]. Concave bodies and concave pits can be made
into various shapes (round, square, and hexagonal), while concave grooves can be made
into straight and wavy shapes. The design of surface texture can also be linked to natural
structures, especially natural structures with excellent tribological properties, which have
received increasing attention in the field of lubrication and friction. These structures have
inspired humans to imitate their designs and decipher the complex interactions between
them to create a variety of bionic structures to minimize friction and wear. Moreover, 3D
printing ceramic technology is used to manufacture bionic structural ceramics because of
its high customizability and complex molding technology. Many structures in organisms
have evolved into a variety of friction-reducing and wear-resistant properties through
the natural selection of genes, such as the microstructure of snake abdominal scales [131],
honeycomb structures [4], tree frog toe structures [132], rose petals [133], and iguana foot
microstructures [134].
As a legless reptile, snakes mainly rely on their ventral feet to “slide” on the ground.
The anti-adhesion, wear-resistant, and low-friction properties of snakeskin facilitate the
amimals’ movement. Such tribological properties provide inspiration for the design of
friction-reducing and wear-resistant structural ceramics. As shown in Figure 7a–c, snake-
skin has highly ordered and deterministic diamond scales. Yu et al. [4] prepared a concave–
convex Al2 O3 ceramic structure of snake abdominal scale microstructure by DLP printing
technology, using MoS2 /h-BN two-dimensional sheet material as a lubricant. At 700 ◦ C,
the friction coefficient of the concave snakeskin-structured composite material is about
0.2, which is nearly 88.51% lower than that of unstructured Al2 O3 . In addition, since the
concave bionic structure not only expands the contact area of the lubricant and the capture
area of the abrasive particles, but also facilitates the formation of the lubricating film, the
structure can achieve better lubrication improvements at different temperatures.
 700 °C, the friction coefficient of the concave snakeskin-structured composite material is
Lubricants 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 39
about 0.2, which is nearly 88.51% lower than that of unstructured Al2O3. In addition, since
the concave bionic structure not only expands the contact area of the lubricant and the
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 24 of 38
capture area of the abrasive particles, but also facilitates the formation of the lubricating
as crack-stopping
film, the structureedges. Therefore,
can achieve betterduring the friction
lubrication process, cracks
improvements are easily
at different generated
temperatures.
in the stress concentration area on the upper contact surface. The crater-like pits can effec-
tively cut off the crack propagation under large strains, thereby reducing the damage to
the structure caused by wear [133]. They found that the hexagonal arrangement produces
more lubricant and debris storage, the structure size is smaller, and its friction coefficient
of 0.411 is the lowest, which is lower than the friction coefficient of blank printed Al2O3,
indicating the core role of the bionic petal structure in enhancing lubrication performance.
The structure of the tree frog toe tip can be divided into three categories according to
the shapes of the grooves: quadrilateral, pentagonal, and hexagonal, as shown in Figure
7i,j. According to the results, the mucus secreted by the tree frog toe surface circulates in
the grooves on the toe tip, and, when the toe comes into contact with other surfaces, excess
mucus can be removed from the contact surface through these grooves. Therefore, this
structure is able to control and store lubricating oil extremely well. The alumina ceramics
manufactured by Chen et al. [132] that imitated the hexagonal structure of the toe ends of
the tree frog had the highest friction coefficient of 1.177, but the lowest wear rate.
In addition to creating surface textures during 3D printing, micro-pits can also be
created during subsequent processing to improve tribological properties. Fang et al. [135]
increased the space for storing lubricants on the material surface via the laser ablation of
Figure
Figure 6.
micro-pits, The
6. The shapes
shapes
using ofof
a laser conventional
conventional textures:
textures:
to create micro-pits (a)aparallel
(a)with
parallel grooves.
grooves.
diameter of(b) (b) and
Vertical
150 µm Vertical
grooves.grooves.
(c) density
an area (c) Pits.
Pits. (d)
(d) Convexities.
Convexities. (e) (e) Intersections
Intersections [130],
[130], copyright
copyright (2017),(2017),
with with permission
permission from from Elsevier.
Elsevier.
of 40% on the sample surface.

