T1; Introduction Main Concepts

1. What is Descriptive Grammar?

Descriptive grammar focuses on how English is actually used by native speakers, not
on telling people how they should use it. This is different from prescriptive grammar,
which provides rules about what is considered "correct" or "standard" usage.

The goal of this course is to develop tools for analyzing English grammar, especially the
structure of sentences. We concentrate particularly on the Verb Phrase (VP) and its
role in the syntactic structure.

2. Key Analytical Distinctions

a. Function vs. Realization

A core concept in grammar is separating the function that a word or phrase plays in a
sentence from the form it takes.

• Function refers to the grammatical role:

 Subject (S): the entity that performs the action or is described

 Object (Direct or Indirect): what receives the action

 Complement: completes the meaning of a verb

 Adjunct: adds extra information (e.g., time, place, manner)

 • Realization refers to the syntactic form (the phrase type that performs the
function):

 DP (Determiner Phrase): e.g., the cat, my brother

 VP (Verb Phrase): e.g., wrote a letter

 PP (Prepositional Phrase): e.g., on the table

 AdjP/AP (Adjective Phrase): e.g., very happy

 AdvP (Adverb Phrase): e.g., really fast

Example:

Sentence: “A bird hit a car”

• [A bird] = Function: Subject; Realization: DP

• [hit a car] = Function: Predicate; Realization: VP
• [a car] = Function: Direct Object; Realization: DP

b. Lexical vs. Functional Categories

English words fall into different grammatical categories, which we divide into:
Lexical Categories (Open Classes)

These carry meaning and allow the creation of new words.

Category Abbreviation Description Example

Noun N Refers to people, places, teacher, freedom
things

Verb V Actions or states run, think

Adjective Adj or A Describes nouns blue, interesting

Adverb Adv Modifies V, Adj, or Adv quickly, very

Preposition P Expresses relations in, over, after

Functional Categories (Closed Classes)

These carry grammatical meaning rather than lexical content.

Category Abbreviation Examples

Determiner D the, some, my, those

Auxiliary Aux be, have, do, will, must

Coordinator Coor and, or, but

Complementizer C that, if, because

Pronouns: A Hybrid Category

Pronouns act like DPs (she, them, his), but also functionally replace noun phrases.
They show grammatical person, number, gender, and case.

3. Types of Ambiguity in Language

Understanding grammar helps to resolve ambiguities, which can arise in two main
forms:

a. Lexical Ambiguity

When a word has multiple meanings.

“I saw bats.”

bats = Could mean either flying mammals or baseball equipment.

b. Structural Ambiguity

When a sentence has more than one possible syntactic structure.

“I saw someone carrying a monkey and an elephant go into the circus.”

Unclear whether only the person entered or the animals too.

These ambiguities highlight why syntactic analysis is important.

4. Descriptivism vs. Prescriptivism

Type Description
Descriptivism Describes actual language use, including dialects and informal speech.
Used by linguists.

Prescriptivism Imposes rules about what is "correct" or "proper" English, often based on
tradition.

Examples of Prescriptively "Incorrect" but Common Sentences:

Sentence Issue

“My childhood was different than Should be different from (prescriptively)

yours.”
“If I was clever…” Subjunctive form were is preferred: If I were
clever

“I can’t hardly sleep.” Double negation

“I don’t have no time.” Double negation

“Like I said before…” Informal use of like as a conjunction

These examples show the difference between natural usage and traditional norms.
5. Glossary of Abbreviations and Functions
Label Meaning Example

DP Determiner Phrase the house, my friend

VP Verb Phrase is reading, wrote a letter

PP Prepositional Phrase under the bed

AdjP / AP Adjective Phrase very tall

AdvP Adverb Phrase quite slowly

S Subject (John) ate the cake

V Verb (John) ate the cake

Od Direct Object (John ate) the cake

Oi Indirect Object (She gave) him a gift

Cs Subject Complement (He is) tired

Co Object Complement (They elected him) president

A Adjunct (She sang) beautifully / (He left) in the

morning

This foundational topic sets the stage for analyzing sentence structure in depth
throughout the course. Understanding these distinctions and labels is essential for all
the topics that follow.
 Topic 2 – Categories

1. Overview: Lexical vs. Functional Categories

In grammar, categories (also known as parts of speech or word classes) refer to the
types of words that make up a language. They are divided into two main types:

• Lexical categories: These carry lexical meaning (they refer to things, actions,
qualities, etc.). They are open classes, meaning new words can be added to
them.

