BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

PART B
UNIT 1
1. Examine the various types of research and their relative merits and demerits with
suitable examples from the business management point of view?
In business management, research can be categorized into several types,
including descriptive, correlational, experimental, case study, and survey research,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages depending on the research question
and desired level of insight:.
1. Descriptive Research:
 Merits:
Provides a detailed picture of a phenomenon at a specific point in time, useful for
understanding market trends, customer demographics, and current business
practices.
 Demerits:
Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, may not reveal underlying reasons
behind observed trends.
 Example:
Conducting a customer satisfaction survey to understand the overall sentiment
towards a company's recent product launch, identifying areas of improvement
without pinpointing specific factors causing dissatisfaction.
2. Correlational Research:
 Merits: Identifies potential relationships between variables, helpful for
exploring potential connections between marketing strategies and sales
figures.
 Demerits: Does not prove causation, can be influenced by confounding
variables.
 Example: Analyzing data to see if there is a correlation between the amount
spent on advertising and brand awareness, but not necessarily concluding that
increased advertising directly causes higher brand awareness.
3. Experimental Research:
 Merits:
Allows for testing cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables in a
controlled environment.
 Demerits:
Can be difficult to replicate real-world conditions, ethical considerations may arise
when manipulating variables.
 Example:
A company testing the impact of different pricing strategies on customer purchase
behavior by conducting a controlled experiment with different price points in
different regions.
4. Case Study Research:
 Merits:
Provides in-depth analysis of a specific company or situation, useful for exploring
complex issues and gaining rich qualitative data.
 Demerits:
May not be generalizable to other contexts, potential for bias due to focus on a single
case
 Example:
Studying a successful company's turnaround strategy to understand the key factors
that contributed to their recovery and identify potential strategies for similar
situations within the company.
5. Survey Research:
 Merits:
Allows for gathering data from a large sample size, relatively quick and cost-
effective method for collecting quantitative data.
 Demerits:
Potential for response bias, limited depth of information due to structured questions.
  Example:
Sending out an online survey to customers to gather feedback on their overall
shopping experience and identify areas for improvement.
2. Explain the various stages of research process with a neat diagram.

The image represents a flowchart outlining the steps in a research process. Here's an explanation
of each step:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

o Identifying and defining the research issue or question to be investigated.
2. Extensive Review of Literature
o Conducting a thorough review of existing studies, theories, and research related to
the topic.
3. Developing the Hypothesis
o Formulating a tentative statement or assumption that can be tested through research.
4. Developing Research Design
o Planning the methodology, tools, and procedures for data collection and analysis.
5. Determining Sample Design
o Deciding on the sample size and selection method for data collection.
6. Collection of Data
o Gathering required data using surveys, experiments, interviews, or other methods.
7. Execution of the Research Work
o Implementing the planned research design and collecting data as per the strategy.
8. Analysis of Data
o Processing and analyzing collected data using statistical or qualitative methods.
 9. Hypothesis Testing
o Verifying the hypothesis through appropriate statistical tests or analytical
techniques.
10. Generalization and Interpretation

 Drawing meaningful conclusions and interpreting results to apply findings to a larger

population.

11. Preparation of the Report

 Documenting the entire research process, findings, and conclusions in a structured report.

3. Interpret the role of theory and its impact in in Research.

In research, a theory acts as a foundational framework that provides a lens to
understand, explain, and predict phenomena, guiding the research process by
informing research questions, methodology, data analysis, and interpretation of
findings, ultimately contributing to the development of new knowledge within a
field; without a theoretical foundation, research can lack depth and coherence in
explaining observed patterns or relationships between variables.
Key aspects of theory's role in research:
 Provides context and meaning:
Theories offer a structured way to understand complex concepts by defining key
variables and their relationships, giving research a clear focus and direction.
 Guides research design:
A theory helps researchers formulate research questions, select appropriate
methodologies, and determine the necessary data collection methods to test its
propositions.
 Enables prediction:
Based on theoretical frameworks, researchers can make predictions about how
variables should interact, allowing for hypothesis testing and falsification.
 Interpretation of results:
Theory serves as a lens through which researchers analyze and interpret their
findings, connecting the data to broader theoretical concepts and providing a deeper
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
  Knowledge accumulation:
By building upon existing theories and testing their limitations, researchers
contribute to the cumulative body of knowledge within a discipline.
Impact of theory in research:
 Rigor and credibility:
A well-defined theoretical framework enhances the rigor and credibility of research
by providing a logical structure and rationale for the study.
 Generalizability:
Theories can help researchers generalize findings from a specific study to broader
populations or contexts, as they provide a broader conceptual framework.
 Innovation and new theory development:
By testing existing theories and identifying gaps in knowledge, researchers can
contribute to the development of new theoretical concepts and refine existing ones.
4. Explain Research Problem? How do you select a Research Problem and establish
Research Objective? Illustrate your answer.
A research problem is a specific issue or gap in existing knowledge that you aim
to address in your research. You may choose to look for practical problems aimed at
contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.

