LANDFORM EVOLUTION OR DEVELOPMENT IN EAST AFRICA

(EARTH MOVEMENTS)
The term earth movements refer to all crustal disturbances of endogenic origin.
Therefore, earth movements include volcanicity, faulting, folding, crustal warping
and earth quakes.
Other terms used under earth movements are; diastrophism, tectonism, plate
tectonism, tectonic movements, endogenic processes, geo-chemical reactions,
radioactive elements etc.
The origin of earth movements are the convectional currents in the earth’s interior.
Whenever convection currents are generated in the mantle, they rise upwards
towards the crust. The rising causes epinogenic forces (uplifts) which results into
slow but large scale uplifts within the crust. After reaching in contact with the
colder earth crust, they move laterally in opposite direction thereby stretching the
crust at the point of divergence. This stretching causes the crust to fracture and at
times displaced due to generated tensional forces. This fracturing is called
faulting.
At the point where convectional currents meet and sink back into the earth’s
interior, compression forces are generated which push continental plates together.
This results into folding of the crust.
The faults (lines of weakness) created may lead to the escape of hot magma from
the mantle and this process is called volcanicity.
When rocks fracture, they release pressure which had accumulated in them for a
long time. This sudden change in the rocks results into shock waves within the
crust causing earth tremors normally known as earth quakes.
Sometimes the earth’s crust has got denser plates (simatic plates) and lighter plates
(sialic plates). The simatic plates are forced to sink thus causing crustal warping.
Faulting
Faulting refers to the breaking of rocks within the earth’s crust. It’s also involves
displacement of rocks on either side of the fracture or fault.
Therefore, faulting refers to the fracturing, breaking and displacement of rocks on
either sides of the fracture.
Faulting may cause uplifts or subsidence or horizontal displacement of rocks on
either sides of the fracture. Faulting results into several landforms in East Africa

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like the rift valley, block mountains, fault scarps, fault guided valleys, tilt blocks,
grabens among others.
Types of faults.
Normal faults.
A normal fault is formed when crustal blocks are stretched by tensional forces. In
other words, these are faults which develop at a divergent boundary where
tensional forces are generated stretching the overlying earth’s crust.
It can be illustrated as below.
Reverse faults
A reverse fault is formed due to the influence of compressional forces. These are
produced by compressional forces. As the crust is being compressed, time will
come when one block will override the other.
Illustration.
Tear fault
Tear faults are caused by forces operating parallel to each other in opposite
direction.
Illustration.
Effects of faulting on landform evolution in east Africa.
A block mountain.
A block mountain refers to an upland bordered by faults on one or both sides. It
has a level summit and stands above the general level of the surrounding land. Its
formed as a result of uplifting forces along lines of weaknesses or faults.
Block mountains maybe formed with one scarp or more. For a horst mountain to
form, the blocks of the earth’s crust may have moved in the following ways;
a. Differential uplift.
In this way, three blocks were forced to rise but the middle block rose faster than
the outer blocks. The faster movingblocks (middle block) then became the peak of
the horst.
It can be illustrated as below.
b. Differential subsidence.

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In differential subsidence, three blocks may subside but the outer two blocks
subside faster than the middle block. The middle block remains behind at a higher
elevation than the outer two blocks. The middle block then forms the peak of the
horst. It can be illustrated as below.
Examples of block mountains include Rwenzori in Uganda, Usamabara, Urunguru,
Ufipa in Tanzania among others.
A tilt block.
This is a steep block where land falls from a higher elevation to a lower elevation.
Its formed when one side is uplifted higher than the other side. When tilting
occurs, the slope top of the middle block will not be flat but inclined or tilted. The
middle block then becomes the tilt block. Such landscapes are composed of
angular ridges for example the Usamabara tilt blocks in Tanzania.
Illustration
The rift valley.
A rift valley is an elongated depression bordered by in-facing scarps or
escarpments. A good example is the great East African rift valley which forms a
series of rift valleys by different forces extending for about 7200 km. this rift
valley is divided into four sections i.e.
I. The Ethiopian section which stops at lake Turkana.
II. The eastern rift valley which extends through Kenya
III. The Malawian section between Malawi and Zambia.
IV. Western rift valley covering western Uganda and Tanzania.
The width of the rift valley varies from place to place with some areas extending
for about 60 km in width and its depth or height also varies from place to place.
The formation of a rift valley is mainly due to compressional forces, tensional
forces, differential uplift or differential subsidence.
Tension force theory.
These develop with forces pulling in opposite directions, cracks or the lines of
weakness then developing leading to the formation of the normal faults. The
middle block is then separated from the outer two blocks. The loose heavy middle
block sinks downwards displacing the underlying rocks further below in the
interior. This leaves a depression behind on the earth’s surface which is called a rift
valley. It can be illustrated as below.
Compressional force theory.
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This is the stress in the earth’s surface which develops when forces are pushing
towards each other. Compression sometimes forces the side block to override the
central block. The fault scarps are then smoothened by erosion and a wide rift
valley is formed. It can be illustrated as below.
Differential uplift theory.
Under this theory, three blocks were forced to rise but the outer two blocks rose
faster than the middle block. As the outer blocks rise at a higher speed, they
gradually form a high edge of a depression called a rift valley. It can be illustrated
as below.
A fault scarp or an escarpment.
A fault scarp is an inward facing of a rift valley. It is a steep slope caused by
vertical earth movements along a fault. Examples include Songwe fault scarp in
Rukwa valley in Tanzania, Ufipa, Manyala, Buhati fault scarp near Nakuru Valley,
Mau fault scarps, Nandi fault scarps, Butiaba around lake Albert, Bunyaruguru
scarps among others. A fault scarp can be illustrated as below.
A fault line scarp.
By contrast, a fault line scarp is a steep slope whose original profile has been
modified by denudation processes. It does not therefore look like the original fault
scarp. It can be illustrated as below.
A graben or rift valley lake.
Further faulting within a rift valley may create a rift valley basin. This occurs when
the land on the rift valley floor is further acted upon by secondary or further
faulting i.e. the rift valley floor is faulted lower than the surrounding parts and
there after it forms a depression known as a graben. A graben is a result of
secondary faulting or further faulting within the rift valley floor. These depressions
are usually deep, steep sided, elongated and narrow. In east Africa, these
depressions have been filled with water to form rift valley lakes for example lake
albert, Tanganyika, Malawi, among others. It can be illustrated as below.
Fault guided valleys.
In east Africa, faulting has led to the formation of fault guided valleys. As
faultingtakes place, rocks are displacedand shuttered and therefore relatively
weakened than the adjacent ones which are not similarly affected. Weathering and
erosion may take advantage of these lines of weaknesses. A river may flow along
the line of weakness or along the fault curving out a valley. This valley normally
flows following the nature of the fault line. An example is river Aswa in Acholi
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land in northern Uganda which evolved in this way, Kerio valley between Elegeyo
escarpment and Kamasiya ridge in Kenya. It can be illustrated as below,
Influence of faulting on drainage.
Drainage refers to all surface water like lakes, rivers, swamps etc. in many parts of
east Africa. Faultinghas had a great significance on the flowing rivers and on the
drainage systems as seen below.
Vertical faulting across a river valley may cause the occurrence of water falls,
rapids and other related features such as plunge pools. A water fall is a sharp break
in the channel gradient over which water flows. Examples in east Africa include
the Murchision falls, kisizi falls etc. it can be illustrated as below.
Faulting has resulted into the formation of grabens or rift valley lakes. Grabens
develop with in the rift valley floor after secondary or further faulting on the rift
valley floor. When the resultant depression is filled with water, it then forms a rift
valley lake. This has therefore accounted for water surfaces like lake Edward,
albert, Tanganyika, Malawi, Turkana among others. These lakes are usually
elongated, deep, narrow and steep sided. It can be illustrated as below.
Faulting has also led to the development of fault guided river valleys for example
river Aswa in Acholi land in northern Uganda. During faulting, the faulted zones
became more prone to weathering anderosion. A valley was curved out following
the fault line in which a river passed leading to the formation of a fault guided river
valley. It can be illustrated as below.
Horizontal or lateral displacement of tear faulting across a river may cause a river
to be offset at the point it crosses a fault as shown below.
Faulting has also resultedinto the formation of tilt block lakes. A tilt block is a
steep slope where land falls from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. Its
formed when one side of the fault is uplifted higher than the other. When tilting
occurs, the top part of the block will not be flat but instead inclined or tilted. The
middle block then becomes a tilt block. The depression may be filled with water to
form a tilt block lake for example lake olbolsat.
Illustration
Faulting has alsoindirectly affected water surfaces through creation of block
mountains. These mountains experience frequent orographic rainfall and are
sources of rivers. Block mountains are characterized by radial drainage whose
subsequent streams also develop dendritic patterns for example on mountain
Rwenzori rivers like Mubuku, Mpanga, Sebwe, Nyamwamba among others are