• Functional categories: These carry grammatical meaning and are used to

structure and organize lexical items. They are closed classes, meaning the
number of items in these categories is relatively fixed.

2. Lexical Categories
These include Nouns (N), Verbs (V), Adjectives (Adj), Adverbs (Adv), and Prepositions
(P). Each has defining semantic, syntactic, and morphological properties.

a. Nouns (N)

• Semantics: Refer to people, places, things, concepts (e.g. dog, city, freedom)

• Syntax: Typically occur with a determiner (e.g. the car, a teacher) → forms a
Determiner Phrase (DP)

• Morphology: Marked for plural (-s), genitive ('s), derivational suffixes (-er, -ism,
etc.)
b. Verbs (V)

• Semantics: Denote actions, processes, states (e.g. run, know, become)

• Syntax: Occur with auxiliaries and take arguments (subjects, objects)

• Morphology: Marked for tense (e.g. walked, walks), and derivational endings (-
ize, -ify)

c. Adjectives (Adj)

• Semantics: Denote qualities or properties (e.g. tall, happy)

• Syntax: Modify nouns (e.g. a happy child)

• Morphology: May have derivational endings (-ous, -ary, -ic) and can form
comparative/superlative (-er, -est)

d. Adverbs (Adv)

• Semantics: Provide information about time, manner, degree (e.g. quickly,

very)

• Syntax: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g. run quickly, very tall)

• Morphology: Often formed with -ly, -wise, -ways (e.g. sadly, clockwise)

e. Prepositions (P)

• Semantics: Express spatial, temporal, and logical relations (e.g. in, on,
before)

• Syntax: Take a complement (usually a DP) to form a Prepositional Phrase (PP)

(e.g. in the room)

• Morphology: Invariable (do not inflect), though some carry very little lexical
meaning
 3. Functional Categories
These do not carry meaning in themselves but are crucial for grammatical
structure.

a. Determiners (D)

They specify the reference of a noun.

Type Examples
Quantifiers some, many, all, few

Articles the, a, an

Demonstratives this, that, these

Possessives my, your, John’s

Interrogatives what, which

Numerals one, two, third

b. Auxiliaries (Aux)

Used with main verbs to indicate tense, aspect, mood, voice, or emphasis. They
include:

Type Examples Notes

Primary have, be, do Can also be lexical verbs (I have a
Auxiliaries car)

Modal Auxiliaries can, must, may, Express necessity, possibility, etc.

should
c. Coordinators (Coor)

Link elements of equal status:

• and, or, but

d. Complementizers (C)

Introduce subordinate clauses:

• that, if, because

4. Pronouns: A Hybrid Category

Pronouns function as substitutes for DPs but also exhibit some properties of
functional elements.

Type Examples
Personal I, you, he, her

Reflexive myself, herself

Possessive mine, yours

Indefinite anyone, somebody

They encode person, number, case, and gender, and typically do not co-occur with
determiners.
5. Summary Table of Categories
Category Abbr. Open/Closed Example Function

Noun N Open house refers to entities

Verb V Open eat denotes actions or

states
Adjective Adj Open green modifies nouns

Adverb Adv Open gently modifies verbs,

adjectives, or adverbs

Preposition P Open on links to another phrase

(usually a DP)

Determiner D Closed the, some introduces a noun

Auxiliary Aux Closed have, will adds grammatical

meaning to verbs

Coordinator Coor Closed and, but joins elements of equal

rank

Complemen C Closed that, if introduces a clause

tizer
Pronoun (Hybrid) Closed she, them replaces noun phrases
7. Diagram: Category Structure Tree
Here's a visual outline of major word categories:

WORDS
/ \
LEXICAL FUNCTIONAL
/ | \ / | \
N V Adj D Aux C
| | | | | |
book eat blue the will that

This tree shows how English divides words into meaningful types: lexical (content-
heavy) and functional (structure-based).

