1.

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Functions
The interest one earns from an investment depends on the length of time over which the invest-
ment is done. Here there variable interest depends on the variable time. Time therefore is the
independent variable while interest is the dependent variable. The set of all possible in put
values is called the domain of the function. The set of all output values is called the range of the
function.
Definition 1.1.1 A function (or a mapping) f on a set D, into a set S is a rule that assigns a
unique element f pxq in S to each element x in D.

In this definition D “ Dp f q (read as “D of f ”) is the domain of the function f . The range Rp f q

of f is the subset of S consisting of all values f pxq of the function. Think of f as a kind of a
machine that produces an output value f pxq in its range whenever we feed it an input value x from
its domain.
Consider a function f that squares any input x. We have the following notations
1. y “ x2 which uses a dependent variable y to denote the vale of f ..
2. f pxq “ x2 which defines a function symbol f to name the function.
3. x ÞÑ x2 read as “x is mapped (goes) to x2 ”.
4 3
 Example 1.1.1 The volume of a ball of radius r is given by the function V prq “ πr for r ě 0.
3
Thus the volume of a ball of radius 3 ft is
4
V p3q “ πp3q3 “ 36π ft3 .
3


 Example 1.1.2 A function F is defined for all real numbers t by

Fptq “ 2t ` 3.

Find the output values of F that correspond to the input values 0, 2, x ` 2, and Fp2q. 
 8 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Solution In each case we substitute the given input for t in the definition of F.

Fp0q “ 2p0q ` 3 “ 0 ` 3 “ 3
Fp2q “ 2p2q ` 3 “ 4 ` 3 “ 7
Fpx ` 2q “ 2px ` 2q ` 3 “ 2x ` 4 ` 3 “ 2x ` 7
FpFp2qq “ Fp7q “ 2p7q ` 3 “ 17

Domain
A function is not properly defined until its domain is specified. For instance, the function
f pxq “ x2 defined for all real numbers x ě 0 is different from the function gpxq “ x2 defined for all
real x because they have different domains, even though they have the same values at every point
where both are defined.

R When a function f is defined without specifying its domain, we assume that the domain
consists of all real numbers x for which the value f pxq of the function is a real number.

In practise we just exclude those values of x that would result in dividing by 0 or taking roots
of negative numbers.
?
 Example 1.1.3 — The square root function. The domain of f pxq “ x is the interval r0, 8q,
since negative numbers do not have real square roots. We have f p0q “ 0, f p4q “ 2, f p10q « 3.16228.
Note that, although there are two numbers whose square is 4, namely, ´2 and 2, only one of these
numbers, 2, is the square root of 4. Remember that a function assigns a unique value to each
?
element in its domain; it cannot assign two different values to the same point. The square root x
always denotes the nonnegative square root of x. 

x
 Example 1.1.4 The domain of the function hpxq “ consists of all real numbers except
x2 ´ 4
x “ ´2 and x “ 2. Expressed in terms of intervals

Dp f q “ p´8, ´2q Y p´2, 2q Y p2, 8q.

Most of the functions we encounter will have domains that are either intervals or unions of
intervals.

1.2 Limits of Functions

Calculus generally describes how quantities change. It has two basic procedures that are opposite
of one another:
• differentiation: determining the rate of change of a given function.
• integration: determining a function having a given rate.
Both of these procedures are based on a fundamental concept of the limit of a function.
x2 ´ 1
 Example 1.2.1 Describe the behaviour of the function f pxq “ near x “ 1. 
x´1
Solution Note that f pxq is defined for all x except x “ 1. For every x ‰ 1, we simplify the
expression for f pxq as follows

x2 ´ 1 px ´ 1q px ` 1q
f pxq “ “ “ x ` 1, x ‰ 1.
x´1 x´1
The graph is thus the straight line y “ x ` 1 without the point p1, 2q.
1.2 Limits of Functions 9
y

x
1

x2 ´ 1
Figure 1.1: The graph of f pxq “
x´1

Observation: Even though f p1q is not defined it is clear that we can make f pxq close to 2 as
much as we want by choosing x close to 1. We therefore say that f pxq approaches the limit 2 as x
approaches 1. We write this as

x2 ´ 1
lim f pxq “ 2 or lim “ 2.
xÑ1 xÑ1 x ´ 1

˘1{x2
Example 1.2.2 What happens to the function g pxq “ 1 ` x2
`
 as x approaches zero? 