How to Select a Research Problem?

Selecting a research problem involves several steps:

1. Identify a Broad Area of Interest

 Choose a subject based on academic background, professional experience, or societal

needs.
 Example: "Impact of social media on mental health."

2. Conduct a Literature Review

 Study existing research to identify gaps or unresolved issues.

 Example: Previous studies may have examined social media’s impact on teenagers, but
little research might be available on working professionals.

3. Narrow Down the Problem

  Refine the broad topic into a specific research question.
 Example: "How does excessive use of Instagram affect workplace productivity?"

4. Assess Feasibility

 Check for available data sources, required time, budget, and expertise.
 Example: Conducting a survey of professionals in different industries to measure Instagram
usage and productivity.

5. Define the Research Problem Statement

 Formulate a concise statement that outlines the issue and why it needs investigation.
 Example:
o "There is limited research on how excessive Instagram usage affects employees'
productivity levels in corporate settings. This study aims to explore this relationship
and provide insights into workplace digital consumption patterns."

How to Establish Research Objectives?

Once a research problem is identified, research objectives must be formulated. These are specific
goals that the study aims to achieve.

Steps to Establish Research Objectives:

1. Convert the Research Problem into Objectives

Example: If the problem is "Effect of Instagram on productivity," objectives could be:

 To analyze the correlation between Instagram usage and workplace productivity.

 To identify factors influencing excessive social media consumption during work hours.
 To suggest strategies for managing social media use in corporate environments.

2. Ensure Objectives are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-

bound)

Example:

 Specific – "To measure Instagram's impact on employee productivity."

 Measurable – "To survey 500 employees and analyze productivity scores."
 Achievable – "Using surveys and interviews within three months."
 Relevant – "Understanding social media distractions in corporate jobs."
 Time-bound – "Study to be completed within six months."
5. “Empirical research in India in particular creates so many problems for the
researchers”. State the problems that are usually faced by such researchers?
Problems Faced by Researchers in Empirical Research in India

1. Lack of Reliable Data

 Many government databases and reports may be outdated, inconsistent, or incomplete.

 Private organizations may not share data due to confidentiality concerns.
 Example: A researcher studying economic growth might find discrepancies in different official
reports.

2. Difficulty in Data Collection

 Language Barriers: India has multiple languages, making survey administration difficult.
 Low Literacy Levels: In rural areas, respondents may struggle to understand survey questions.
 Unwillingness to Participate: People may hesitate to share information due to fear of authority
or lack of trust.
 Example: Farmers may be reluctant to provide accurate financial data due to tax concerns.

3. Problems with Research Design

 India’s vast diversity makes it difficult to generalize findings.

 Sample selection can be biased due to regional and demographic differences.
 Example: A study on consumer behavior may show different trends in urban vs. rural markets.

4. Lack of Funding and Resources

 Empirical research requires financial support for surveys, travel, and data collection.
 Many researchers struggle to secure grants from government agencies or private institutions.
 Example: A researcher studying climate change may need expensive equipment for
environmental monitoring.

5. Bureaucratic and Legal Hurdles

 Government approvals for research can be time-consuming and complex.

 Stringent regulations on data collection and ethical clearances can delay research.
 Example: Research on health policies may require approvals from multiple regulatory bodies.
6. Issues with Technology and Infrastructure

 Limited internet access in remote areas affects online surveys and digital data collection.
 Lack of modern statistical tools and software in many institutions hinders analysis.
 Example: A study on e-governance adoption may face issues in rural areas with low internet
penetration.

7. Political and Social Sensitivity

 Some topics (e.g., caste, religion, gender issues) are politically sensitive and can attract
controversy.
 Researchers may face resistance or backlash when studying controversial issues.
 Example: A study on communal tensions may face opposition from different interest groups.

9. Lack of Awareness about Research Ethics

 Some researchers may not follow proper ethical guidelines (e.g., informed consent, privacy
protection).
 Example: Collecting medical data without proper consent can create legal and ethical issues.