Topic 4 – Functions in the Sentence

1. Basic Functional Elements in a Sentence

In English syntax, functions refer to the grammatical roles that different elements play
within a sentence. The five core functions are:

• Subject (S): The entity performing or being described

• Verb (V): The action or state

• Object (O): The entity affected by the verb, subdivided into:

 Direct Object (Od) (Direct Object)

 Indirect Object (Oi) (Indirect Object)

 • Complement (C): Gives essential information about another element (S
or O)

 Subject Complement (Cs)

 Object Complement (Co)

• Adjunct (A) (Adjunct): Adds optional, descriptive or contextual information

(e.g., time, manner, cause)

Each function can be realized by different forms, such as Determiner Phrases (DP),
Prepositional Phrases (PP), or clauses.
2. Subject (S) (Subject)
The Subject is the grammatical element that agrees with the verb and usually
precedes it in declarative clauses. It is typically the topic or agent of the action.

Examples:

• [The teacher] (DP) explained the topic. → Subject

• [Running every morning] (non-finite clause) is healthy. → Subject

Subjects:

• Control verb agreement (number, person)

• Can be DPs, clauses, or non-finite VPs

3. Objects: Direct and Indirect

a. Direct Object (Od) (Direct Object)

The Direct Object is the entity directly affected by the action of the verb. It typically
answers “what?” or “whom?” after the verb.

Examples:

• She read [a book].

• They watched [a documentary on climate].

b. Indirect Object (Oi) (Indirect Object)

The Indirect Object is the entity that benefits from or receives the Direct Object. It
usually answers “to whom?” or “for whom?”

Examples:

• She gave [him] (Oi) [a gift] (Od).

• I made [my brother] (Oi) [some soup] (Od).

Word Order Notes:

• Oi typically precedes Od when no preposition is used.

• When using a preposition (to, for), Oi follows Od:

→ She gave [a letter] (Od) [to Santa] (Oi).

4. Complements: Subject and Object
Complements are required by the verb to complete the meaning of the sentence.
They differ from objects in that they do not denote a new participant in the action
but rather provide essential information about the subject or object.

a. Subject Complement (Cs) (Subject Complement)

Gives information about the subject. It appears after linking verbs such as be, seem,
become, appear, look, remain.

Examples:

• She is [a doctor]. → Cs = DP

• He looks [tired]. → Cs = AdjP

b. Object Complement (Co) (Object Complement)

Gives information about the Direct Object. It often follows verbs like consider, find,
call, make, elect.

Examples:

• They considered her [brilliant]. → Co = AdjP

• We elected him [president]. → Co = DP

Key Difference Between Objects and Complements:

• Objects introduce new referents.

• Complements describe or identify an already mentioned referent (subject or

object).
 5. Adjunct (A) (Adjunct)
An Adjunct provides additional, non-essential information. It enriches the meaning
of the verb but is not required to complete it.

Adjuncts can express:

• Time (When?) → [After dinner], she left.

• Place (Where?) → She studied [in the library].

• Manner (How?) → He spoke [with great confidence].

• Reason/Purpose (Why?) → They left [because it was late].

Optional vs. Obligatory Adjuncts:

Most adjuncts are optional:

She walked [quickly].

Some verbs, however, require a location or state to complete their meaning—these

are known as obligatory adjuncts:

He lives [in Madrid].

She put the book [on the table].

In these cases, the adjunct is part of the verb’s valency and may be analyzed as a
complement in functional terms.
6. Verb Types and Sentence Patterns
Verbs determine which elements (objects, complements, adjuncts) are required. This
leads to different sentence patterns:

Pattern Function Combination Example

SV Subject + Verb He sleeps.

SVO Subject + Verb + Direct Object She wrote a letter.

SVOO Subject + Verb + Indirect + Direct Object I gave him a book.

SVC Subject + Verb + Subject Complement He is a teacher.

SVOCo Subject + Verb + Object + Object They named him captain.

Complement

SVOA Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct She put the keys on the
table.