Solution By computation we obtain the following table

x g pxq
˘1.0 2.0000 00000
˘0.1 2.7048 13829
˘0.01 2.7181 45927
˘0.001 2.7182 80469
˘0.0001 2.7182 81815
˘0.00001 2.7182 81828

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
x
´1 ´0.5 0 0.5

Figure 1.2: The graph of g pxq on the interval r´1, 1s

10 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Note that g p0q is not defined, however we observe that

˘1{x2
lim g pxq “ lim 1 ` x2
`
“ e “ 2.71828 1828 45 90 45 . . . .
xÑ0 xÑ0

Definition 1.2.1 If f pxq is defined for all x near a, except possibly at a itself, and if we can
ensure that f pxq is as close as we want to L by taking x close enough to a, but not equal to a, we
say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches a, and we write

lim f pxq “ L.
xÑa

 Example 1.2.3 Find

(a) lim c (where c is a constant)
xÑa

(b) lim x.
xÑa


Solution In part (a) we want to determine what c approaches as x approaches a. The answer is c
approaches c; it can’t be any closer to c than being at c i.e.
lim c “ c.
xÑa
In part (b) we want to determine what x approaches as x approaches a. The answer is a, i.e.
lim x “ a.
xÑa
When the denominator of a rational function is zero at x “ a, the limit as x Ñ a if it exists can
be evaluated by first simplifying the expression to a form where the denominator is not zero at
x “ a.

 Example 1.2.4

x2 ` x ´ 2 1 1 ?
(a) lim ´
x´2
xÑ´2 x2 ` 5x ` 6 (b) lim x a (c) lim
xÑa x ´ a xÑ4 x2 ´ 16

Solution Note that in each case, the denominator yields zero at the indicated values. Thus we
evaluate the limits by first simplifying the expression so that the denominator does not yield zero at
the indicated value of x.
x2 ` x ´ 2 px ` 2q px ´ 1q x´1
(a) lim 2 “ lim “ lim “ ´3.
xÑ´2 x ` 5x ` 6 xÑ´2 px ` 2qpx ` 3q xÑ´2 x ` 3

1 1 a´x
´ 1 1
(b) lim x a “ lim ax “ lim ´ “ ´ 2 .
xÑa x ´ a xÑa x ´ a xÑa ax a
? ? ?
x´2 p x ´ 2qp x ` 2q
(c) lim 2 “ lim ?
xÑ4 x ´ 16 xÑ4 px ´ 4qpx ` 4qp x ` 2q

x´4
“ lim ?
xÑ4 px ´ 4qpx ` 4qp x ` 2q

1 1
“ lim ? “ .
xÑ4 px ` 4qp x ` 2q 32
1.2 Limits of Functions 11

Definition 1.2.2 — Left and right limits. If f pxq is defined on some open interval pb, aq extend-
ing to the left of a, and if we can ensure that f pxq is as close as we want to L by taking x to the
left of a and close enough to a, then we say that f has left limit L at x “ a, and we write

lim f pxq “ L.
xÑa´

If f pxq is defined on some open interval pa, bq extending to the right of a, and if we can
ensure that f pxq is as close as we want to L by taking x to the right of a and close enough to a,
then we say that f has right limit L at x “ a, and we write

lim f pxq “ L.
xÑa`

 Example 1.2.5 Consider the signum function

$
x &1, xą0
sgnpxq “ “
|x| %´1, x ă 0

´1

Figure 1.3: The graph of sgnpxq

From the graph observe that

lim sgnpxq “ ´1 and lim sgnpxq “ 1.

xÑ0´ xÑ0`


Theorem 1.2.1 A function f pxq has limit L at x “ a if and only if both left and right limits exists
and these one-sided limts are both equal to L; that is

lim f pxq “ L ðñ lim f pxq “ L and lim f pxq “ L.