The honeycomb structure is a hexagonal structure. As the most stable natural form,
it has been studied by the scientific community for more than a thousand years, as shown
in Figure 7d–f. Since hexagons are one of the most effective ways to hold the largest num-
ber of objects in the smallest space, the honeycomb structure can help reduce friction and
wear by providing a large number of micro-reservoirs to store lubricants and capture wear
debris. A 3D-printed Al2O3 composite material with a concave honeycomb structure pro-
duced by Yu et al. [4] has a friction coefficient of 0.31 at room temperature, which is 46.55%
lower than that of the non-structured Al2O3 sample.
Chen et al. [132] designed various bionic petal structures and tree frog toe structures
for 3D-printed Al2O3 ceramics. The microstructure of natural rose petals is based on a hex-
agonal structure consisting of hemispherical protrusions and crater-like pits on the top of
the protrusions, as shown in Figure 7h. The simulated structure of the petals has a contin-
uous 3D micro-scale crater-like pit morphology on the top, and the closed circular pits act

Figure 7. Images of natural imitation sources and corresponding 3D-printed structures: (a) photo-
Figure 7. Images of natural imitation sources and corresponding 3D-printed structures: (a) pho-
graph showing natural snakeskin; (b) optical image of a concave snakeskin-inspired structure; (c)
tograph showing natural snakeskin; (b) optical image of a concave snakeskin-inspired structure;
optical image of a convex snakeskin-inspired structure; (d) photograph showing natural honey-
(c) optical image of a convex snakeskin-inspired structure; (d) photograph showing natural hon-
comb; (e) optical image of a concave honeycomb-inspired structure; (f) optical image of a convex
eycomb; (e) optical image of a concave honeycomb-inspired structure; (f) optical image of a con-
honeycomb-inspired structure [4], copyright (2021), with permission from Elsevier. (g) Photograph
vex honeycomb-inspired structure [4], copyright (2021), with permission from Elsevier. (g) Photo-
showing a petal; (h) simulated structure of petals; (i) photograph showing a tree frog toe tip; (j)
graph showing a petal; (h) simulated structure of petals; (i) photograph showing a tree frog toe tip;
simulated
(j) structure
simulated of the
structure of tree frog’s
the tree toe [132],
frog’s copyright
toe [132], (2020),(2020),
copyright with permission from Elsevier.
with permission from Elsevier.

According
The to the above
honeycomb research,
structure surface texturing
is a hexagonal affects
structure. the most
As the friction and wear
stable prop-
natural form, it
erties of materials in terms of their arrangement and micro-pit distribution. The hexagonal
has been studied by the scientific community for more than a thousand years, as shown in
Figure 7d–f. Since hexagons are one of the most effective ways to hold the largest number
of objects in the smallest space, the honeycomb structure can help reduce friction and wear
by providing a large number of micro-reservoirs to store lubricants and capture wear debris.
A 3D-printed Al2 O3 composite material with a concave honeycomb structure produced by
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 25 of 38