Also:

• Resultatives: I painted the wall red. → Od = wall; Co = red

• Depictive Small Clauses: They found her upset. → Od = her; Co = upset

7. Summary Table of Functions
Function Label Typical Form Example
Subject S (Subject) DP, Clause [The students] arrived.

Verb V (Verb) V They [left].

Direct Object Od (Direct Object) DP, Clause She saw [a dog].

Indirect Object Oi (Indirect Object) DP, PP He gave [her] a book.

Subject Cs (Subject DP, AdjP He is [a writer].

Complement Complement)
Object Co (Object DP, AdjP They elected her
Complement Complement) [president].

Adjunct A (Adjunct) PP, AdvP, She works [in the

Clause morning].

• S = Subject
• V = Verb
• Od = Direct Object
• Oi = Indirect Object
• Cs = Subject Complement
• Co = Object Complement
• A = Adjunct

So:

• Complements are required to complete the meaning of the verb.

• Adjuncts are optional and add circumstantial information.

 Topic 4 – Functions in the Sentence (2nd Part: Verb-Particle
Constructions)

1. Multi-Word Verb Types: Overview

Some English verbs consist of more than one word. These verb-particle constructions
involve a main verb followed by a particle, which may be:

• An adverb (in phrasal verbs)

• A preposition (in prepositional verbs)
• Both an adverb and a preposition (in phrasal-prepositional verbs)

These constructions can present challenges in complementation, word order, and

meaning.

2. Types of Verb-Particle Constructions

a. Phrasal Verbs (V + Adv) (Verb + Adverb)

• Can be transitive or intransitive

• The particle is an adverb

• The verb + particle function together as a unit

Examples:

• They covered up the scandal. → [V + Particle] + DP (Od) (Determiner Phrase

functioning as Direct Object)
• She switched on the light. / She switched the light on.
• Your car might break down. (intransitive)
Semantic subtypes:

• Literal: Pick up the book.

• Figurative: Sales picked up around the holidays.
• Idiomatic: She picked up and left.

b. Prepositional Verbs (V + P) (Verb + Preposition)

• Always transitive: they take a DP (Determiner Phrase) complement

• The particle is a preposition, not an adverb

• Cannot be separated from their object

Examples:

• He referred to that article.

• She insists on perfection.

Note:

• Omitting the preposition causes ungrammaticality:

→ He referred that article. ✗

• Changing the preposition changes the meaning:

→ look after, look for, look at = different verbs.

c. Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs (V + Adv + P) (Verb + Adverb +
Preposition)

• Contain two particles: an adverb + a preposition

• Always followed by an object (typically a DP)

Examples:

• She put up with the noise.

• He gets away with everything.

3. Criteria to Distinguish Verb-Particle Constructions

a. Stress Pattern

• Phrasal verbs: particle is typically stressed.

→ He ran ÚP the bill.

• Prepositional verbs: preposition is unstressed.

→ She relíed on her brother.

b. Nature of the Particle

• Adverbs (phrasal): up, down, in, out...

• Prepositions (prepositional): on, at, to, with...
c. Constituency Tests

1. Fronting (P + DP) (Preposition + Determiner Phrase):

a. Prepositional verbs allow preposition fronting in questions:

→ On whom did she rely?

b. Phrasal verbs do not:

→ Up what did he run? ✗

2. Coordination:

a. Prepositional verbs allow coordinated prepositional phrases:

→ She relied on the manager and on the assistant.

b. Phrasal verbs do not:

→ She put down the customers and down the owner. ✗

3. Insertion of an Adjunct (A) (Adjunct):

a. Possible in prepositional verbs:

→ She looked carefully after the child.

b. Not allowed in phrasal verbs:

→ She put carefully on her jacket. ✗

 d. Word Order: Separable vs. Inseparable

Verb Type Example Pronoun Placement

Phrasal Verb (V + Adv) She switched [the She switched it on. ✧ She switched
light] on. on it. ✗
Prepositional Verb (V + P) She relied on [her She relied on her. ✧ She relied her on.
friend]. ✗
Phrasal-Prepositional Verb (V + Adv + P) He got away with He got away with it. ✧ He got it away
[everything]. with. ✗

4. Summary Table
Verb Type Structure Example Object
Placement
Phrasal V + Adv She turned off the Separable
light.
Prepositional V + Prep He relies on them. Inseparable

Phrasal- V + Adv + Prep He put up with it. Inseparable

Prepositional

Table 1. Word Order in V-Particle Constructions

Verb Type Object Type Word Order Example

Phrasal Verb Noun Phrase V + NP + Particle / V + She turned the light off. / She
Particle + NP turned off the light.