xÑa xÑa´ xÑa`

|x ´ 2|
 Example 1.2.6 If f pxq “ 2 , find lim f pxq, lim f pxq and lim f pxq. 
x `x´6 xÑ2` xÑ2´ xÑ2
Solution Observe that
$
&x ´ 2, x´2 ą 0
|x ´ 2| “
%´px ´ 2q, x ´ 2 ă 0

x´2 1 1
6 lim f pxq “ lim “ lim “ .
xÑ2` xÑ2` px ` 3qpx ´ 2q xÑ2` x ` 3 5
12 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

´px ´ 2q 1 1
6 lim f pxq “ lim “ ´ lim “´ .
xÑ2´ xÑ2´ px ` 3qpx ´ 2q xÑ2 x ` 3
´ 5
Since lim f pxq ‰ lim f pxq then limit lim f pxq does not exist.
xÑ2` xÑ2´ xÑ2

Theorem 1.2.2 If lim f pxq “ L, lim gpxq “ M, and k is a constant, then

xÑa xÑa
(a) lim p f pxq ˘ gpxqq “ L ˘ M.
xÑa

(b) lim f pxqgpxq “ LM.

xÑa

(c) lim k f pxq “ kL.

xÑa

f pxq L
(d) lim “ , M ‰ 0.
xÑa gpxq M
(e) If m is an integer and n is a positive integer, then lim p f pxqqm{n “ Lm{n provided L ą 0 if n
xÑa
is even and L ‰ 0 in m ă 0.
(f) If f pxq ď gpxq on an interval containing a in its interior, then L ď M.
?
x2 ` x ` 4 (b) lim 2x ` 1
 Example 1.2.7 (a) lim xÑ2
xÑa x ´ 2x2 ` 7
3

Solution
x2 ` x ` 4 a2 ` a ` 4
(a) lim “ provided a3 ´ 2a2 ` 7 ‰ 0.
xÑ´2 x3 ´ 2x2 ` 7 a3 ´ 2a2 ` 7
? ?
(b) lim 2x ` 1 “ 5.
xÑ2

Theorem 1.2.3
(a) If Ppxq is polynomial and a is any real number, then lim Ppxq “ Ppaq.
xÑa

(b) Ppxq and Qpxq are polynomials and Qpaq ‰ 0, then

Ppxq Ppaq
lim “ .
xÑa Qpxq Qpaq

Theorem 1.2.4 — The Squeeze Theorem. Suppose f pxq ď gpxq ď hpxq holds for all x in some
open interval containing a, except possibly at x “ a itself. Suppose also that

lim f pxq “ lim hpxq “ L.

xÑa xÑa

Then lim gpxq “ L also. Similar statements hold for left and right limits.
xÑa

 Example 1.2.8 Given that 3 ´ x2 ď upxq ď 3 ` x2 for all x ‰ 0, find lim upxq. 
xÑa

Solution Since lim p3 ´ x2 q “ 3 and lim p3 ` x2 q “ 3, the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim upxq “
xÑ0 xÑ0 xÑ0
3.
1.2 Limits of Functions 13

 Example 1.2.9 Show that if lim | f pxq| “ 0 then lim f pxq “ 0. 

xÑa xÑa

Solution Since ´| f pxq| ď f pxq ď | f pxq|, and ´| f pxq| and | f pxq| both have limit 0 as x Ñ 0, so
does f pxq by the Squeeze Theorem.

Exercise 1.1
1. Evaluate the limit or explain why it does not exist

`
(a) lim x2 ´ 4x ` 1
˘ t
xÑ4 (e) lim ? ?
tÑ0 4`t ´ 4´t
(b) lim 3 p1 ´ xq p2 ´ xq x2 ´ 1
xÑ2 (f) lim ?
xÑ1 x`3´2
x`3
(c) lim x2 ´ 6x ` 9
xÑ3 x ` 6 (g) lim
xÑ3 x2 ´ 9
t2 ?
(d) lim 4`h´2
tÑ4 4 ´ t (h) lim
hÑ0 h