Yu et al. [4] has a friction coefficient of 0.31 at room temperature, which is 46.55% lower
than that of the non-structured Al2 O3 sample.
Chen et al. [132] designed various bionic petal structures and tree frog toe structures
for 3D-printed Al2 O3 ceramics. The microstructure of natural rose petals is based on a
hexagonal structure consisting of hemispherical protrusions and crater-like pits on the
top of the protrusions, as shown in Figure 7h. The simulated structure of the petals
has a continuous 3D micro-scale crater-like pit morphology on the top, and the closed
circular pits act as crack-stopping edges. Therefore, during the friction process, cracks
are easily generated in the stress concentration area on the upper contact surface. The
crater-like pits can effectively cut off the crack propagation under large strains, thereby
reducing the damage to the structure caused by wear [133]. They found that the hexagonal
arrangement produces more lubricant and debris storage, the structure size is smaller, and
its friction coefficient of 0.411 is the lowest, which is lower than the friction coefficient of
blank printed Al2 O3 , indicating the core role of the bionic petal structure in enhancing
lubrication performance.
The structure of the tree frog toe tip can be divided into three categories according to
the shapes of the grooves: quadrilateral, pentagonal, and hexagonal, as shown in Figure 7i,j.
According to the results, the mucus secreted by the tree frog toe surface circulates in the
grooves on the toe tip, and, when the toe comes into contact with other surfaces, excess
mucus can be removed from the contact surface through these grooves. Therefore, this
structure is able to control and store lubricating oil extremely well. The alumina ceramics
manufactured by Chen et al. [132] that imitated the hexagonal structure of the toe ends of
the tree frog had the highest friction coefficient of 1.177, but the lowest wear rate.
In addition to creating surface textures during 3D printing, micro-pits can also be
created during subsequent processing to improve tribological properties. Fang et al. [135]
increased the space for storing lubricants on the material surface via the laser ablation of
micro-pits, using a laser to create micro-pits with a diameter of 150 µm and an area density
of 40% on the sample surface.
According to the above research, surface texturing affects the friction and wear prop-
erties of materials in terms of their arrangement and micro-pit distribution. The hexagonal
structure can store the largest number of analogs, such as solid lubricants or wear debris, in
the smallest space [136]. Compared with a dense arrangement, the hexagonal arrangement
reduces the wear rate by reducing the abrasive wear caused by the accumulation of wear
debris during friction. At the same time, due to the change in the pressure distribution,
the hexagonal structure has a higher bearing load and exhibits excellent friction perfor-
mance [137]. The micro-pit distribution of the bionic structure increases the storage capacity
of the solid lubricant and reduces the friction coefficient [138]. Therefore, optimizing the
tribological properties of additively manufactured ceramics can start with the adjustment
of the arrangement and micro-texture units.

4.3. Lubrication
Compared with dry friction conditions, adding lubricants to the material surface
can significantly reduce the friction coefficient and wear rate. Zhang et al. [29] tested the
wear rate of ZrO2 samples manufactured using DLP under water lubrication conditions.
Zhang et al. [35] reported that the friction coefficient of ZTA ceramic crowns manufactured
by DLP in an artificial saliva environment was 0.3–0.4, which was reduced by ~0.1 com-
pared with dry friction conditions. Branco et al. [115,125] reported that the wear rates of
DIW-produced ZrO2 - and ZrO2 -reinforced leucite samples in an artificial saliva environ-
ment were 1.5–2.5 × 10−5 mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1 and 1–1.6 × 10−5 mm3 ·N−1 ·m−1 , respectively.
Ramezani et al. [11] found that the wear resistance of alumina parts prepared using solvent-
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 26 of 38