Phrasal Verb Pronoun V + Pronoun + She turned it off. ✧ She turned

Particle off it. ✗
Prepositional Noun Phrase V + Prep + He looks after the child. / He
Verb or Pronoun NP/Pronoun looks after her.

Phrasal- Noun Phrase V + Adv + Prep + He put up with the noise. / He

Prepositional or Pronoun NP/Pronoun put up with it.
Verb
🔍 Visual Summary: Verb-Particle Constructions
Types:

• 🟦 Phrasal Verbs = Verb + Adverb → Break down, turn on (Separable if

transitive)
• 🟨 Prepositional Verbs = Verb + Preposition → Rely on, think of (Inseparable)
• 🟥 Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs = Verb + Adverb + Preposition → Put up with,
get away with (Inseparable)

Tests:

• Stress: Phrasal = stress on particle | Prepositional = stress on verb

• Fronting: Only Prepositional Verbs allow it
• Coordination: Only Prepositional Verbs
• Adjunct Insertion: Only Prepositional Verbs
• Word Order: Only Phrasal Verbs are separable with objects

Remember: Meaning can change dramatically with particle choice. Always check
context!
 Topic 5 – The Structure of the VPIP

1. General Structure of the Verb Phrase (VP) and

Inflectional Phrase (IP)
In English syntax, the verb phrase (VP) can contain up to four auxiliary verbs plus a
lexical verb. However, to capture both grammatical and lexical information, linguists
represent the sentence structure as an Inflectional Phrase (IP):

• VP: Lexical domain (main verb + complements)

• IP: Grammatical domain (tense, aspect, modality, agreement, etc.)

A clause is thus structured as:

IP → [DP (Subject)] + [I (Inflection)] + [VP (Lexical Verb +

Complements)]

2. Auxiliary Verbs in English

a. Primary Auxiliaries

• be, have, do
• Express grammatical meaning:

 be → progressive or passive
 have → perfect aspect
 do → used for negation, inversion, and emphasis

• Can also be lexical verbs:

 I have a book. → lexical

 I have seen it. → auxiliary
b. Central Modals

• can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must

• Do not inflect for person or number

• Always followed by a bare infinitive (e.g., She can swim)

• Express modality (epistemic or deontic/root)

c. Semi-Modals

• dare (to), need (to), have to, ought to

• Show features of both modals and lexical verbs

• Often require “to” and show inflection in some contexts

3. Modal Meaning: Epistemic vs. Deontic/Root

Modality Type Function Examples
Epistemic Judgment, probability, He may be late. It must be true.
inference

Deontic / Root Obligation, ability, You must leave. She can swim.
permission, volition
4. Table: Main Uses of Modal Verbs in English
Type CAN / COULD MAY / MIGHT WILL / WOULD / MUST /
SHALL SHOULD
Epistemic He could be It may/might She would lose You must be
(Possibility, going rain today. his job.He will crazy!
Inference) tomorrow. feel better.

He should be
here by now.
Root / Deontic Can I May I come Would you help You must study
(Permission, speak?He can in?You may me?I will more.You
Obligation, swim.He bring toys. go.Shall we go? should sleep
Volition) could walk at better.You
1. mustn’t smoke.

5. The NICE Properties of Auxiliaries

Auxiliaries exhibit special syntactic behavior, summarized by the acronym NICE:

• Negation: Occur before "not" → He does not eat meat.