2. Find the indicated one-sided limit or explain why it does not exist.

?
(a) lim 2´x |x ´ a|
xÑ2´ (c) lim
x2 ´ a2
xÑa´
? |x ´ a|
(b) lim 2´x (d) lim 2
xÑ2` xÑa` x ´ a2

f pxq ´ 5
3. If lim “ 3 find lim f pxq.
xÑ2 x ´ 2 xÑ2
f pxq f pxq
4. If lim 2 “ ´2 find lim f pxq and lim .
xÑ0 x xÑ0 xÑ0 x

5. For the function g pxq given in the figure below, find each of the following limits or explain
why it does not exist.

(a) lim gpxq (b) lim gpxq (c) lim gpxq

xÑ1 xÑ2 xÑ3

y “ g pxq
y

x
1 2 3


 14 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.3 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits

1.3.1 Limits at Infinity
x
Consider the function f pxq “ ? whose graph is
x2 ` 1
y

´1

x
Figure 1.4: The graph of f pxq “ ?
x2 ` 1

It can be verified by direct computation that lim f pxq “ 1 and lim f pxq “ ´1.
xÑ8 xÑ´8

Definition 1.3.1 If f pxq is defined on an interval pa, 8q and if we can ensure that f pxq is as
close as we want to the number L by taking x large enough, then we say that f pxq approaches
the limit L as x approaches infinity, and we write

lim f pxq “ L.
xÑ8

If f pxq is defined on an interval p´8, bq and if we can ensure that f pxq is as close as we
want to the number M by taking x negative and large enough in absolute value, then we say that
f pxq approaches the limit M as x approaches negative infinity, and we write

lim f pxq “ M.
xÑ´8

1
 Example 1.3.1 Consider the function f pxq “ whose graph is given below
x
1
We observe that lim “ 0. 
xÑ˘8 x
x
 Example 1.3.2 Evaluate lim f pxq, where f pxq “ ? . 
xÑ˘8 x2 ` 1
Solution
x x x x sgnpxq
f pxq “ ? “d ˆ ˙“? c “ c “c
x2 ` 1 1 1 1 1
x2 1 ` 2 x2 1 ` 2 |x| 1 ` 2 1` 2
x x x x

where
$
x &1,xą0
sgnpxq “ “
|x| %´1, x ă 0
1.3 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits 15
y

p1, 1q

p´1, ´1q

1
Figure 1.5: The graph of f pxq “
x

Therefore

´1 ´1 1 1
lim f pxq “ lim c “ “ ´1 and lim f pxq “ lim c “ “1
xÑ´8 xÑ´8 1 1 xÑ8 xÑ8 1 1
1` 1` 2
x2 x

2x2 ´ x ` 3
 Example 1.3.3 Evaluate lim . 
xÑ˘8 3x2 ` 5

Solution Dividing through by the highest power of x in the denominator, we obtain

1 3
2x2 ´ x ` 3 2´ ` 2
lim “ lim x x “ 2´0`0 “ 2.
xÑ˘8 3x2 ` 5 xÑ˘8 5 3`0 3
3` 2
x

 Example 1.3.4

5 2
5x ` 2 2
` 3 0`0
lim “ lim x x “ “ 0.
xÑ˘8 2x3 ´ 1 xÑ˘8 1 2´0
2´ 3
x


In general, let Pm pxq “ am xm ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a0 and Qn pxq “ bn xn ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` b0 be polynomilas of degrees

m and n respectively, so that am ‰ 0 and bn ‰ 0. Then
$
’
’0, if m ă n
’
Pm pxq & am
lim “ , if m “ n
xÑ˘8 Qn pxq ’
’ bn
’
does not exist, if m ą n.
%
 16 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.3.2 Infinite Limits

Here we investigate the behaviour of functions as image points move infinitely far away from the
origin.
1
 Example 1.3.5 Describe the behaviour of f pxq “ near x “ 0. 
x2
1
Solution Note that f p0q is not defined. However lim f pxq “ lim 2 “ 8.
xÑ0 xÑ0 x