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radiating from its top creating radial drainage system and as they flow downstream,
their subsequent streams have resulted into dendritic drainage patterns or systems
for example river Nyamwamba
Faulting in conjunction with warping, resulted into the formation of open enclosed
basins e.g.Lake Victoria and Kyoga which were as a result of these processes.
After the formation of the Victoria basin by down warping, the rivers that were
flowing westwards into the Congo basin for example Kagera and Katonga all were
reversed into the basinformingLake Victoria.
The up thrust in western Uganda led to the formation to the formation of Rwenzori
mountains and it was followed by a slight up thrust in the east making the rivers
that were flowing east wards to also flow back into the basin. These included river
Mara, Nzoia eventually leading to the formation of Lake Victoria and kyoga.
Today much of Lake Victoria is a vast shallow depression of papyrus swamps and
its peculiar outline is due to river kafubeing forced to flow back into its own valley
and tributaries. Therefore, it’s important to rule that crustal warping (up warping)
across a river valley will gradually force a river to reverse its direction of flow and
run back if its unable to maintain its original flow.
It can be illustrated as below.
Importance of faulting to man.
(research)
FOLDING
A fold is a geographical structure in which beds of rocks are bent. Folding is
therefore a process through which rocks are forced to bend hence developing
undulations or undulating structures. Rocks that fold are normally geologically
young and compressible.
Folding principally produces two structuresi.e.anticlines and synclines.
Illustration
Types of folds
Simple folds / symmetrical folds. These are folds produced by gentle
compression that causes the rock strata to develop simple crests and synclines that
are similar and uniform.
Asymmetrical folds. These are folds produced by an increase in the degree of
compression and particularly when the pressure on one side is greater than the

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pressure on the other side. Hence one crest is steeper than the other. In other
words, they are asymmetrical or not uniform.
Over folds. These are produced when the degree of compression is very high due
to high pressure such that the land folds so much that the crest is pushed over the
other syncline.
Over thrust fold. These are produced when the degree of compression is so
intense that folding occurs in the overriding crests.
EARTH QUAKES
An earth quake is a rapid movement and adjustment of the land within the rocks of
the earth’s crust causing propagations of a series of elastic shock waves outside in
all directions.
One can define earth quakes as strong vibrations of the earth or violent movement
on the earth’s surface.
Earth quakes originate from plate tectonism. The collision of plates causes an
impact that triggers off strong vibrations of plates causes an impact that triggers off
vibrations within the earth’s crust.

The plates are light and float on the upper mantle. They are therefore mobile and
may move vertically or horizontally. This movement is caused by radioactive
elements and convection currents that are generated within the earth’s interior.
When the plates converge, deformations occur on either sides of the edges within
the mantle.

As the plates are dragged, the rocks become more plastic and elastic thus storing
energy. Frictional resistance holding the rocks together is overcome by
compression and eventually, the edges become slippery. The rapid release of
energy makes the energy radiated in all directions from the focus to form explosive
shock waves thereby causing vibrations which are known as earth quakes.

Eventually, rock elasticity returns to its original shape and this is referred to as
elastic rebound. It should be noted major earth quakes produce small ones after
few years or days. The waves travel from the center of disturbance as one shock
wave.

The point in the earth’s crust from which vibrations originate is called a focus
while an epicenter is a point on the surface of the earth above the origin of the
earthquake (a vertical point above the focus).

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Shock waves are transmitted quickly through the earth’s crust to the surface. When
an earthquake occurs, these shock waves decrease in strength as they travel away
from the focus.

Earthquakes usually occur in areas of china, japan, California, India, Mexico, Peru
and in East Africa they are commonly experienced in Kabarole (Toro),
Bundibugyo among others.

Effects of earth quakes

There is loss of lives especially in the 1966 earth quake where about 150 people
died in Toro and in 1994 in Bundibugyo where many people perished.

Earth quakes trigger off landslides particularly in highland areas and are
associatedwith many problems of communication blockage.
Earth quakes result into the destruction of socio-economic infrastructures like
schools, roads, hospitals etc. like in 1994 when vilica hospital was destroyed.
Leave some people homeless or displaced for example in 1994 in Toro.
Increased government expenditure in areas prone to earthquakes in form of
emergency funding for disaster preparedness. In addition to that, there are high
costs of replacing destroyed property like roads, buildings among others.

Flooding in the coastal areas due to the tsunamis created or generated by earth
quakes in the sea and this may also result into drowning.
Earth quakes can also be used for study purposes.

Question
Explain the cause of earth quakes in east Africa.
Examine the effects of earth quakes to the people of east Africa.

Vulcanicity.
This refers to the total process by which gases and molten rocks from the earth’s
interior are intruded into the earth’s surface or extruded onto the earth’s surface.

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Whenthe molten material (magma) is intruded into the earth’ssurface, it solidifies
giving rise to intrusive features. When the materials reach on top of the earth’s
surface (lava), it solidifies to form extrusive features.

The molten material originates from the upper plastic layer of the earth’s mantle.
This material is kept in a semi molten or plastic state due to the high temperatures
and additional heat sufficient enough to take the material to melting point.

Through the natural process of radioactivity, heat is generated and this makes the
rocks to be plastic and fluid. Any additional increase in heat can trigger off upward
movement of molten rock. The lighter elements of the material begin to rise
upwards to the surface. The rising is made possible along lines of weakness like
cracks or faulting.

The magma then forces its way out to the surface along fault lines and forms
various landforms on reaching the surface.
It should be noted that when magma erupts on the surface and loses its gases, it is
then known as lava.

It’s the escaping gases and steam which expand rapidly and its due to high pressure
that makes the eruptions to be explosive.

Lava varies considerably in its composition particularly in its silica content. The
nature if lava partially affects the nature of landforms.
Basic lava is very fluid and mobile and therefore forms extensive lava plains. On
the other hand, acidic lava is so viscous and largely immobile and consequently
solidifies quickly to form steep sided landforms like volcanic plugs. Sometimes
acid lava solidifies so quickly and blocks the fissures resulting intro explosive
eruptions.

When an eruption takes place explosively, the magma is often ejected inform of
ash, cinder, stones, blocks and gases and the finest is ash. The fragmental materials
are referred to as pyroclasts.

Lava varies considerably in chemical composition particularly in its silica content.

The silica content determines the degree of mobility.

Because of this, there are three types of lava and these include acidic lava,
intermediate lava and basic lava.

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Type of lava % of silica Degree of mobility Example of
content rock type

Acidic Above 66 % Extremely viscous and rhyolite

immobile and solidifies
quickly.

Intermediate Between 52-65% Fairly viscous and able to flow Trachyte

lava for a far distance

Basic Between 42-51% Very fluid and mobile able to Basic

flow for long distance before
solidifying.

The process results into formation of volcanic landforms namely;

Extrusive volcanic landforms

Intrusive volcanic landforms.

Extrusive volcanic landforms or features.

These are formed when magma is extruded onto the earth’s surface. They take
various forms depending on the type of lava which forms them. They include the
following;

A volcano. A volcano is a hill or mountain formed by eruption of molten lava from

the central opening known as a vent onto the earth’s surface. The material erupted
builds around the vent and generally forms a dome or cone with a funnel like
structure or depression on top called a crater.