• Inversion: Invert with the subject in questions → Can you swim?
• Code (Tag Questions): Used in question tags → He left, didn’t he?
• Emphasis: Used for emphatic affirmation → He DID come!
6. Summary Table – Types of Verbs
Type Subtypes Examples

Lexical Verbs Transitive, Intransitive, Copula hope, eat, walk, be

Auxiliary Verbs Primary, Modals, Semi-modals have, must, need to

Topic 5 – The Structure of the VP/IP (2nd Part)

1. Inflectional Categories in English Verbs

The Inflectional Phrase (IP) is a syntactic category that encompasses all
grammatical information associated with the verb, while the VP hosts the lexical
meaning (i.e., the action or state). The IP dominates the VP and contains a functional
head (I) that encodes:

• Tense: [+/- past]

• Agreement: [+/- singular], [+/- 3rd person]

• Aspect: [+/- perfect], [+/- progressive]

• Voice: [+/- passive]

• Modality: [+/- modal]

• Negation: [+/- negation]

The subject is generated as a DP under IP, and the VP sits as the complement of the
inflectional head. A sentence is thus seen as a full IP rather than just a VP.
2. Perfect Aspect [+ perfect]
This aspect highlights a completed action with current relevance. It is expressed using
have + past participle.

Examples:

• I have lived here for ages. → Present Perfect

• He had done it by 5 a.m. → Past Perfect

3. Progressive Aspect [+ progressive]

This aspect refers to ongoing or incomplete actions and is formed using be + present
participle (-ing).

Examples:

• Jane is walking. → Present Progressive

• Jane was playing the piano when a noise disturbed her. → Past Progressive

• He will be walking the dog. → Future Progressive

✗ He is knowing the answer. ✗ The book is being blue. → The progressive is not
compatible with stative verbs.
4. Passive Voice [+ passive]
The passive voice is formed using be + past participle and shifts focus from the agent
to the patient.

Examples:

• He is seen by me. → Passive equivalent of “I see him.”

• She was delighted to get chocolate. ✓

• ✗ She was delighted by Edward to get chocolate. ✗ (incorrect causative agent

structure)

• He got knocked out. → Informal passive structure

5. Finite vs. Non-Finite Verbs

Understanding finiteness is crucial to identifying verb forms and clause types.

a. Finite Verbs

• Marked for tense (present or past)

• Show subject-verb agreement (person, number)

• Can occur in main and some subordinate clauses

Examples:

• She walks to school every day. → Present, 3rd person singular

• They worked hard. → Past, plural subject

b. Non-Finite Verbs

• Not marked for tense or agreement

• Appear only in embedded or subordinate clauses

Forms of Non-Finite Verbs:

• To-infinitive: To smoke is harmful.

• Bare infinitive: They made him leave.

• Present participle (-ing): I saw him crying.

• Past participle: Exhausted, he went to bed.

Non-finite clauses often serve as subjects, objects, or complements.

6. Structure of the IP
A sentence is structured as an IP, where inflectional (grammatical) elements are
separated from the lexical content:

Example: He has been doing his homework.

IP
├── DP: He
└── I'
├── I: [+finite, -past, +perfect, +progressive, +singular, -
negation]
└── VP
└── V: doing
└── DP: his homework

The I node hosts auxiliary verbs and inflectional markers, while the VP contains the
main verb and its arguments.
 Topic 6 – The Complementizer Phrase (CP)

1. What Is a Complementizer Phrase (CP)?

A Complementizer Phrase (CP) is a syntactic structure that includes a
complementizer (C) and an inflectional phrase (IP). The complementizer introduces
a dependent clause, connecting it to the main clause.

🔹 What is a Complementizer?

A complementizer is a functional word that introduces a subordinate clause. It

connects the embedded clause to the main clause and shows the function of the
clause (whether it's expressing cause, condition, a question, etc.).

Typical complementizers include:

• Declarative: that → I believe [that he left].

• Interrogative: if, whether → I wonder [if she knows].

• Causal or temporal: because, when → He left [because it was late].

• Purpose: for → [For her to leave] was unexpected.

• Empty/null: Ø → I saw [her leave].

 Structure:

CP
├── C (Complementizer): that, if, whether, because, when, for, Ø
(null)
└── IP (Inflectional Phrase): contains subject (DP) and predicate
(VP)

A CP allows a clause to function as a subject, object, complement, or adjunct

within another clause.

2. Clause Types: Simple, Complex, and Coordinated

a. Simple Clause

• Contains a single subject and predicate.

• Example: She left.

b. Complex Clause

• Contains a main clause and one or more subordinate (embedded) clauses.