6. Discuss in detail about Research Hypothesis and its types with suitable example
A research hypothesis is a proposed statement that predicts a relationship between
variables in a study, essentially an educated guess about the outcome of research,
which can be tested through experimentation and data analysis; it acts as the guiding
principle for research and outlines the expected results based on existing knowledge
and theory.
Types of Research Hypotheses:
 Simple Hypothesis:
Predicts a relationship between a single independent variable and a single dependent
variable.
 Example: "Students who study for 2 hours before an exam will achieve
higher scores than those who do not study."
 Complex Hypothesis:
Examines the relationship between multiple independent and dependent variables,
often involving interactions between them.
 Example: "People who exercise regularly, eat a balanced diet, and get
enough sleep will have better overall health compared to those who do
not practice these habits."
 Directional Hypothesis:
Specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables, stating
whether one variable will increase or decrease as the other changes.
 Example: "Individuals who participate in a mindfulness meditation
program will report significantly lower stress levels compared to those
in a control group."
 Non-directional Hypothesis:
Simply states that a relationship exists between variables without predicting the
direction of that relationship.
 Example: "There is a significant difference in job satisfaction levels
between employees working in remote and office settings."
 Null Hypothesis (H0):
A statement that there is no significant relationship between variables, essentially
the default assumption that is tested against the research hypothesis.
 Example: "There is no difference in the average test scores between
students who received traditional instruction and those who received
online instruction."
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1):
The opposite of the null hypothesis, representing the researcher's actual prediction
about the relationship between variables.
 Example: "Students who received online instruction will achieve
significantly higher test scores compared to those who received
traditional instruction."
 Associative Hypothesis:
Indicates a correlation or association between variables without implying causation.
  Example: "There is a positive correlation between income level and
the number of years of education."
 Causal Hypothesis:
Claims that changes in one variable directly cause changes in another variable.
 Example: "Regular exercise leads to a reduction in blood pressure."
7. Explain the seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method?

The seven steps in the hypothetico-deductive method are: 1. Identify a broad

problem area, 2. Define the problem statement, 3. Develop hypotheses, 4. Determine
measures, 5. Collect data, 6. Analyze data, and 7. Interpret results; essentially, it
involves identifying a research question, formulating a testable hypothesis,
collecting data to test that hypothesis, analyzing the data, and drawing conclusions
based on the findings.
Explanation of each step:
 Identify a broad problem area:
This is the initial stage where a general topic of interest or concern is identified, often
based on observation or existing literature.
 Define the problem statement:
Narrow down the broad problem area into a specific, focused research question that
can be investigated.
  Develop hypotheses:
Formulate testable predictions about the relationship between variables based on the
problem statement, which can be stated as "if-then" statements.
 Determine measures:
Decide how to operationalize the variables in your hypothesis by selecting
appropriate measurement tools or methods to collect data.
 Collect data:
Gather data using the chosen methods, ensuring the data is relevant to the research
question and hypotheses.
 Analyze data:
Use statistical techniques to examine the collected data and identify patterns or
trends that support or refute the hypotheses.
 Interpret results:
Explain the findings in the context of the research question, considering limitations
and implications of the study.
8. Enumerate in detail the process of testing Hypothesis with suitable example.
Hypothesis testing involves a structured process to evaluate whether data supports a
proposed claim (hypothesis) by formulating a null and alternative hypothesis,
collecting relevant data, calculating a test statistic, and making a decision based on
a chosen significance level, ultimately deciding whether to reject or fail to reject the
null hypothesis; .
Steps in Hypothesis Testing:
1. State the Null and Alternative Hypotheses:
 Null Hypothesis (H0):
This is the default assumption, typically stating that there is no significant effect or
relationship between variables.
 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):
This is the statement you are trying to prove, usually the opposite of the null
hypothesis.
Example:
 Research question:
Does a new fertilizer increase plant growth compared to the standard fertilizer?
 Null Hypothesis (H0):
The new fertilizer does not significantly increase plant growth compared to the
standard fertilizer.
 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):
The new fertilizer significantly increases plant growth compared to the standard
fertilizer.
2. Set the Significance Level (α):
 This is the threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis, usually set at 0.05 (5%)
meaning you are willing to accept a 5% chance of making a Type 1 error
(rejecting a true null hypothesis).
3. Collect Data:
 Gather relevant data from a representative sample using appropriate methods.
Example:
 Randomly select a group of plants, divide them into two groups, and apply the
new fertilizer to one group and the standard fertilizer to the other. Measure the
plant height after a set period.
4. Choose the Appropriate Statistical Test:
 Select the statistical test based on the type of data (numerical, categorical),
distribution, and research question.
Example:
 For comparing the mean plant height between two groups, a t-test might be
suitable.
5. Calculate the Test Statistic and p-value:
 Apply the chosen statistical test to the data to compute a test statistic and its
corresponding p-value.
6. Make a Decision:
 Compare the p-value to the significance level (α):
o If p-value < α, reject the null hypothesis.
o If p-value ≥ α, fail to reject the null hypothesis.
7. Interpret the Results:
 Explain the findings in the context of the research question, considering
limitations and potential implications.
Important Considerations:
 Type I and Type II Errors: Be aware of the possibility of making errors in
hypothesis testing, such as rejecting a true null hypothesis (Type I) or failing
to reject a false null hypothesis (Type II).
 Sample Size: A larger sample size generally provides more reliable results.
 Effect Size: Consider the practical significance of the findings beyond
statistical significance.
 UNIT 2
1. Classify the different types of Research Design and show the benefits in the
context of any functional management Research.
Research Design Types
 Qualitative research
Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data and
observations based on mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or
disprove theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely
on qualitative observation research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory
exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.
 Quantitative research
Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable
insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical
business decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of
any organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove
to be highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.
1. Descriptive: In a descry ptive composition, a researcher is solely
interested in describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a
theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting
collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and
how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need
for the research.