As long as there is continued supply of magma, the volcano will continue to grow
to a height to which the difference in pressure can still force the erupted materials
onto the earth’s surface. If the pressure becomes insufficient for magma to reach
the main crater, the mountain rock may then force its way on the earth’s surface
through other vents and may build up parasitic or secondary cones on the slopes of
the main volcano.
Illustration.

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Volcanoes vary in size from small ones to few meters high to large mountains like
Kilimanjaro and Elgon among others.

They can also be classified according to the present state of activity i.e. active
volcanoes, dormant volcanoes and distinct volcanoes.

Active volcanoes. An active volcano is one that has erupted its thought to have
erupted within the last 500 years. Examples include Longnot, Meru, Oldoinyo-
Lengai all in the eastern arm of the rift valley.
Dormant volcanoes. This is one which has not been known to have erupted andyet
it is not extinct. Some dormant volcanoes show limited activity in form of
fumaroles like Kilimanjaro.

Extinct volcanoes. These refer to the volcanoes which show no further signs of
eruptions and much of their original structure may have been destroyed by
denudation processes of erosion and weathering for example mountain Elgon.
Basalt dome or shield volcano. A basalt dome is a large flat topped or convective
dome which is formed from basic lava with gently sloping sides. It’s usually low in
height relative to its large base. Its flat topped shape is caused by very fluid lava
which is able to flow for some time before solidifying. Usually a shallow steep
sided sunken crater is found located on the basalt top. A good example is found
near Muhavura ranges in south western Uganda. In this case, lava flows through
numerous fissures other than a single vent.
Illustration
Volcanic plug / neck. A volcanic neck is formed as a result of magma which is so
viscos that is forced out as a rigid cylindrical plug. The base of the plug is
surrounded by exploited debris. The eruption that leads to the formation of the plug
is very explosive and the plus is extruded amidst clouds of hot ash and cinder for
example Tororo rock in eastern Uganda.

Illustration.

Explosion crater. An explosion crater is a shallow flat floored depressionwhich is

surrounded by a low rim of pyroclastsand local rock. Craters are usually less than
50m in depth. Explosion craters may appear in singly or in groups. Their formation
is based on two theories i.e.

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The first theory states that a crater is formed as a result of explosive eruption which
blows off the upper part of a volcano creating a small depression called a crater.

The second theory states that as magma is poured on the earth’s surface from the
earth’s interior, a chasm (empty space) is created and with the weight of the
material, the volcanic plug sinks in creating a depression called a crater. This
process of sinking is called couldronesubsidence. Examples are found in western
Uganda. Some of these craters are dry whileothersremainswampy and marshy.
When these craters are filled with water, they now form the crater lakes like
Katwe, nyamunuka, nyamusingwe among others.

Lake Katwe is the largest crater lake and it’s a source of salt.

It should be noted that craters are as wide as 500m in diameter.

Illustration

A caldera. A caldera is another landform resulting from volcanicity. A caldera is a

wide depression or big crater. It can be formed in two ways i.e.
The first theory states that a caldera is formed as a result of explosive eruption
which blows off the upper part of a volcano leaving behind a big depression called
a caldera.

It can also be formed through the process of couldrone subsidence. Major eruption
may reduce magma supply and leaves a big space (chasm) beneath a volcano.
Consequently, the weight of the overlying solidified magma becomes too great,
faults develop and collapses into the chasm leaving behind a big depression known
as a caldera.

Calderas can also develop from a combination of both explosion and subsidence.
Prominent calderas in East Africa include menengai near the Nakuru valley in
Kenya, Suswa in Kenya, Napak in south western Karamoja, Ngorongoro in
Tanzania among others. When a caldera is filled with water, it forms a caldera lake
for example lake Ngonzi in Tanzania.

It should be noted that a caldera extends for about 1km in diameter.

A cumulo-dome. A cumulo dome is a steep sided convex feature of acidic lava. It
is formed from very viscous lava which doesn’t flow for far but instead it piles
around the vent where it hardens quickly. Where the extrusions are unable to reach
the earth’s surface, the overlying layers will be curved outwards. When a cumulo

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dome develops in a crater, it’s called a theloid. An example can be seen at the
Ntumbicumulo dome in Tanzania.It can be illustrated as below.

Lava plateau or plain. A lava plateau is a highland with more or less a

monotonous relief and is formed of successive layers of lava. It is formed by the
eruption of very fluid or mobile or basic lava that upwells the surface through
various fissures. The lava reaches the surface and then spreads out for long
distances. Eventually, the depth of lava may be hundreds of meters thick
completely covering the original hills and valleys. Vertical jointing may cause the
plateau edges to be abrupt and where a plateau has been dissectedby rivers, a
valley tends to be steep sided and gorges are formed. Examples of lava plateaus
include Laikipia lava plateau and Kisolo lava plateau in south western Uganda.

Illustration.

Ash and cinder cone.These are steep sided hills formed by volcanicity. Pyroclasts
of all sizes are ejected and accumulate around the fissures to build up a volcanic
hill or an ash and cinder cone. Such cones are steep sided and approximately 150m
high above its base. Examples are in Kisoro district and Lakaiyu cinder cones in
the south of lake Turkana. Illustration

Geysers and hot springs. A geyser refers to hot water accompanied by steam. A
hot spring is natural hot water issuing out of the ground. It is also hot or warm.
Both features owe their origin from the existence of hot rocks associated with
volcanicity beneath the surface of the earth. They are formed when rain water sinks
into the ground and comes into contact with rocks associated with volcanicity (hot
rocks). The water is therefore heated and due to the pressure differences, the water
upwells the earth’s surface inform of geysers and hot springs.

They differ in a way that a hot spring is super-heated water which flows quickly
whereas a geyser; water is thrown with a great force and accompanied by steam
(geysers are ejected explosively / as jets). Examples include the Sempaya hot
spring in Bundibugyo, Kitagata hot springs in Bushenyi and Kisiizi in Rukungiri.

Lava dammed lakes. They are formed when basic lava comes out from a volcanic
mountain and may block a flowing river creating a lava dammed lake. Examples
include lakeBunyonyi, Mutanda, Mulehe among others.

Intrusive volcanic landforms.

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In general, intrusive volcanic landforms affect relief only after theyhave been
exposed by denudation processes. Intrusions of various forms depend on the
relative hardness or may depend on resistance of the surrounding rocks.

The various forms of intrusions can be seen as below;

A batholith (s). This is a very large intrusion formed at a great depth. They are
usually bottomless and are usually from granitic rocks. Batholiths are the largest
forms of intrusions and they result from large scale intrusion of magma which
cools slowly beneath the surface of the earth. Examples include the Tanganyika
batholith which out crops between mwanza and Iringa, batholiths are also found in
Mubende district particularly the single batholiths. In Kenya, they are found in
Maragoli.

When they are exposed by denudation forces, batholiths form uplands when their
rocks are more resistant than the adjacent rocks. However, if the rocks making up
the batholiths are softer than the surrounding rocks, they then are then eroded away
forming depressions called arenas.

Illustrations.
A dyke. A dyke is a vertical or steeply inclined igneous intrusion. It’s said to be
discordant with the rock layers. Dykes are formed when molten magma up wells
across the layers and solidifies within the earth’s crust before reaching the earth’s
surface. Sometimes they occur in groups and they are referred to as ring dykes.
Examples are found in south and west of lake Turkana in Kenya.
After denudation, if the dyke is more resistant than the surrounding rocks, it may
form an upland with steep slopes. If on the other hand, its less resistant than the
adjacent rocks, it may form a trench.

It can be illustrated as below.

A sill. Sills are horizontal intrusive features which lie between rock layers. They
are therefore concordant with the rock layers. Magma rises from the earth’s interior
and spreads horizontally along the bedding planes. After denudation, a resistant sill
may form escarpments of flat topped hills. In a river valley, resistant sills may
form waterfalls and rapids for example the Thika falls in Kenya are as a result of
this. Sills may appear singly or in groups and examples of sills are found in Thika
district in Kenya.
It can be illustrated as below.