based slurry stereolithography can be significantly improved using gear oil, paraffin oil,
and vegetable oil. Inspired by the structure of synovial joints, Zhao et al. [139] intro-
duced microscale Ag microspheres with a “cartilage” layer and a nanoscale Ag quantum
dots/MXene “synovial fluid” into the interior and exterior of the 3D-printed SiOC “hard
bone”, restoring the gradient structure of the synovial joint prototype. In dry friction sliding
tests, it was found that the wear rate of the composites was 2.05 × 10−6 mm3 N−1 m−1 and
the friction coefficient was only 0.11–0.13.
In the 1990s, Hirano et al. [140,141] used a model to simulate the friction behav-
ior of two nanoscale crystal surfaces and concluded that the tribological behavior of the
two crystal surfaces is closely related to the lattice. The superlubricity phenomenon is
described as the static friction of the system tending to zero on the infinite non-uniform
lattice surface, and there is no energy dissipation during sliding. At this time, the dynamic
friction may be 0 [142–144]. At present, the material most likely to achieve superlubricity is
a two-dimensional layered crystal. Many two-dimensional crystal materials with extremely
low friction coefficients have been discovered over time, such as graphene, molybde-
num disulfide, and tungsten disulfide [14,145–148]. If macroscopic superlubricity can be
achieved, the tribological properties of ceramic parts in high-speed and high-temperature
systems can be significantly improved.
Even if superlubricity cannot be achieved, coating the surface of a material with a
two-dimensional layered material as a lubricant can significantly improve its friction and
wear performance. Two-dimensional materials have a weak interlayer bonding structure
and a unique, easy-to-shear protective layer, which makes them a promising candidate
lubricant for reducing friction and wear in tribological systems [149]. A variety of Al2 O3 -
based ceramics were developed based on additive manufacturing technology in order
to investigate their synergistic lubrication performance with two-dimensional lamellar
MoS2 /BN lubricants [135,150,151]. Chen et al. [132] loaded the solid lubricant WS2 onto
3D-printed alumina ceramics using a hydrothermal method to reduce the friction of the
entire tribo-system. Zhao et al. [15] introduced MoS2 /GO heterostructures into the interior
and surface of a well-designed SiOC structure and developed a 3D-printed SiOC-MoS2 /GO
structural self-lubricating composite, achieving a minimum wear depth of 1.22 × 10−7 mm.

4.4. Surface Coating

Adding friction-reducing and wear-resistant coatings between or on the surface of
ceramic layers is a very common process, including wear-resistant coatings that are applied
to industrial devices and the glazing of ceramics. In order to study the actual improvement
of materials’ wear resistance by surface coatings, a set of optimization methods have been
proposed based on computational modeling and load response simulations, as shown
in Figure 8. WC-Co is a commonly used wear-resistant surface coating. Enneti and
Prough [43] evaluated WC-12%Co manufactured via a BJP process according to the ASTM
B611 and G65 test methods, and the volume loss under the two tests was 140.48 ± 2.73 mm3
and 3.67 ± 0.66 mm3 , respectively. The appropriate addition of nanoscale rare-earth-
containing additives can significantly improve the microhardness and bonding strength of
WC-12%Co coatings, because these rare earth-containing additives can effectively inhibit
the decarburization of WC particles and refine their microstructure [152,153]. With the
increase in the nanoscale rare-earth content, the hardness and friction and wear properties
of the WC-10Co-4Cr coating were significantly improved from the results reported by
Wang et al. [154]. When the content of the nanoscale rare-earth additive was 1.5 wt.%, the
hardness of the 3D-printed coating sample increased by 42% and the coating wear was
reduced by 43%.
 the increase in the nanoscale rare-earth content, the hardness and friction and wear prop-
erties of the WC-10Co-4Cr coating were significantly improved from the results reported
by Wang et al. [154]. When the content of the nanoscale rare-earth additive was 1.5 wt.%,
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 27 of 38
the hardness of the 3D-printed coating sample increased by 42% and the coating wear was
reduced by 43%.

Figure 8. Optimization
Figure Optimizationmethod
methodfor
forwear-resistant
wear-resistantsurface coatings
surface based
coatings on computational
based material
on computational material
modelling and
modelling and load
loadresponse
responsesimulation
simulation[155], copyright
[155], copyright(2013), with
(2013), permission
with fromfrom
permission Elsevier.
Elsevier.