2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the

cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where one
observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent
variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable
such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand
loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.

3. Correlational research: Correlational

research is a non-experimental
research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two
closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques
calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires two
different groups.

4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to

evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method
helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and

thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The study explains
unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’ what, how,
and why.

Key benefits broken down by functional area:

 Marketing Research:

Identifying target market needs, optimizing marketing campaigns, improving

brand awareness, understanding customer behavior, and developing effective
product strategies.

 Finance Research:

Improving financial forecasting, identifying cost-saving opportunities, optimizing

capital allocation, managing risk effectively, and enhancing financial reporting
accuracy.

 Operations Research:

Streamlining production processes, reducing waste, improving inventory

management, optimizing supply chains, and enhancing overall operational
efficiency.
  Human Resource Research:

Identifying employee engagement factors, optimizing recruitment and selection

processes, developing effective training programs, improving employee
retention, and fostering a positive work environment.

2. Discuss the various types of Measurement Scales and also their pros and cons.
The four primary types of measurement scales are Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and
Ratio, each with increasing levels of information and analytical capabilities, with
"Nominal" being the most basic and "Ratio" offering the most flexibility for
statistical analysis; pros of each scale include their ability to categorize data
appropriately, while cons can include limitations in the types of statistical tests
applicable depending on the scale used.
1. Nominal Scale:
 Definition: Assigns categories or labels to data without any inherent order or
ranking.
 Example: Gender (Male, Female), Favorite Color (Blue, Red, Green)
 Pros: Simple to use for basic categorization.
 Cons: Cannot perform calculations like averages due to lack of numerical
meaning.
2. Ordinal Scale:
 Definition:
Data can be ranked or ordered, but the intervals between categories are not
necessarily equal.
 Example:
T-shirt sizes (Small, Medium, Large), Customer Satisfaction Level (Very
Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neutral, Satisfied, Very Satisfied)
 Pros:
Allows for comparison of relative ranking between categories.
 Cons:
Cannot determine the exact difference between categories as intervals are not equal.
3. Interval Scale:
 Definition: Data can be ranked, and intervals between categories are equal,
but there is no true zero point.
 Example: Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit
 Pros: Enables more sophisticated statistical analysis like calculating means
and standard deviations.
 Cons: Cannot perform ratio comparisons due to the lack of a true zero point.
4. Ratio Scale:
 Definition: Data can be ranked, intervals are equal, and there is a true zero
point, allowing for ratio comparisons.
 Example: Height in centimeters, Weight in kilograms
 Pros: Most versatile scale, allows for a wide range of statistical analysis
including ratios and percentages.
 Cons: Can be complex to design and apply in certain situations.
3. Explain in detail about the various types of Comparative scaling techniques with
example
Comparative scaling techniques involve directly comparing one stimulus to another,
allowing researchers to understand relative preferences or perceptions between
different options, with the most common types being: Paired Comparison, Rank
Order, Constant Sum, and Q-sort scaling; each with its own application and method
of data collection.
1. Paired Comparison Scaling:
 Concept:
Presents respondents with two stimuli at a time and asks them to choose which one
they prefer based on a specific criterion.
 Example:
A researcher wants to determine the preferred flavor of ice cream between vanilla,
chocolate, and strawberry. They would present pairs like "vanilla vs chocolate",
"chocolate vs strawberry", and "vanilla vs strawberry" to each participant, asking
them to select the preferred flavor in each pair.
2. Rank Order Scaling:
 Concept:
Asks respondents to rank a set of stimuli from most preferred to least preferred,
providing an ordinal ranking of their choices.
 Example:
A market researcher wants to know consumer preference for different brands of
smartphones. They would present a list of brands and ask participants to rank them
from most preferred to least preferred.
3. Constant Sum Scaling:
 Concept:
Allocates a fixed number of points (like dollars or points) to a set of stimuli, where
the total sum across all stimuli must equal a constant value, reflecting the relative
importance of each option.
 Example:
A study asks participants to distribute 100 points among three different features of a
new car (fuel efficiency, design, price) to show their relative importance for the
purchase decision.
4. Q-Sort Scaling:
 Concept:
A variant of rank order scaling where respondents are given a set of cards
representing different stimuli and asked to sort them into predefined categories based
on their perceived similarity or importance.
 Example:
A researcher studying consumer perception of different brands might ask
participants to sort a set of brand cards into piles representing "highly favorable,"