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Laccolith. This is a dome shaped intrusion with more or less a flat base. Its formed
when magma rises and solidifies within the crust before reaching the earth’s
surface. Its formed from viscous magma which is unable to move and spread for
long distances. Magma accumulates in large mass forcing the over lying rocks to
arch upwards. Laccoliths are found in Madagascar and Algerian coast. If the
formed laccolith is more resistant than the adjacent rocks, it may form an upland.

Illustration
Lapolith. It’s a very large saucer shaped intrusion formed when magma forces its
way out of the earth’s surface but cools very quickly before reaching the earth’s
surface. Its saucer shape is due to the increased weight of the crust which may
cause sinking. If the lapolith is exposed by denudation processes, then then up turn
edges may sometimes form out facing scarps. Examples are in Zimbabwe north of
Harare. It can be illustrated as below.

Economic importance of volcanicity to man.

Volcanism leads to the formation of volcanic soils which are fertile and useful for
agriculture for example in Mbale on the slopes of mountain Elgon.
Some water falls formed on the slopes of volcanic mountains provide and are
suitable sites for construction of hydro Electric power plants for example the Siipi
falls in Kapchwora.
Volcanic mountainsmoderate climate i.e. relief or orogenic rainfall.
Water from hot springs and geysers are used for medicinal values i.e. in Kitagata
hot springs in Bushenyi.

The peculiar landforms promote tourism like volcanic plugs, the highest mountain
in East Africa is Kilimanjaro with 5895 meters above sea level and snowcapped in
the equatorial region. This attracts many tourists throughout the year. Others
include hot springs and geysers.

Some volcanic mountains help in the demarcation of country boundaries in East

Africa for example mountain Kilimanjaro which demarcates Kenya and Tanzania,
Elgon which demarcates Uganda and Kenya.

Volcanic activity resultsinto the formation of valuableminerals like salt in Katwe in

Uganda, limestone in Tororo and Toro region.

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Plutonic igneous rocks are potential and actual resources as far as quarrying is
concerned. These rocks can be excavated and crushed to get materialswhich are
used in building and construction purposes.

Volcanic mountains are associated with heavy rainfall and luxuriant vegetation on
their slopes. The vegetation can be used for forestry and lumbering.

Negative.
Volcanic eruptions can be destructive to both life and property for example of the
most destructive volcanic natural disaster was mountain Nyivagingo in Zaire
which erupted in 1977 and 2002 which destroyed many coffee plantations, many
people died and many people were left homeless.

Volcanic mountains create rainfall on the windward side but influence aridity on
the lee ward side. The lee ward side is located is located in the rain shadow and
therefore largely dry for example the water parts of Kenya are in the rain shadow
of mountain Elgon.
The steep slopes of volcanic mountainshave rendered volcanic highlands
inaccessible. The regions have remained remote because of difficulty and high
costs involved in construction of transport and communication infrastructures for
example some of the highlands in kigezi are not well served with transport
infrastructures.
Steep slopes of volcanic mountains are prone to soil erosion and land slide and
rock falls. This is common in kigezi, Kenya and kipengere ranges in southern
Tanzania.

Revision questions

1. Examine the influence of volcanicity on drainage.

2. Examine the relationship between the nature of material ejected and
extrusive volcanic landforms in East Africa.
3. Examine the impact of volcanicity on landform evolution in East Africa.

ROCKS IN EAST AFRICA.

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A rock is an aggregate or combination of minerals in a solid state. In other words, a
rock is an aggregate of one or more elements existing in a solid state.

Rocks form the upper layer of the lithosphere. Minerals that make up the rocks
include potassium, calcium, iron, aluminum, magnesium among others. Some
minerals such as gold, diamond and silver have only one element while others like
quartz, bauxite have more than one element in them.

In popular use, a rock is something hard, consolidated, compact and massive.

Rocks can therefore be classified by their mineralogical composition but not
necessarily their hardness. Rocks of the earth’s surface are commonly
classifiedaccording to their origin into three types and these are; igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

Igneous rocks.
They are formed from crystallization and solidification of molten magma. They
may be deposited onto the earth’s surface or with in the earth’s crust i.e. extrusive
or intrusive rocks respectively. The main process for the formation of igneous
rocks is volcanicity. This is due to the radioactivity and connectivity with in the
earth’s mantle. Lines of weakness or fault lines are created in the earth’s crust
through which magma is either extruded or intruded.

Igneous rocks are usually described as fire formed rocks, igneous rocks are
characterized by being hard, don’t contain fossils and they are crystalline in nature.
As magma is pushed from deep in the earth’s interior, it cools in different parts of
the earth’s crust thus forming different types of rocks. They include

Volcanic rocks or extrusive rocks

Hypabyssal or intermediate rocks

Plutonic or abyssal or deep seated rocks.

Volcanic or extrusive rocks.

These are igneous rocks formed on top of the earth’s surface. They are formed
from fast flowing surface cooling lava with much smaller crystals due to exposure
to oxygen. Examples include basalt, rhyolite, trachyte and andesite etc. extrusive
rocks are generally hard.

Hypabyssal or intermediate rocks.

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These are igneous rocks formed between volcanic and plutonic rocks. They are
firmed near the earth’s surface and cool at a moderate rate or average rate with
medium sized crystals. Like plutonic rocks, hypabyssal rocks are also intrusive.
Examplesinclude quartz and dolerite.

Plutonic rocks or deep seated rocks.

These are igneous rocks that are formed at a greater depth with in the earth’s crust.
They are also described as deep seated rocks. The magma which forms these rock
type rises for a short distance and cools in the crust very far from the earth’s
surface. This magma cools extremely slowly at a greater depth due to lack of
oxygen and results into formation of rocks with large crystals and examples
include gabbro, granite, diorite among others.

Igneous rocks can be illustrated as below.

Summary of varioustypes of igneous rocks.

Rock type Where it is Cooling rate Size of Example

found crystals

Volcanic or On top of the A fast rate Small crystals Basalt,

extrusive earth’s surface andesite etc.
rocks

Hypabyssal Shallow depth An average Medium sized Quartz,

or or near the rate or crystals dioriteetc.
intermediate earth’s surface medium rate
rocks

Plutonic or At greater Cools at a Forms large Gabbro,

deep seated depth slow rate crystals graniteetc.
rocks

Magma from the mantle which is ejected varies in chemical composition which has
an effect on its viscosity or thickness. This in turn influences the cooling rate and
the process of crystallization.

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Acidic igneous rocks have a higher amount of silica content; intermediate igneous
rocks have a mixed structure of minerals (average silica content) where as basic
igneous rocks contain less content.

Igneous rocks in East Africa are found around volcanic mountains of mountain
Kenya areas, Kilimanjaro areas, Muhavura areas and around the great east African
rift valley.

It should be noted that formally intrusive rocks may later be exposed by

denudation processes and when they are resistant, they form uplands for example
the Mubende batholith, Tanganyika batholith and the inselbergs of Eastern
Uganda.

Question
Account for the formation of igneous rocks in East Africa.

Sedimentary rocks.
These are rocks composed of deposited minerals and rock fragments or sediments
produced by mechanical or physical or chemical weathering of former rock masses
of igneous rocks. They are therefore derived from already existing igneous rocks
and because of this, they are sometimes referred to as derived rocks or secondary
or laid down rocks.
The weathered materials are then transported by erosion agents of water, ice, and
wind and are later deposited in layers (strata) on either a dry land or in valleys or
under water (in oceans and seas). The layers are separated by bedding plains which
demarcate the end of one deposition cycle and the beginning of another. Layers
can be horizontal, gently slopingor steeply dipping.

Generally speaking, sedimentary rocks have the following characteristics;

 They contain fossils of dead plants and animals.

 They have layers i.e. strata (they are stratified)
 They are non-crystalline in nature
 Stratas are either horizontal or gently sloping or steeply dipping.

Processes of formation of sedimentary rocks.