• Example: I believe [that she left].

🔍 How to identify: Look for embedded CPs with complementizers like "that", "if",
"because", etc.
c. Coordinated Clause (compound)

• Contains two or more independent clauses linked by a coordinator (and, but,

or).

• Example: She left and he stayed.

🔍 How to identify: Each clause can stand alone and is joined by a coordinator.

d. Finite Clause

• Contains a verb marked for tense/agreement.

• Introduced by complementizers like that, if, whether.

• Example: He said [that she left].

🔍 How to identify: Check if the verb is in past, present or future tense (shows
subject agreement)
e. Non-Finite Clause

• Contains a verb in non-finite form (infinitive, -ing, -ed).

• Often introduced by for or Ø.

• Example: She wanted [to leave early].

🔍 How to identify: Look for verbs in bare form (to go), -ing form (going), or -ed form
(given) without tense.

f. Relative Clause

• Modifies a noun and begins with a relative pronoun (who, which, that).

• Example: The boy [who arrived late] was punished.

🔍 How to identify: The clause directly modifies a noun and includes a relative
pronoun.
g. Interrogative Clause

• Embedded questions introduced by if, whether, or wh- words.

• Example: I wonder [whether she will come].

🔍 How to identify: It functions as a question within a larger clause.

3. The Functions of CPs

A CP can serve several syntactic roles:

• Subject: [That she lied] shocked me.

• Object: He knew [that it was wrong].

• Complement: The point is [that he never called].

• Adjunct: He left [because it was late].

• Modifier: The book [that I read] was interesting.

4. The Structure of Embedded Clauses as CPs
An embedded clause headed by a complementizer forms a CP:

CP
├── C: that
└── IP
├── DP: Ann
└── VP: liked Tom

Nested CPs:

• I heard [that [she said [that he left]]]. → CP3 embedded in CP2, embedded in CP1

✔ Example of nesting: I believe [that she said [that he left]].

✔ Fronted CP: [Because it was late], he left.

CPs may be fronted:

• [Because she was tired], she went home.

5. Coordinated Clauses and CP Status
There is debate over whether coordinated clauses are CPs. Two possibilities:

• As CP + Adjunct:
 John was hungry and he left. → Coordination shows logical relation.

• As Independent CPs:
 She laughed and he cried. → Two CPs joined by coordination, not
subordination.
6. Finite and Non-Finite CPs

a. Finite CPs

• Include tensed verbs

• Introduced by that, if, whether, because...

Examples:

• She knew [that he left].

• They wondered [if he was late].

b. Non-Finite CPs

• Verb has no tense; appears in infinitive, -ing, -ed forms

• Subject may be overt, null, or PRO (understood subject)

Examples:

• He wants [to leave].

• [Being ignored], she left.
• [For her to leave] was unexpected.
7. Non-Finite CP Types
Clause Type Complementizer Subject Type Example

To-infinitive Ø Null (PRO) I want [_ _ to go home].

To-infinitive for Overt I arranged [for him to come].

To-infinitive Ø Overt I saw [her leave].

-ing participle while Null (PRO) [While _ doing homework], he

ate.
-ing participle Ø Overt I noticed [her crying].

-ed participle Ø Null [Shocked by the news], he

froze.

8. Functions of Non-Finite CPs

• Subject: [Reading quietly] is relaxing.

• Object: They hate [being ignored].

• Complement: The plan is [to delay the trip].

• Adjunct: He returned [to collect his phone].

Note: Non-finite CPs often involve PRO as the implicit subject.

9. Exercises – CP Identification and Analysis
A. Identify the CP and its syntactic function:

1. I believe [that she is lying]. → CP = object

2. [That he left] surprised me. → CP = subject
3. She cried [because she failed]. → CP = adjunct

B. Determine Finiteness:

1. He expected her to leave. → non-finite

2. He knew that she had left. → finite
3. To leave early was wise. → non-finite (subject)
4. He made her cry. → non-finite (bare infinitive)

C. CP Bracketing:

• Zelda noticed [that candies disappear].

• They suggested [that the sketch was forged].
• He left [because she arrived].
• [That two paintings were stolen] is sad.