"moderately favorable," and "unfavorable" categories.
Key points about comparative scaling:
  Ordinal Data:
Data obtained from comparative scales is typically ordinal, meaning it only indicates
relative preference or ranking, not absolute differences in magnitude.
 Useful for Relative Comparisons:
These techniques are particularly valuable when the primary goal is to understand
how different stimuli compare to one another within a specific context.
 Potential for Bias:
Respondents might be influenced by the order in which stimuli are presented or their
overall perception of the category, so careful design is crucial to mitigate bias.
4. Elucidate the different types of experimental design used in research?
The main types of experimental design are pre-experimental, true experimental, and
quasi-experimental. The design you choose depends on your research method, the
variables you can manipulate, and whether you can randomly assign participants.
Pre-experimental design
 The simplest form of experimental design
 Involves observing a group or groups after applying an independent variable
 There is no control group
 This design is used to decide how to intervene with a group of people
True experimental design
 Involves randomly assigning participants to groups
 Involves comparing two or more groups that have experienced different
treatments
 This design is used to demonstrate a causal relationship between the
independent variable and the outcome
Quasi-experimental design
 Involves using naturally existing groups instead of randomly assigning
participants to groups
  This design is used when it's not possible or practical to randomly assign
participants
 Quasi-experiments are similar to true experiments, but they have less control
over the groups
Experimental research designs are used in many fields, including psychology,
education, social sciences, and medicine.
5. Illustrate the various factors that affect Internal and External Validity?
Internal validity is affected by factors within a study that could influence the
observed relationship between variables, potentially causing a misleading
conclusion about causation, while external validity is impacted by factors that limit
the generalizability of study findings to other populations or settings; key factors
affecting both include: selection bias, history effects, maturation, testing effects,
instrumentation error, regression to the mean, experimenter bias, and the
characteristics of the sample and study environment.
Factors affecting Internal Validity:
1. Historical effects
Certain effects or factors that would have an impact on the independent or dependent
variable relationship might unexpectedly occur, thus affect the internal validity
Eg. Dairy products Buy 1 get one free in 2 shops (cheese) Dairy products association
announced the same We can not judge the real effect
2. Maturation effects
Cause and effect inference can also be contaminated by the effects of the passage of
time–another uncontrollable variable.
Eg. Growing older feeling hungry getting tired getting bored
3. Testing effects
Measuring the dependent variable first (pilot study) Treatment is given after the
second test (Main test) Difference between both the tests are attributed to treatment
Eg. Challenging job is expected to cause increase in job satisfaction
4. Instrumental effects
It might arise because of change in the measuring instrument between pretest and
post test.
Eg. In a spring balance finely calibrated instruments might lose their accuracy due
to loss of tension(elasticity) with constant use, resulting in final measurement.
5. Selection bias effects
Threat to external validity could also come from improper or unmatched selection
of subjects, experimental or control groups
Eg. To study the impact of working environment, with the condition that the workers
has to work in unpleasant smell. it will suit for test not for practical.
Factors affecting External Validity:
 Sample characteristics:
If the study sample is not representative of the broader population, it limits the
generalizability of findings
 Ecological validity:
Whether the study conditions accurately reflect real-world situations
 Treatment setting:
The specific environment where the intervention is delivered could influence the
outcomes
 Temporal validity:
Whether the findings are relevant to current conditions and not outdated due to
changes over time
 Hawthorne effect:
Participants changing their behavior due to awareness of being observed in a study
 Selection-treatment interaction:
When the treatment effect is different depending on the characteristics of the selected
sample
  Generalizability to other populations:
Whether the results can be applied to different groups with varying demographics or
characteristics
6. Elaborate in detail about the various types of Non - Comparative scaling
Techniques with examples.
In non-comparative scaling respondents need only evaluate a single object. Their
evaluation is independent of the other object which the researcher is studying.
The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further divided into:
a. Continuous Rating Scale, and
b.Itemized Rating Scale.
a. Continuous Rating Scales
It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the respondent’s rate
the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that
runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
Example :Question: How would you rate the TV advertisement as a guide
for buying?
B. Itemized Rating Scales :
Itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions associated with
each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the
respondents are required to select one of the limited number of categories that best
describes the product, brand, company, or product attribute being rated. Itemized
rating scales are widely used in marketing research.
Itemised rating scales is further divided into three parts, namely
A. Likert scale,
B. Semantic Differential Scale, and
C. Stapel Scale.