In film
film production
productiontechnology,
technology, a thin filmfilm
a thin is attached to thetosurface
is attached of the of
the surface material to
the material
improve
to improve thethe
tribological properties
tribological of theof
properties substrate. Unlike Unlike
the substrate. the expensive deposition
the expensive pro-
deposition
cess, inkjet
process, printing
inkjet can can
printing break up the
break ink ink
up the intointo
droplets by applying
droplets by applying an external electric
an external electric
field under normal temperature and pressure conditions and can print a dense anduni-
field under normal temperature and pressure conditions and can print a dense and uniform
formin
film film
theindesired
the desired
areaarea [156].
[156]. BaoBaoetetal.
al. [157]
[157] prepared
prepareda aTaSTaS2 soft film on the surface
2 soft film on the surface
of Al 2O3/TiC ceramics via electro-hydrodynamic atomization. The synergistic effects of
of Al2 O3 /TiC ceramics via electro-hydrodynamic atomization. The synergistic effects of
the TaS2 film and bionic texture showed excellent benefits in reducing the wear rate and
the TaS2 film and bionic texture showed excellent benefits in reducing the wear rate and
improving the wear life of the substrate.
improving the wear life of the substrate.
When manufacturing artificial teeth, the material is glazed to improve the wear re-
When manufacturing artificial teeth, the material is glazed to improve the wear
sistance, as well as ensuring the appropriate aesthetics and antibacterial properties of ar-
resistance, as well as ensuring the appropriate aesthetics and antibacterial properties
tificial teeth in the oral environment. Branco et al. [115] compared the tribological behavior
of artificial teeth in the oral environment. Branco et al. [115] compared the tribological
behavior of glazed zirconia with that of unglazed zirconia and found that glazing can
greatly reduce tip wear and wear depth. At the same time, adding an SDF + KI coating
can inhibit the proliferation of Staphylococcus aureus, indicating the potential benefits of
the coating in preventing the pathogenic bacterial complications associated with artificial
crown implantation.

5. Typical Tribological Applications of Ceramic Additive

Manufacturing Technology
At present, the interacting surfaces in relative motion in some fields require ceramic
components with good tribological properties to achieve specific applications. There are
specific demands in tribology, such as in aviation, aerospace, energy, metallurgy, electronics
industries, and biomedical implants. The relevant parts include impellers, bearings, bush-
ings, screws and nuts, blast nozzles, cutting tools, dental crowns, implants, hip prostheses,
bone tissue engineering parts, pumps, dies, valves, seals, and other rotatory or sliding
tribo-components. Ceramic materials are used as raw materials for manufacturing these
parts due to their high hardness and wear resistance. However, traditional ceramic-forming
methods, such as dry pressing, isostatic pressing, and injection molding, have many limita-
tions. For example, they cannot be used for parts with complex shapes (with multi-layered
walls, inner holes, complicated flow passageways, sharp corners, etc.) or parts with high
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 28 of 38

precision and shape/property integration requirements. The advantages of additive manu-

facturing over traditional manufacturing technology have allowed ceramic parts based on
3D printing to gradually enter multiple fields.

5.1. Industrial Devices

Cutting tools are needed to produce a variety of materials in industrial production. Cut-
ting tool materials must have strong hardness, wear resistance, and compressive strength.
Currently, they are mostly made by sintering ceramic or cermet powders containing tung-
sten carbide, titanium carbide, titanium carbonitride, or other types of hard phases. SLM-
based cermets have low wear rates at high temperatures and are increasingly used to
achieve this goal. Davydova et al. [40] verified the feasibility of using SLM to manufacture
B4 C/Co cermet tools.
Stereolithographic 3D printing technology has higher precision and can meet the needs
of complex structure design in tools. He et al. [31] manufactured a complex triangular
zirconia tool with a tool extraction groove and a honeycomb ceramic component based on
DLP technology, as shown in Figure 9a. The setting of chip breaker grooves can improve
the chip removal rate and reduce the tool tip temperature and cutting force [123,124,158].
Liu et al. [123] conducted a study of zirconia-toughened alumina (ZTA) ceramic tools
equipped with chip breakers produced via vat photopolymerization-based 3D printing,
and found that ceramic cutting tools are mainly subjected to adhesive wear and abrasive
wear during cutting, with continuous diffusion wear in the non-adhesive wear zone. Wu
et al. [124] fabricated an Al2 O3 ceramic cutting tools with chip breaker grooves based
on SLA-3D printing and found that the cutting speed had the greatest influence on the
cutting performance, while the cutting depth had the least influence. The
Lubricants 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 wear
of 39 mechanisms
associated with Al2 O3 cutting tools were abrasive and adhesive wear.