1
y“ x2

1
Figure 1.6: The graph of f pxq “
x2

1
 Example 1.3.6 Describe the behaviour of f pxq “
near x “ 0. 
x
1 1
Solution lim f pxq “ lim “ ´8 and lim f pxq “ lim “ 8. The figure illustrates these
xÑ0´ xÑ0´ x xÑ0` xÑ0` x
results.
y

p1, 1q

p´1, ´1q

1
Figure 1.7: The graph of f pxq “
x

 Example 1.3.7
 1.4 Continuity 17

(a) lim p3x3 ´ x2 ` 2q “ 8 (c) lim p3x3 ´ x2 ` 2q “ ´8

xÑ8 xÑ´8
(b) lim px4 ´ 5x3 ´ xq “ 8 (d) lim px4 ´ 5x3 ´ xq “ 8
xÑ8 xÑ8

The highest-degree term of a polynomial dominates the other terms as |x| grows larger, so that
the limit of this term at ˘8 determine the limit of the whole polynomial. For example observe that
ˆ ˙
1 2
3x3 ´ x2 ` 2 “ 3x2 1 ´ ` 3 .
3x 3x
The factor in the parentheses approaches 1 as x approaches ˘8, so the behaviour of the polynomial
is just that of its highest-degree term 3x3 .
x3 ` 1
Example 1.3.8 Evaluate lim 2 . 
xÑ8 x ` 1
Solution
1
¨
˛
x3 ` 1 x`
lim 2 “ lim ˝
˚ x2 ‹ “ 8.
xÑ8 x ` 1 xÑ8 1‚
1` 2
x

1. Evaluate
Exercise 1.2 the limits in

x x2 ´ 2
(a) lim (d) lim
xÑ8 2x ´ 3
xÑ´8 x ´ x2
x x2 ` 3
(b) lim (e) lim 3
xÑ8 x2 ´ 4 xÑ´8 x ` 2
x2 ` sin x
3x3 ´ 5x2 ` 7 (f) lim 2
xÑ8 x ` cos
?x
(c) lim 3x ` 2 x
xÑ8 8 ` 2x ´ 5x3
(g) lim .
xÑ8 1´x
2. Evaluate the indicated the limit. If it does not exist, is the limit 8, ´8, or neither?.

1 2x ` 5
(a) lim (c) lim
xÑ3 3 ´ x xÑ´5{2 5x ` 2
2x ` 5
1 (d) lim
(b) lim xÑ´2{5 5x ` 2
xÑ3 p3 ´ xq2

1.4 Continuity
Definition 1.4.1 A function f is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if

lim f pxq “ f pcq.

xÑc

If either lim f pxq fails to exists or it exists but is not equal to f pcq, then we say that f is
xÑc
discontinuous at c. The following graphs illustrate what is described in the definition above.
18 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

y y

y “ f pxq f pcq y “ f pxq

L “ f pcq L

c x c x

(a) f is continuous at c (b) lim f pxq ‰ f pcq

x Ñc

y
y “ f pxq
f pcq
=
right limit
left limit

c x

Figure 1.9: lim f pxq does not exisist

xÑc

Definition 1.4.2 — Right and left continuity. f is right continuous at c if lim f pxq “ f pcq
xÑc`
and is left continuous at c if lim f pxq “ f pcq.
xÑc´

 Example 1.4.1 Consider the Heaviside function

$
&1, ě0
Hpxq “ .
%´1, x ă 0

The function is continuous everywhere except at x “ 0. It is right continuous there. 

Theorem 1.4.1 A function f is continuous at c if and only if its both right continuous and left
continuous at c.

Definition 1.4.3 A function f is continuous on an interval I if it is continuous at each point of I.

We say that f is a continuous function if and only if it is continuous at every point of its domain.

 Example 1.4.2
?
(a) f pxq “ x, x P r0, 8q is a continuous function.
1
(b) f pxq “ , x ‰ 0 is a continuous function.
x
(c) All polynomials are continuous everywhere.
(d) All rational functions are continuous wherever they are defined.
(e) All absolute value functions are continuous wherever they are defined.
(f) The sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and cotangent functions are continuous wherever
they are defined.