A. Likert Scale
The Likert Scale is a popular rating scale used to measure attitudes, opinions, or behaviors
based on a series of statements. Respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement
on a balanced scale (usually 5 or 7 points).

Example of a 5-Point Likert Scale:

"I am satisfied with my job."

1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neutral
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree

Features:

 Measures agreement, satisfaction, importance, or frequency.

 Simple to understand and analyze.
 Can be odd-numbered (with a neutral option) or even-numbered (forcing a choice).

B. Semantic Differential Scale

The Semantic Differential Scale measures attitudes by asking respondents to rate a concept,
product, or service on a bipolar scale with opposite adjectives at each end.

Example:

How would you rate our customer service?

Bad 😠 -3 -2 -1 0 (Neutral) +1 +2 +3 Good 😊

Features:

 Uses contrasting adjective pairs (e.g., Friendly – Unfriendly, Fast – Slow).

 Measures the intensity of attitudes without direct agreement/disagreement.
 Commonly used in marketing and psychology to evaluate brand perception.

C. Stapel Scale

The Stapel Scale is a unipolar rating scale where respondents rate a statement or attribute using
a single adjective and a numerical scale (usually from -5 to +5, with 0 as neutral). Unlike the
Semantic Differential Scale, it does not use bipolar adjectives.
Example:

How would you rate the quality of our food?

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

(Very Poor) ← Quality → (Very Good)

Features:

 Uses only one descriptive word (e.g., Quality, Speed, Cleanliness).

 Measures positive or negative intensity without a direct comparison.
 Often used in market research to assess brand perception and customer experience.

7. Enumerate the role of different type of variable in research design?

In research design, different types of variables play distinct roles, with the primary
distinction being between the independent variable (the manipulated factor) and the
dependent variable (the measured outcome), while other variables like extraneous,
confounding, and moderator variables can also influence the relationship between
the primary variables and need to be considered and controlled for during research
design.
Key Variable Types and Their Roles:
 Independent Variable (IV):
This is the variable that the researcher actively manipulates or changes to observe its
effect on another variable; it is considered the "cause" in a cause-and-effect
relationship.
 Dependent Variable (DV):
This is the variable that is measured or observed to see how it is affected by changes
in the independent variable; it is considered the "effect" in a cause-and-effect
relationship.
 Extraneous Variable:
Any variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable but is not the
focus of the study; researchers try to control for extraneous variables to ensure the
observed effects are due to the independent variable.
 Confounding Variable:
A type of extraneous variable that is directly related to both the independent and
dependent variables, potentially distorting the relationship between them.
 Moderator Variable:
A variable that influences the strength or direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables, depending on its presence or level.
Example:
 Study: Investigating the effect of caffeine intake (IV) on students' test
performance (DV).
o Extraneous Variable: The amount of sleep students got the night
before the test.
o Confounding Variable: Students' baseline anxiety levels, which could
be related to both caffeine intake and test performance.
o Moderator Variable: The time of day the test is taken, as caffeine
might have a different effect on performance depending on the time of
day.
8. Compare the special features of Likert’s scale and Semantic Differential Scale.

Here is a tabular comparison of the special features of Likert Scale and Semantic Differential
Scale:

Feature Likert Scale Semantic Differential Scale

A set of statements rated on an agreement A bipolar scale with opposite

Structure
or frequency scale. adjectives at both ends.

Measurement
Ordinal (sometimes treated as interval) Interval scale
Type

Typically 5-point or 7-point scale (e.g., 7-point scale with opposite adjectives
Response Format
Strongly Disagree → Strongly Agree) (e.g., Good → Bad)

Nature of Agreement, frequency, satisfaction, or Evaluates the intensity of a concept

Response importance using opposite adjectives

Can have a neutral midpoint (e.g., "Neither Neutral option is always present (0 in
Neutral Option
Agree nor Disagree") the center)
 Feature Likert Scale Semantic Differential Scale

Can be odd-numbered (with neutral) or

Scalability Always odd-numbered (e.g., -3 to +3)
even-numbered (forcing a choice)