Figure Industrial
Figure 9.9.Industrial devices
devices manufactured
manufactured via 3D(a)printing:
via 3D printing: (a)model
DLP-printed DLP-printed
and samplemodel
of a and sample
triangular
of ZrO2 tool
a triangular with
ZrO a toolwith
2 tool extraction
a toolgroove and honeycomb
extraction structure
groove and [31], copyright
honeycomb (2017),[31], copyright
structure
with permission
(2017), from Elsevier.
with permission from(b) Elsevier.
LSD-printed(b)AlLSD-printed
2O3 toothed wheels—green bodieswheels—green
Al2 O3 toothed and sintered bodies and
parts [42],parts
sintered copyright
[42],(2017), with permission
copyright from
(2017), with Göller Verlag
permission GmbH.
from (c) Optical
Göller Verlagphoto
GmbH. of a(c)
gear
Optical photo of
awheel
gear based
wheelonbased
single Al2O3 [12], copyright (2023), with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH. (d)
on single Al2 O3 [12], copyright (2023), with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Sintered ZTA ceramic gear and its microscopic version [24], copyright (2019), with permission from
(d) Sintered ZTA ceramic gear and its microscopic version [24], copyright (2019), with permission
Elsevier.
from Elsevier.
Gears are transmission components, and wear between gears is a major problem. The
degree Gears are transmission
of meshing between gears components, and
affects the degree wear
of wear between
between gears
gears. Gearsismanu-
a major problem.
The
factured using additive manufacturing have higher precision and avoid the wear caused gears. Gears
degree of meshing between gears affects the degree of wear between
by meshing problems. Studies have been conducted on using 3D printing to manufacture
high-precision and high-strength ceramic gears, including Al2O3 and its composite mate-
rials, as shown in Figure 9 [12,24,42].

5.2. Biomedical Applications

Human bones and teeth wear out during use due to collision, friction, and other rea-
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 29 of 38

manufactured using additive manufacturing have higher precision and avoid the wear
caused by meshing problems. Studies have been conducted on using 3D printing to
manufacture high-precision and high-strength ceramic gears, including Al2 O3 and its
composite materials, as shown in Figure 9 [12,24,42].

5.2. Biomedical Applications

Human bones and teeth wear out during use due to collision, friction, and other
reasons. When a person must replace artificial bones or artificial teeth for some reason,
it is important to consider using materials with excellent tribological properties; among
these materials, ceramic materials (such as zirconium oxide, alumina, and hydroxyap-
atite [159,160]) have better biocompatibility and wear resistance than metal materials. The
manufacture of ideal ceramic biomedical parts is not only related to the composition of
the material but is also affected by its macrostructure and microstructure. Therefore, it is
urgently necessary to develop complex geometric molding techniques. At present, additive
manufacturing technology provides a new method for this process.
Hydroxyapatite has sufficient osteoconductive properties and good bioaffinity, which
is sufficient to form strong chemical bonds and mechanical interlocking with bones; it
is conducive to being replaced or integrated into host bones. Chen et al. [25] mixed
hydroxyapatite powder into a photosensitive resin based on SLA technology to form
a complex-shaped scaffold. They finally prepared a HAP sample with good biosafety
that can be implanted in the rabbit parietal bone (Figure 10a). Duan et al. [41] used
SLS technology to manufacture bionic bone scaffolds based on calcium phosphate (Ca-
Lubricants 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 39
P)/poly (hydroxybutyrate–co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) and carbonated hydroxyapatite
(CHAP)/poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) nanocomposite microspheres, which are superior to
pure polymer scaffolds
lactic acid) in termsnanocomposite
(PLLA) of both theirmicrospheres,
mechanical properties and wear
which are superior resistance
to pure polymer
(Figure 10b). scaffolds in terms of both their mechanical properties and wear resistance (Figure 10b).