 Weathering of the already existing igneous rocks

 Erosion and transportation of weathered materials

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KASOZI ANDREW
  Deposition of sediments by ice, wind or running water or ocean waves.
 Stratification of deposited materials.
 Compression of stratified materials by overlying weight.
 Compaction of layers
 Consolidation of materials.
 Cementation of deposited layers.
 Transformation of sediments into sedimentary rocks

The formation of these sedimentary rocks can be classified into three types and
these include;

 Mechanically formed rocks

 Organically formed rocks
 Chemically formed rocks.

Mechanically formed rocks.

Mechanically or physically formed sedimentary rocks result from the breakdown
of the already existing rocks into valid textures then forming valid rock types
depending on the agent of erosion. These agents cause erosion, transportation and
deposition of the eroded materials. These deposited materials accumulate and
become compact and as time goes on or elapses, the deposited materials are
cemented and consolidated and then turn into a mass of rock called mechanically
formed sedimentary rocks.
River deposition creates alluvial soils, ice or glacier, till or moraine, wind deposits
loess and marine or wave action creates marine deposits.
Examples of resulting rocks include sandstone, mudstone, clay, shale, gravel
among others.

Organically formed sedimentary rocks.

Organically formed are formed from remains of once living plants and animals for
example coral reefs or coral rocks. Coral rocks are derived from coral polyps
which are small marine organisms or animals which live in sediment free water of
about 200C and above all rich in plankton which is their food. Their skeletons are
made up of calcium carbonates so when they die they are deposited on the sea or
ocean floor, accumulate and are cemented together with other marine organisms or
features like algae.

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They are then compressed by their own weight. With time, they turn into hard
rocks known as coral rocks. Coral rock is therefore an organic limestone rock and
is very common along the East African coast.

On the other hand, when plant die, their leaves and branches decompose and are
compacted together to form rocks for example plant accumulation during the
carboniferous period were compressed by sediments and formed coal of varying
types for example pit coal, brown coal and lignite coal among others.

Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

These are rocks which result from the chemical precipitation and evaporation of
salt solution in hot tropical regions. When water evaporates, the beds of salt known
as evaporates are left behind as a residue or deposit which dries up, get compact,
cemented, consolidated and transformed into a hard rock ie chemically formed
sedimentary rock. Examples include dolomite, rock salt among others.
Question
Account for the formation of sedimentary rocks in East Africa.

Metamorphic rocks
These are rocks whose original forms have been changed. They were originally
sedimentary or igneous rocks but they have drastically changed by massive forces
of heat (thermo-metamorphism), pressure (dynamic metamorphism) or both heat
and pressure (thermos-dynamic metamorphism) working on them from either
within the earth’s crust or outside the earth’s surface.
The metamorphic rocks are quite different from the original rock. The rocks are
changed in structure, texture, chemical composition and the general appearance.
Metamorphism is usually a cooking process i.e. it partly melts the rocks causing
the mineral components to be changed. The chemical nature and character changes
hence metamorphism.

Examples include

Original rock Changed rock after metamorphism

clay shale

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shale slate

limestone marble

granite gneiss

coal Graphite

Sandstone quartzite

DENUDATION
This refers to the exogenic (external forces) agents which wear away the land
surface. Denudation involves a number of processes namely soil erosion,
weathering, mass wasting, glaciation as well as the transportation of the broken
down particles.
The term denudation is widely used to cover all the agencies / processes by which
parts of the earth’s surface undergo destruction, wastage and loss. This is the great
work of weathering agents, mass wasting, erosion by running water i.e. rain wash,
streams and rivers, by moving ice inform of glaciers and ice sheets, by wind and
waves, tides and currents in the sea as well as the transportation of the broken up
particles of the rocks.
WEATHERING.
Weatheringrefers to the disintegration or decomposition of rocks by either
mechanical or chemical means resulting into the break up, decay and rotting of the
rocks instu i.e. in one place. This definition suggests that under weathering, there is
no transportation of the broken up particles of the rocks and if this happens, it will
be regarded as erosion but not weathering.

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The end product of weathering is the formation of layers of weathered rocks
known as debris. The action of weathering in the destruction of rocks is dependent
upon the removal of weathered layers notably by wind, water or ice.
If the weathered rock is not removed, it may act as a protective layer to the
underlying rock. So weathering itself doesn’t involve the removal of materials but
as a process, it depends upon the removal of weathered materials by outside agents.
Weathering is an extremely important process in shaping the landscape on the
earth’s surface.
Types of weathering.
These include;
Chemical weathering
This refers to the decomposition or rotting of rocks using water involving a change
in the chemical composition of the rock to form new compounds or minerals.
Chemical weathering is most common in the humid tropical areas that receive
heavy rainfall although it can also take place in deserts since they also receive
occasional showers.
Chemical weathering involves a chemical reaction between the minerals of the
rock as well as the atmospheric gases like carbon-dioxide, oxygen and acids from
rotten plants and animals.
In chemical weathering, water acts as a medium of chemical reaction and the hot
temperatures accelerate the rate of chemical reactions. Chemical weathering
involves a number of processes or types and these include;
a. Carbonation
This takes place when rain water mixes with carbonates in the atmosphere to form
weak carbonic acids. These carbonic acids reactwith minerals in the rocks like
limestone rocks which contain calcium to form calcium carbonate which can easily
be dissolved in water and hence carried away. This leads to creation of holes
(solution hollows) on the surface and caves beneath. When the calcium carbonate
is removed in solution by ground water, karst landforms are formed like stalactites
and stalagmites, underground caves etc. at Nyakasura in fort portal, Bamburi and
kilifi in kenya.
Ca(s) + H2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2(g)
Calcium carbonate + H2O + CO2 calcium hydrogen carbonate.

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Limestone + weak carbonic acids calcium hydrogen carbonate.
b. Hydration.
This is a process of chemical weathering by which rocks absorb water and expand
in size. This expansion reduces the cohesiveness of the rock particles hence
internal stress is created within the rock and therefore crumbling and fracturing of
the rock and changing their chemical compounds. Some rocks like hematite absorb
water changing to limonite. Others are calcium sulphate, after absorbing water
changes to gypsum and feldspar mineral in granite absorbs water and disintegrates
to form mud.
c. Hydrolysis.
This is the reaction between water and mineral elements i.e. the hydrogen ions of
water and ions of the minerals (in the rocks). This water and mineral ions react
chemically which gives rise to the formation of new compounds e.g. feldspar is
broken down to produce potassium hydroxide and aluminosilic acid.
The aluminosilic acid is further decomposed into clay minerals while potassium
hydroxide reacts with water CO2 to produce potassium carbonate. The potassium
carbonate is removed in solution leaving silica and residual clay minerals as the
end product for example in the broad valleys of Buganda like at Kajjansi.
2KAlSO3O8 + 2H2O + CO2 Al2Sl2O5(OH)4 + K2CO3 + 4SIO2
Feldspar water carbon-dioxide clay minerals potassium
carbonatesilica

d. Oxidation
This is the reaction that occurs when additional oxygen is taken up by mineral
compounds within the rocks. The oxidation of minerals nearly always occurs in
association with water in which atmospheric oxygen has been dissolved. It is most
active in the zone above the water table and particularly in sedimentary rocks such
as clay which contain ion compounds. In this zone, water oxidizes the ferrous
compounds into red or brown ferric compounds. In the zone below the water table,
the ferrous compounds in clay are oxidized to give a grey or blue color.
This form of chemical weathering is common in rocks which contain mineral
elements like ion, calcium and magnesium which can easily be oxidized to form
oxides. The laterite soils / marrum soils on many hill tops in Buganda where we
get murram for road construction were formed through this process. Mineral
oxides can be formed as below.