1.4 Continuity 19

Theorem 1.4.2 If the functions f and g are both defined on an interval containing c and both
are continuous at c, then the following functions are also continuous at c.

1. f ˘ g
4. f {g provided gpcq ‰ 0.
2. f g
5. p f pxqq1{n , provided f pxq ą 0 if n is even.
3. k f , k is any number.

Theorem 1.4.3 IIf f pgpxqq is defined on an interval containing c and f is continuous at L and
lim gpxq “ L, then
xÑc
´ ¯
lim f pgpxqq “ f pLq “ f lim gpxq .
xÑc xÑc

In particular, if g is continuous at c (so that L “ gpcq), then the composition f ˝ g is continuous

at c and

lim f pgpxqq “ f pgpcqq.

xÑc

Discontinuities can be classified as jump, infinite, removable, endpoint, or mixed. Remov-

able discontinuities are characterized by the fact that the limit exists. Removable discontinuities
can be "fixed" by re-defining the function. The other types of discontinuities are characterized by
the fact that the limit does not exist. Specifically,
1. Jump discontinuities: both one-sided limits exist, but have different values.
2. Infinite discontinuities: both one-sided limits are infinite.
3. Endpoint discontinuities: only one of the one-sided limits exists.
4. Mixed: at least one of the one-sided limits does not exist.

Continuous Extensions and Removable Discontinuities

If f pcq is not defined, but lim f pxq “ L exists, we can define a new function Fpxq by
xÑc
#
f pxq, if x ‰ c is in the domain of f
Fpxq “
L, if x “ c.

Fpxq is called a continuous extension of f pxq to c.

x2 ´ x
 Example 1.4.3 Show that f pxq “ 2 has a continuous extension at x “ 1 and find that
x ´1
extension. 

Solution Observe that f p1q is not defined. However

x2 ´ x xpx ´ 1q x x 1
f pxq “ “ “ , x‰1 6 lim f pxq “ lim “ .
x2 ´ 1 px ´ 1qpx ` 1q x ` 1 xÑ1 xÑ1 x`1 2
x
The function Fpxq “ is equal to f pxq for x ‰ 1 and is also continuous at x “ 1, where
x`1
1
Fp1q “ . Thus the continuous extension of f pxq to x “ 1 is Fpxq. Below are the curves of f pxq
2
and Fpxq.
20 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity
y y
x2 ´x
y“ x2 ´1

x
1 1 y“ x` 1

´1 x ´1 x

(a) (b)

If a function is undefined or discontinuous at a point c but can be redefined at that single point
so that it becomes continuous there, then we say that f has a removable discontinuity at at x “ c.
$
&x, x ‰ 2
 Example 1.4.4 The function gpxq “ has a removable discontinuity at x “ 2. To
%1, x “ 2
remove it redefine gp2q “ 2. The corresponding graph is given below

y
y “ gpxq

p2, 1q
x

Figure 1.11

Exercise 1.3
1. State where in its domain the given function is continuous, where it is left or right
continuous, and where it is just discontinuous.
1.4 Continuity 21
$ $
&x if x ă 0 &1{x2 if x ‰ 0
(a) f pxq “ (c) f pxq “
%x 2 if x ě 0. %0 if x “ 0.
$ $
&x if x ă1 &x 2 if x ď 1
(b) f pxq “ (d) f pxq “
%x 2 if x ě ´1. %0.987 if x ą 1.

2. How should the given function be defined at the given point to be continuous there? Give
a formula for the continuous extension to that point.

x2 ´ 4 x2 ´ 2 ?
(a) at x “ 2 (d) at 2
x´2 x4 ´ 4
t
(e) lim ? ?
1 ` t3 tÑ0 4`t ´ 4´t
(b) at t “ ´1
1 ´ t2 x2 ´ 1
t 2 ´ 5t ` 6 (f) lim ?
xÑ1 x ` 3 ´ 2
(c) 2 at 3
t ´t ´6
t 2 ´ 5t ` 6
3. Determine the formula for the continuous extension of to t “ 3.
t2 ´ t ´ 6