Figure 10. Biomedical

Figure 10.applications of 3D-printed
Biomedical applications ceramics
of 3D-printed in biomedical
ceramics in biomedicalimplants:
implants: (a)(a)
HAPHAP im-
implants
plants implantable in rabbit
implantable parietal
in rabbit bones
parietal bones[25],
[25],copyright (2019),
copyright (2019), with
with permission
permission from Elsevier.
from Elsevier. (b) Three-
(b) Three-dimensional nanocomposite
dimensional nanocomposite scaffolds
scaffolds of CHAP/PLLA
of CHAP/PLLA nanocomposite
nanocomposite microspheres
microspheres [41],
[41], copyright
copyright (2010), with permission from Elsevier. (c) Photos of ZrO2 (3Y)/Al2 O3 dental implantsfrom
(2010), with permission from Elsevier. (c) Photos of ZrO 2 (3Y)/Al 2O 3 dental implants taken takendif-
ferent angles [35], copyright (2022), with permission from Elsevier. (d) The
from different angles [35], copyright (2022), with permission from Elsevier. (d) The 3D printing of 3D printing of ZrO 2 and

ZrO2-ZrO
ZrO2 and ZrO2 -ZrO hip prostheses
hip prostheses [161],copyright
[161], copyright (2019),
(2019),with
withpermission from from
permission Informa PLC. PLC.
Informa

Zirconia ceramics and zirconia-based composite ceramics are widely used in clinical
practice as tooth restoration materials due to their excellent chemical stability, mechanical
properties, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance [162]. Zhang et al. [29] prepared high-
density zirconia ceramic crowns based on DLP technology, which is a sintered type of 3Y-
TZP ceramic crown. The Vickers hardness and wear resistance of zirconia ceramic crowns
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 30 of 38

Zirconia ceramics and zirconia-based composite ceramics are widely used in clinical
practice as tooth restoration materials due to their excellent chemical stability, mechanical
properties, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance [162]. Zhang et al. [29] prepared
high-density zirconia ceramic crowns based on DLP technology, which is a sintered type
of 3Y-TZP ceramic crown. The Vickers hardness and wear resistance of zirconia ceramic
crowns used for tooth restoration reached 12.62 GPa and 1.5 mg/min, respectively. Branco
et al. [115] manufactured ceramic samples using leucite slurry reinforced with zirconia
nanoparticles based on 3D printing technology, which showed negligible wear in simu-
lated oral chewing tests and minimal wear on antagonistic tooth cusps. Compared with
glazed ZrO2 (a common choice in dental practice), the obtained material showed excellent
optical properties and tribomechanical behavior. Zhang et al. [35] verified that the surface
of ZrO2 (3Y)/Al2 O3 dental implants manufactured by DLP technology has appropriate
roughness and good wettability in the oral environment (Figure 10c). The wear loss of the
ZTA sample sintered at 1650 ◦ C was the lowest, only 1.6 mg, which is lower than that of
human enamel. Zhu et al. [161] manufactured ZrO2 and ZrO2 -ZrO hip prostheses with
long-term wear resistance based on ceramic 3D printing technology, as shown in Figure 10d.
Additionally, 3D printing can be used to manufacture both dental ceramics and processing
tools with neatly arranged diamond particles for grinding dental ceramics. Grinding tests
on machined ZrO2 crowns confirmed that no abrasive falling off occurs on the surface
of the 3D-printed diamond tool [163]. Li et al. [164] designed an SLA-3D-printed ZrO2
interference screw for the reconstruction of the human anterior cruciate ligament with a
forming accuracy of 80.0 ± 21.1 µm and good mechanical properties.