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KASOZI ANDREW
Fe + O2FeO (iron oxide)
2Ca(s) + O2 2CaO(s)
2Mg(s) + O2 2MgO(s)
e. Chelation.
In this process of chemical weathering, organic acids and humic acids from
decayed materials/ leaf litter and other remains of plants react with certain
minerals. The exchange of organic acids with mineral elements or rock minerals
causes the decomposition and change in the chemical composition in the rock
particles hence chemical weathering (fracturing and decomposition).
f. Solution.
Under this process of chemical weathering, some soluble rock particles are
dissolved and weathered in solution form e.g. water may mix with rock salts and
form a solution. This means that rock salts have been weathered in that way.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHEMICAL WEATHERING.
1. Nature of the parent rock
Mineral composition of the parent rock: some rocks like those having calcium
carbonate react with carbonic acids which are due to combining of rain water with
carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere to produce calcium bi carbonate by a process
known as carbonation e.g. at Nyakasura. The calcium-bi-carbonate can easily be
dissolved in water.
Some rocks have minerals like feldspar which when mixed with water decompose
to produce other mineral compounds like potassium hydroxide and aminocilic
acids through the process of hydrolysis. However, in the absence of water, feldspar
is a very hard element to weathering.
Some rocks have mineral compounds which react with oxygen in the presence of
water to form new compounds or oxides through the process of oxidation e.g.
ferrous rocks (rocks rich in iron compounds) are turned into brown or red ferric
compounds or laterite soils.
Some rocks have minerals that can easily dissolve in water and the solution is
carried away leading to the decomposition of the rocks through a process of
solution e.g. limestone rocks, rock salts etc.

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Jointing of the rock: the presence of joints or cracks increase the surface area for
chemical reactions to take place and also allow water to penetrate to the deeper
layers of the rocks to chemically weather the rock.
Permeability of the rock: when a rock is permeable, it allows water to penetrate
and weather the deeper rock layers through the processes like carbonation,
hydrationand hydrolysis etc.
2. Climate:
The nature of climate experienced in area determines the type of weathering as
indicated below;
Rainfall or precipitation provides the water needed for chemical weathering to take
place. Many areas in East Africa receive heavy rainfall amounts almost year
throughout (equatorial climate). Other areas like the savannah regions receive
moderate rainfall and hot temperatures and such humid conditions are conducive
for chemical weathering to take place for most of the year.
Areas having hot temperatures for most of the year have physical weathering as the
most dominantweathering process. However, most of the humid areas in East
Africa have hot temperatures of over 20oC which increase the rate of chemical
reactions thus promoting chemical weathering.
3. Relief:
chemical weathering is more dominant on gentle slopes and low lying areas as
water accumulates and percolates to chemically weather the rock than on steep
slopes. However, erosion on the steep slopes exposes the rocks to chemical
weathering.
4. Drainage:
leaching occurs on flat lands because of poor drainage i.e. rock minerals are
dissolved and taken away in solution to deeper layers of the soil profile. This
leaves behind residual soils which are rich in iron, magnesium, and calcium
compounds. The iron compounds are oxidized in the process of oxidization to form
laterite soils.
Poorly drained areas like flat plains have a high dominance of chemical
weathering inform of hydrolysis, hydration, reduction and solution which help to
decompose the rock. This is because of the stagnant water in valleys and other low
lying areas.
5. Living organisms:

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man’s influence; man may influence chemical weathering through a number of
ways e.g.
a. Emission of industrial gases in the atmosphere which increases acidity in
rainy water which accelerates the rate of chemical weathering processes of
carbonation.
b. Dumping of industrial or domestic or agricultural influence on land or water
which directly react or increase the activity in the environment thus
increasing the rate of chemical weathering by carbonation etc.
c. Man carries out activities that directly involve the breakdown of rocks e.g.
mining, quarrying, road and other activities like agriculture which expose
the underlying rocks to chemical weathering processes. Also irrigation avails
water that increases chemical weathering processes like hydration,
hydrolysis and solution.
Vegetation: the dead decaying organic matter produce humic acids that assist in
rock decomposition. These humic acids react with minerals in the rocks and
eventually decompose.
Plant roots release mineral substances into the rock while extracting other mineral
substances from the rock in a process known as chelation. This weakens the rock
and it eventually breaks up.
Other living organisms like animals secrete acids that chemically decompose the
rocks e.g. uric acids. Barrowing animals make holes through the soil e.g. moles,
termites etc. and through these holes water penetrates to the deeper layers of rocks
which aids chemical weathering through processes like solution, hydration,
hydrolysis, carbonation etc.
6. Time:
it takes time for the rock to undergo chemical weathering. The longer the time, the
more the rock is chemically weathered and the shorter the time, the lesser the rock
is chemically weathered.
Revision question
Examine the chemical weathering processes that take place in the humid areas
of East Africa.
Approach
 Define weathering
 Define chemical weathering
 Identify the humid areas in E.A or areas prone to chemical weathering
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KASOZI ANDREW
  Give the processes of chemical weathering explaining them with relevant
examples.
PHYSICAL / MECHANICAL WEATHERING
This is the breaking down of rocks into successively smaller fragments or particles.
It doesn’t involve mineralogical change or change in the chemical bond of the
rocks. Its common in arid and semi-arid areas of Ankole-Masaka dry corridor,
Karamoja area, northern Kenya and on the lee ward side of mountains like
mountain Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Rwenzori and mountain tops which involve
temperature changes and have a wide diurnal range and also on the mountains with
very cold temperatures where rocks are broken down by frost action. The physical
weathering processes include;

a. Thermal expansion / exfoliation

In this process, daily temperature ranges result into expansion and contraction of
certain minerals that cause stress and strain into the rocks. Eventually, this stress
and strain leads to fracturing of the rocks. Since the rocks are bad conductors of
heat, no heat from the outer part of the rock is transferred to the inner part. The
outer part then expands more than the inner part hence leading to expansion and
peeling off of the outer rocks. This process of peeling off is called exfoliation and
results into the formation of exfoliation domes. This is dominant in the arid and
semi-arid areas of Nakasongola, Kumi, Soroti, Serengeti etc. which receive high
temperatures during the day and abrupt cooling at night.
b. Freeze thaw action or frost action / shuttering
In areas subjected to alternating freezing and thawing, water sips into the cracks.
When it freezes, the frozen water expands and widens the cracks. The jointed
cracks are very prone to this process that leads to total disintegration of the rocks.
Its common in Rwenzori areas, mountain Kilimanjaro areas and the mountain
Kenya areas.
NB. Water expands by 10% of its liquid when it freezes.
c. Block disintegration.
In this process, the rocks are disintegrated, breaking down into blocks. It’s is
common in granitic rocks. As these rocks develop cracks, they cool down after
exposure to thermal heating and cooling. The rocks expand and cool along the
developed cracks and as they widen, the rock will fall apart in blocks (bigger