Easy to create and understand; commonly Requires more cognitive effort from
Ease of Use
used in surveys respondents

Simple statistical techniques (mean, standard Advanced analysis, often used for
Data Analysis
deviation, percentages) brand perception studies

Common Social sciences, customer satisfaction, Marketing research, psychology,

Applications education research brand positioning

"I am satisfied with my job." (1 = Strongly How do you feel about our service? (-
Example
Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree) 3 = Poor, +3 = Excellent)

Key Differences:

 Likert Scale measures agreement or frequency with a given statement, while Semantic
Differential Scale evaluates attitudes based on opposite adjectives.
 Likert scale is easier to use in general surveys, whereas Semantic Differential is more useful for
brand perception and psychological studies.
 UNIT 3

1. Elucidate any two methods available for collecting primary data with its
application.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data or raw data is a type of information that is obtained directly from the
first-hand source through experiments, surveys or observations. The primary data
collection method is further classified into two types. They are

 Quantitative Data Collection Methods

 Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Let us discuss the different methods performed to collect the data under these two
data collection methods.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods

It is based on mathematical calculations using various formats like close-ended

questions, correlation and regression methods, mean, median or mode measures.
This method is cheaper than qualitative data collection methods and it can be applied
in a short duration of time.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

It does not involve any mathematical calculations. This method is closely associated
with elements that are not quantifiable. This qualitative data collection method
includes interviews, questionnaires, observations, case studies, etc. There are several
methods to collect this type of data. They are

Observation Method

Observation method is used when the study relates to behavioural science. This
method is planned systematically. It is subject to many controls and checks. The
different types of observations are:

 Structured and unstructured observation

 Controlled and uncontrolled observation
 Participant, non-participant and disguised observation

Interview Method
The method of collecting data in terms of verbal responses. It is achieved in two
ways, such as

 Personal Interview – In this method, a person known as an interviewer is

required to ask questions face to face to the other person. The personal
interview can be structured or unstructured, direct investigation, focused
conversation, etc.
 Telephonic Interview – In this method, an interviewer obtains information by
contacting people on the telephone to ask the questions or views, verbally.

Questionnaire Method

In this method, the set of questions are mailed to the respondent. They should read,
reply and subsequently return the questionnaire. The questions are printed in the
definite order on the form. A good survey should have the following features:

 Short and simple

 Should follow a logical sequence
 Provide adequate space for answers
 Avoid technical terms
 Should have good physical appearance such as colour, quality of the paper to
attract the attention of the respondent

Schedules

This method is similar to the questionnaire method with a slight difference. The
enumerations are specially appointed for the purpose of filling the schedules. It
explains the aims and objects of the investigation and may remove
misunderstandings, if any have come up. Enumerators should be trained to perform
their job with hard work and patience.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the actual user. It means that
the information is already available, and someone analyses it. The secondary data
includes magazines, newspapers, books, journals, etc. It may be either published data
or unpublished data.

Published data are available in various resources including

 Government publications
  Public records
 Historical and statistical documents
 Business documents
 Technical and trade journals

Unpublished data includes

 Diaries
 Letters
 Unpublished biographies, etc.

2. Explain in detail the various stages involved in Data preparation.

Data preparation involves a series of stages, including data collection, discovery and
profiling, cleansing (data quality checks), structuring, transformation and
enrichment, and finally, validation and publishing, where raw data is transformed
into a clean, organized format suitable for analysis, ensuring its accuracy and
reliability for decision-making.

Key Stages of Data Preparation:

 Data Collection:

Gathering relevant data from various sources like databases, APIs, web scraping, or
manual entry, considering data accessibility, format, and volume to acquire the
necessary information for analysis.

 Data Discovery and Profiling:

Examining the data structure, identifying data types, checking for missing values,
outliers, and inconsistencies to understand the overall data quality and potential
issues.

 Data Cleansing:

The process of correcting errors, inconsistencies, and inaccuracies within the

dataset. This includes:

 Handling Missing Values: Imputing missing data using techniques

like mean/median replacement or more sophisticated methods based on
data patterns.
  Removing Duplicates: Identifying and removing redundant data
entries.
 Formatting Standardization: Ensuring consistent data formats (e.g.,
date, time, currency) across the dataset.
 Outlier Detection and Handling: Identifying and addressing extreme
values that deviate significantly from the norm.
 Data Structuring:

Organizing the data into a suitable format for analysis, which may involve creating
new variables, combining data from different sources, or restructuring tables.

 Data Transformation and Enrichment:

Manipulating the data to achieve the desired analysis goals. This could include:

 Binning: Grouping data into discrete categories based on ranges.