6. Summary and Prospects

This article focuses on the additive manufacturing of ceramic materials with advanced
structures. It first explains the principles and technologies in the field of additive manu-
facturing, as well as the production methods and processing factors of the corresponding
ceramics. Then, ceramic materials used for additive manufacturing are classified according
to their composition, and the applicability and application fields of each ceramic system in
relation to tribology are summarized. The effects of conventional dense ceramics, surface
textures, lubrication, and surface coatings on different tribological and mechanical proper-
ties are discussed. The tribological and mechanical properties of ceramic materials based
on additive manufacturing are comparable to or can further improve on those of samples
manufactured using conventional processes. Finally, the current applications and possible
developments of ceramic materials based on additive manufacturing in industrial produc-
tion and biomedical implants are introduced. In order to further improve the tribological
properties of materials, the following challenges are addressed in using ceramic materials
based on additive manufacturing:
1. Additive manufacturing technology is not yet mature in the field of ceramics, and the
manufacturing process is needed to be further improved, such as by improving the
high-temperature rheological properties of ceramic powders and adhesive composites
in extrusion-based 3D printing, the influence of ceramic powders on the absorbance of
slurry in photocuring 3D printing, surface irregularities in powder-melting 3D print-
ing, and the rheological properties of printing inks in powder-bonding 3D printing.
2. Additively manufactured structural ceramic systems used in tribological applications
include oxide ceramics, non-oxide ceramics, bioceramics, MAX phases, and com-
posite ceramics, according to the property requirements. MAX-phase ceramics can
reduce the friction coefficient and wear, and they represent a very promising material
with excellent tribological properties. Combining them with near-net-shape forming
technology is a future development direction in additive manufactured ceramics.
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 31 of 38

3. The combination of different additive manufacturing technologies with multi-material

systems can integrate their respective advantages for various structural/functional
integrated applications. By combining various mechanisms and technologies, the
friction and wear performance of ceramics can be maximized by designing novel
surface textures, surface lubrication, and surface coatings, which represents a new
research direction.
4. As an extension of 3D printing technology, 4D printing technology can change the
shapes or structures printed using 3D technology under external stimulation, directly
embed the deformation design of materials and structures into the material, and
simplify the creation process from design concept to physical object. This will allow
for a novel design, manufacturing and assembly of integrated ceramic parts.
5. The realization of the macroscopic superlubricity phenomenon and bionic structure
design are two hot research directions for the future development of friction-reducing
and wear-resistant ceramic components. Both the two-dimensional layered structure
and the structure of synovial joints have excellent tribological properties. Additive
manufacturing for the precision manufacturing of complex structures can be used
as a good solution to this problem. However, the high costs and difficulty in the
industrialization of these technologies have become major limiting factors.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.-J.M. and J.-H.O.; validation, W.-J.M., J.-H.O. and
S.-Q.W.; investigation, W.-J.M., Z.-H.W., Y.-Z.Z. and F.-B.W.; resources, W.-J.M., Z.-H.W., Y.-Z.Z. and
F.-B.W.; data curation, W.-J.M., Z.-H.W. and F.-B.W.; writing—original draft preparation, W.-J.M.;
writing—review and editing, J.-H.O. and S.-Q.W.; visualization, W.-J.M. and Y.-M.W.; supervision,
J.-H.O. and Y.-C.Z.; funding acquisition, J.-H.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.

Funding: This work was financially supported by the National Key R & D Program of China under
grant No. 2023YFB4606104.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

AM Additive manufacturing
FDM Fused deposition modelling
DIW Direct ink writing
SLA Stereolithography
DLP Digital light processing
TPP Two-photon polymerization
SLM Selective laser melting
SLS Selective laser sintering
BJP Binder jet 3D Printing
CSL Ceramic stereolithography
LSD Layered slurry deposition
TEOS Tetraethyl orthosilicate
PRC Pyrolytic carbon
LSI Liquid silicon infiltration
HAP Hydroxyapatite
CHAP Carbonated hydroxyapatite
FAp Fluorapatite
µ Friction coefficient
Lubricants 2025, 13, 112 32 of 38

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[CrossRef]
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