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particles). This block disintegration is very common in Kachumbara areas in Kumi
district and the Mubende Batholiths along Mubende-Kyenjojo road.
d. Granular disintegration.
This takes place almost in the same way as block disintegration except that in this
process, rocks break down or disintegrate into smaller particles called granules.
This occurs when the rocks have different types of minerals of different heating
and expansion co-efficient. So the various minerals heat and expand at different
rates causing the rock to break into angular blocks.
e. Pressure release or unloading
Some rocks like plutonic rocks and metamorphic rocks are formed under great heat
and pressure. The pressure comes from the weight of the overlying rocks. In case
denudation removes the overlying rocks and exposes them, they will expand in the
process of shedding off. This pressure release causes cracks to develop on the rock
surface and particles start to peel off in a manner similar to exfoliation. It is
common in Mubende.
f. Crystallization
This is one of the physical weathering processes in which some rocks absorb salty
water. This salty water will collect into the rock joints or cracks. This water later
evaporates and hence crystals begin to form or are left behind. As these crystals
grow bigger and expand in size due accumulation, they exert pressure on the
surrounding rocks hence leading to fall off of rocks (physical disintegration). Its
common in Katwe areas.
g. Aridity shrinkage
This type of weathering occurs in areas experiencing extremes of weather i.e. wet
and dry seasons. It occurs when drought succeeds a rainy season such that the rock
loses the water that was previously taken up during the rainy season. As a result,
the rock crumbles into smaller elongated fragments. For example, when a sample
of clay dries out, it shrinks and its surface becomes filled with cracks hence
facilitating its break up and its subsequent removal especially on a slope.
Question
Examine the weathering processes that take place in arid and semi-arid areas
of East Africa.
Approach
 Define weathering
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  Define physical weathering
 Point out areas in East Africa prone to physical weathering
 Give the processes of physical weathering explaining them with relevant
examples.
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
This refers to the breakdown of rocks with the help of living organisms. Plants
and animals help in rock weathering by both chemical and mechanical means
i.e. bio-physical and bio-chemical weathering.
Plants like algae, mosses, lichens and other hydrophytes retain water on rock
surfaces which result into chemical decomposition.
The roots of plants in the process of sucking water from the rocks release some
acids (humic acids) that may react with rocks and disintegrate them.
Animals and plants can also disintegrate the rock or break the rocks. The roots of
plants which are growing in the rocks may enlarge the cracks or joints which are
already existing in the rocks thus making them to breakdown physically. The
animals also physically break down the rocks as they move on the rock surfaces
due to the pressure exerted on them.
Barrowing animals like rabbits, rats, termites and other animals drill holes into the
rocks and therefore directly disintegrate the rocks.
Man through his activities of cultivation, mining, quarrying, rock blasting, road
construction, etc. directly breaks down rocks and then disintegrates them
physically.
Living organisms whether living or dead play a positive role. Urine of animals
once exposed on rocks, reacts with rocks making them to breakdown.
The chemicals man uses in agriculture like herbicides, insecticides, pesticides and
fertilizers also weaken the rocks and lead to their break up.
Decomposing organic matter release organic acids which are absorbed by the rocks
hence making them to decay and decompose thus weathering.
However, a layer of decaying organic matter may prevent disintegrating since it
mulches the soil and underlying rocks hence preventing them from exposure to
agents of weathering.
NOTE: All the three types of weathering are interdependent because physical
weathering may open up some areas through disintegration and chemical
weathering act deeper in the rock. While physical weathering is at its maximum in
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arid and semi-arid areas because of high temperatures onto which the rocks are
exposed to during day time and low temperatures at night which leads to a lot of
stress and strain, chemical weathering is at its maximum in humid areas because of
the presence of water.
However, it’s important to remember that in general, all types of weathering
operate hand in hand and are usually complimentary although in a given area, one
maybe more important than the other.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL WEATHERING AND CHEMICAL
WEATHERING
Physical weathering is the disintegration or breakdown of rocks into smaller
particles or fragments instu while chemical weathering is the decomposition or
decay or rotting of rocks instu at or near the earth’s surface.
Physical weathering occurs due to temperature fluctuations (temperature changes)
like alternate heating and cooling while chemical weathering occurs as a result of
heavy or adequate rainfall and high humidity that provide water to act as a medium
of chemical reactions and the hot temperatures to accelerate the rate of chemical
reactions.
In physical weathering, there is no change in the chemical composition of the rock
but instead the rock is broken down into smaller particles while in chemical
weathering there is a change in the chemical composition of the rock i.e. new
compounds are formed.
Physical weathering occurs inform of block disintegration, thermal expansion,
granular disintegration, frost action etc. while chemical weathering occurs inform
of carbonation, solution, hydrolysis, hydration etc.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE RATE AND NATURE (TYPE AND

CHARACTER) OF WEATHERING.
THE NATURE OF THE PARENT ROCK.
Mineralogical composition of the rock: the mineral composition of the rock is
very important in determining the rate and character of weathering from rock to
rock e.g. igneous rocks are more prone to chemical weathering because they are
formed under conditions very different from those operating on the earth’s surface
and they are therefore not chemically stable on the earth’s surface. So when rocks
come into contact with water, chemical weathering sets in at a very fast rate when

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exposed onto the earth’s surface. Examples of such rocks which can easily be
weather are basic igneous rocks with low silica content.
On the other hand, rocks with high silica content like granitic rocks are more stable
and react to chemical weathering at a slow rate.
Rock jointing: rock jointing also influences the rate and nature of weathering. This
is because joints are weak lines which are exposed by agents of weathering to
cause rock break down. Water can easily penetrate thus enhancing chemical
weathering processes of hydration to take place at a faster rate.
Physical weathering processes of freeze thaw action and thermo-expansion are
very fast in rocks which are poorly jointed.
Similarly, biological weathering will also take place at a fast rate with the
penetration of plant roots and animals which will only take place when cracks only
exist on the rock. On the other hand, rocks which are well jointed, chemical,
physical and biological weathering processes take place at a slow rate.
Rock color: rocks which are dull and dark colored absorb heat and therefore
expand more quickly and with continuous expansion and contraction, cracks are
then created and eventually lead to the fracturing of the rocks at a very fast rate by
thermal expansion and block disintegration.
On the other hand, rocks which are light and shiny are less affected by weathering
processes of thermo-expansion because they reflect heat. Therefore, dark colored
rocks are weathered much faster than shiny rocks.
Rock hardness: hard rocks like quartzite are more resistant to weathering
processes of carbonation and hydration. On the other hand, rocks which are soft
like clay are weathered at a faster rate by chemical weathering processes of
oxidation.
Rock permeability: rocks which are permeable like sandstone allow water to
penetrate though them. Such rocks that allow water to penetrate though them are
weathered at a faster rate by chemical weathering through the process of
carbonation. On the other hand, rocks which are impermeable are weathered by
chemical weathering processes at a slow rate.
Rock solubility: rocks which are soluble in water like rock salts dissolve in water
at a fast rate. So rocks which are soluble in water are easily weathered by chemical
weathering processes of solution.
Rock texture: rocks with rough texture can easily allow water to collect on such
rocks on giving way for chemical weathering processes of hydration to take place
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at a faster rate. On the other hand, rocks which are smooth are weathered at a slow
rate by physical and chemical weathering processes.
Influence of climate
Climate also determines the rate and nature of weathering. Rainfall and
temperature are also the major elements that affect the rate and nature of
weathering.
Areas with equatorial climate are characterized by high rainfall totals of about
1500mm. this rainfall is high throughout the year with double maxima (two rainfall
peaks/seasons). These rainfall amounts facilitate chemical weathering processes
since they require water as a medium of chemical reaction. Chemical weathering is
common in areas which receive high rainfall totals like Northern shores of Lake
Victoria, slopes of mountain Elgon and Kilimanjaro (humid areas) among others
and very slow in areas with little or no rainfall. The humid areas are also
characterized by high temperatures which acts as a catalyst to chemical weathering
processes. Therefore, chemical weathering is more dominant in humid areas i.e.
areas with high rainfall and temperatures.
In savannah regions (transition zones), the alternating wet and dry seasons within
these areas give way to both chemical and physical weathering to take place.
Chemical weathering is more active during the wet season and physical weathering
is more dominant in the dry season.
On the hand, arid and semi- arid areas that receive low amounts of low rainfall of
less than 500mm per annum and a prolonged dry season characterized by very high
temperatures of above 300C provide suitable conditions for physical weathering
processes of thermal expansion, block disintegration and granular disintegration.
This therefore means that physical weathering is more dominant in such areas like
in the Ankole-Masaka dry corridor, north Eastern Uganda, Eastern Kenya in the
Turkana and Masai land among others.
For mountainous areas where the temperatures are low like in areas of mountain
Rwenzori, Mountain Kenya and Kilimanjaro, physical weathering processes of
frost action / freeze and thaw is dominant. In this case, water freezes in the cracks
and since ice is bigger in volume, cracks are widened and deepened leading to
eventual breakdown of rocks therefore physical weathering is very fast in areas
with low temperatures.
Effect of plants and animals (living organisms)
Living organisms like plants act as agents of weathering by the action of their roots
in the process of sapping water underground where they dig dip and create cracks
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and keep on expanding the joints within the rocks in that way. In this process they
therefore facilitate physical, chemical and biological weathering. However, thick
vegetation may act as a protective layer against physical weathering and it may
slow down the removal of the weathered layers.
Animals such as rats, termites etc. loosen the compactiveness of the rocks thus
causing physical fracturing of the rocks. Water easily penetrates through the rocks
giving room for chemical weathering processes of hydration. Therefore, where
animals exist, physical, biological and chemical weathering take place at a faster
rate than where animals are absent.
When living organisms (plants and animals) die, they decompose into humus and
organic matter. With the addition of water, the humus turns into humic acid which
decomposes the rocks plus organic acids. Therefore, in such areas, chemical
weathering processes of chelation take place at a faster rate.
Man himself does his activities of rock blasting with explosives, mining, road
construction among others facilitate physical break down of rocks (physical
weathering/ fracturing). He also aids chemical weathering processes through his
activities of application of irrigation, fertilizers, spraying with pesticides,
insecticides, herbicides etc. since they involve the element of water. Therefore,
there is chemical weathering in such areas.
Relief
Relief also determines the rate and type of weathering. The rate at which
weathering takes place is related to the speed at which weathered rocks are
removed. On steep slopes, the weathered rocks are quickly removed and the parent
rock is exposed to further physical weathering. In other words, steep slopes
encourage faster rates of physical weathering because of high rates of erosion that
exposes the underlying rocks to further physical weathering.
However, gentle slopes and low lying areas promote the occurrence of chemical
weathering due to the high retention capacity of water. In other words, this results
into the occurrence of chemical weathering processes of hydration, oxidation,
chelation among others at a faster rate because water accumulates on gentle slopes
and low lying areas than on the steep slopes.
Time: It takes time for rocks to be broken down by physical and chemical
weathering processes. The longer the time the rock has been exposed to the
weathering, the more easily such a rock will be weathered and the shorter the time,
the more resistant the rock will be to weathering agents.