 Normalization: Scaling data to a common range (e.g., 0-1)
 Feature Engineering: Creating new features by combining existing
variables to improve model performance.
 Data Aggregation: Summarizing data by calculating averages, sums,
or other statistics across groups.
 Data Enrichment: Adding external data sources to provide additional
context or insights.
 Data Validation and Publishing:

Verifying the data quality after transformations to ensure accuracy and consistency,
followed by making the prepared data ready for analysis or further use.

3. Elaborate in detail about the different types of Interviews and justify which one

is effective in data collection.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS: Mainly there are two types of interview, they are

(1) Formal/Structured/Direct interview

(2) Informal/Unstructured/Indirect interview

1. Formal/ Structured/ Direct Interview:

To conduct this type of interview, the researcher has to prepare a set of questions
well in advance in a structure, frame it in a sequence, number it and then go on asking
according to sequence or order directly with the respondent is called a formal type
of interview. This interview does not hold a chance for creativity. It is only a
mechanical type of interview.

2. Informal/ Unstructured/ Indirect Interview: In this type of interview the

researcher prepares questions well in advance as a rough sketch. But during the
interview, the questions are usually followed by the answers of the interviewee. The
researcher should know well in advance the type of questions to be asked. This type
of interview gives full liberty to question the interviewee. It is a very difficult type
of interview because it requires more skills and talent.

1. Focussed interview: The interview is emphasised on a particular issue hence

known as a focussed interview.

2. Repeated interview: This type of interview is used for evaluative studies where
the researcher wants to find some change. During the interview, the researcher asks
the same questions repeatedly to change the opinion and attitude at the changed time.

3. Clinical interview: In this type of interview, the researcher’s aim is to know the

problem or arriving at a conclusion or diagnosis.

4. Therapeutic interview: Treatment through the interview provided is called a

therapeutic interview.

5. Stress interview: The main purpose is to know the stress on the respondents.

6. Short term interview: This type of interview occurs only for 15 minutes. The
researchers tend to gather only the main issues. The essence of the interview is
always taken into consideration. During the interview, the researcher has to gather
data straight away into the topic within 15 minutes and should not exceed it.

Justification for Structured Interviews in Data Collection:

 Comparability:

Standardized questions allow for direct comparison of responses across participants,

making data analysis more efficient and reliable.
  Quantitative Analysis:

When the research aims to identify patterns and trends, structured interviews
facilitate quantitative data analysis.

 Time Efficiency:

The predetermined questions can be administered relatively quickly, especially

when interviewing a large sample size.

4. Discuss in detail the advantages and disadvantages of Observation method.

The observation method, where researchers directly watch and record behaviors in
a natural setting, offers several advantages like capturing authentic, real-time data,
but also comes with disadvantages including potential observer bias, difficulty in
understanding motivations behind observed behaviors, and ethical concerns
regarding participant privacy, especially when covert observation is used.

Advantages of the Observation Method:

 Naturalistic Data:

Observation allows researchers to study behaviors in a natural environment,

capturing genuine and uninfluenced actions, which can provide a more accurate
representation of real-world behavior compared to laboratory experiments.

 Non-Intrusive Potential:

When done discreetly, observation can be less intrusive than other methods like
interviews, as participants may not be aware they are being observed, minimizing
the "observer effect" where behavior changes due to awareness of being watched.

 Rich Detail:

Observation can capture a wide range of behavioral nuances, including nonverbal

cues and contextual details that might be missed in other research methods.

 Suitable for Studying Complex Phenomena:

Observation is useful for studying complex social interactions, group dynamics, and
behaviors that are difficult to articulate through self-report methods.
  Access to Specific Populations:

Observation can be particularly valuable for studying populations who may not be
able to provide accurate self-reports due to age, cognitive limitations, or language
barriers.

 High Reliability with Proper Design:

When using standardized observation protocols and multiple observers, the

reliability of observational data can be high.

Disadvantages of the Observation Method:

 Observer Bias:

The researcher's subjective interpretations and biases can influence the data
collected, leading to potential misinterpretations of observed behavior.

 Difficulty in Understanding Motivations:

Observation primarily captures overt behavior, making it challenging to understand

the underlying thoughts, emotions, and motivations behind observed actions.

 Ethical Concerns:

Covert observation raises ethical concerns regarding participant privacy and

informed consent, especially when studying sensitive behaviors.

 Time-Intensive and Laborious:

Conducting thorough observations can be time-consuming and require significant

commitment from researchers.

 Limited Generalizability:

Depending on the research setting and sample size, observations may not be
generalizable to a wider population.

 Potential for Reactivity:

Even in non-participant observation, participants might become aware of the

observer's presence, leading to altered behaviors.