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Natural catastrophes: Natural catastrophes like earth quakes, lightning and
thunder, volcanic eruptionsetc. result into mechanical or physical breakdown of
rocks. These catastrophes can further expose the underlying rocks to both physical
chemical weathering.
Sample questions.
1. To what extent does the parent rock influence the rate and nature of
weathering.
Define weathering
Talk about the types of weathering briefly
Explain the influence of the parent rock on the rate and nature of weathering
Then say, however it’s not only the parent rock which influences the rate
and nature of weathering in east Africa but there are other factors which
include climate, living organism, relief, time etc.
NOTE
All factors identified should be explained with relevant examples.
Give your personal stand or evaluation

2. ‘’Physical weathering is the most dominant weathering process in arid

and semi-arid areas of East Africa’’. Discuss
Approach
Define weathering
Define physical weathering
Give the areas prone to physical weathering in east Africa
Give the semi-arid areas in east Africa
Talk about the physical weathering processes excluding free thaw action
However, when it rains, chemical weathering may also occur.

3. Examine the weathering processes that take place in the mountainous

areas of East Africa.
Approach
Define weathering
Identify the mountainous areas in east Africa
Give the types of weathering occurring on the different sides of the
mountains i.e. on top where we have physical weathering e.g. freeze thaw
action, and other processes of physical weathering on the lee ward side.
On the wind ward side, we have chemical weathering

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LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WEATHERING IN EAST AFRICA.
(EFFECT OF WEATHERING ON LANDFORM EVOLUTION IN EAST
AFRICA)
Although weathering is all about wear and tear of the earth’s surface, in the process
it leads to formation of landforms especially within the karst regions. These
landforms include;
Karst regions are regions made up of limestone rocks.
Glikes and clints:
These are formed during the process of carbonation where by rainfall dissolves
CO2 in the atmosphere to form weak carbonic acids. These carbonic acids act on
limestone rocks to form calcium carbonates or converted to a more readily
dissolvable form of calcium bi carbonates. In areas where limestone rocks alternate
with rocks with different minerals, the weak CaCO3 are removed in solution to
form ditch like depressions called grikes while the hard resistant rocks remaining
behind form round topped ridges called clintse.g. at Kajjansi near Kampala.
Stalactites.
These are features found mostly in karst regions (areas with limestone rocks). They
are protrusions found on the roof of a chemically weathered limestone cave.
Stalactites are therefore formed when rain water mixes with carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere to form weak carbonic acids. These carbonic acids dissolve the
limestone rock on the roof of the cave and the solution starts dripping on the floor.
When water evaporates, dripping stops and finger like projection are left on the
cave and are called the stalactites. Best examples are found at Nyakasura in Fort-
Portal in kabarole district in Uganda and Tanga in Tanzania.
Illustration

Stalagmites
These are formed together with stalactites in the karst regions. A stalagmite is a
landform that arises from the floor of the cave due to the accumulation of materials
deposited on the floor from ceiling drippings. These are therefore formed on the
floor of the cave by dripping water from the roof of the cave. When water
evaporates from the dissolved calcium carbonate, it leaves behind a dry and
compact mass of limestone protruding upwards and this forms a stalagmite and are
also found at Nyakasura.

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Illustration
Pillars.
A pillar is an upright shaft or structure of stone or any other mineral relatively
slender in proportion to its height and can be of any shape in section. Pillars are
formed hen stalagmites and stalactites meet in a limestone cave. They appear as
vertical stands of calcium carbonates.
Illustration
Underground caves.
These are natural hollows formed under ground by rivers. They are formed when a
river flowing into a karst region disappears underground hence removing the
limestone rocks in solution. They are formed due to solution. Solution is the
removal of rock in solution by acidic rain. Some rocks are chemically weathered
by being dissolved in water for example limestone and after weathering off such
rocks, it forms impressive features like widened hollows for example the caves at
Nyakasura.
Illustration
Sinkholes.
A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form collapse of
the surface area. Sinkholes occur due to erosion or underground water. They start
developing longtime due before it actually appears. Most of the sinkholes occur
due to karst processes of chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks. The formation of
sinkholes involves the process of erosion or gradual removal of slightly soluble
bedrock such as limestone by percolating water, the collapse of cave roof, or a
lowering of water table. Sinkholes often from through the process of suffusion for
example ground water may dissolve the carbonate cement holding the sandstone
particles together and then carry away the lax particles gradually forming a void or
sinkhole.
Exfoliation domes
An exfoliation dome is a large dome-shaped form, developed in massive
homogenous coarse-grained rocks especially granite by exfoliation. Exfoliation is a
term used to describe the peeling away of sheets of rock millimeters to meters in
thickness from a rock’s surface due to a range of physical and chemical processes
during exhumation and weathering. Therefore, if a form of mechanical weathering
in which curved plates of rocks are stripped from the rock below.

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Exfoliation domes therefore a result of physical weathering by exfoliation. The
rapid heating and cooling especially in the areas of high temperatures cause
expansion and contraction of rocks. The outer most layer of the rock is eventually
detached from the original and it peels off. This leaves behind a round topped rock
called an exfoliation dome. Best examples are seen at Mubende along Mubende-
kyenjojo road.
Arenas: these are lager circular depressions on the earth’s surface. They are
formed in areas of alternating bands of hard and soft rocks. So the soft rocks are
weathered away leaving behind the hard and resistant rocks. The soft rocks are
removed leaving behind circular depressions which may or may not be filled with
water to form arenas. Examples can be seen on the slopes of mountain Rwenzori in
the areas of Ntoroko.
Tors: these are remnants of weathered rocks rooted in the bed rocks. These appear
onto the earth’s surface as basaltic remnants. They are common in jointed rocks
which are weathered deep and when denudation forces remove these debris, tors
remain as resistant rocks bedded in as un-weathered. Best examples can be seen in
Kenya at Kitmikaye near Seme, Bismark rock in Lake Victoria near Mwanza.
Illustration

MASS WASTING
Mass wasting refers to the movement of materials downhill or down slope under
the influence of gravity. Its therefore the falling, creeping, sliding or falling of
rocks and weathered materials downhill under the influence of gravity. The major
factor that helps to overcome any resistance is water. Therefore, water acts as a
lubricant for material to move down easily. A water saturated mass moves more
easily than a dry one because water both increases the weight of the mass and also
decreases the cohesive power of the material.
In other words, mass wasting is a largescale movement of materials downhill in
which the stability of the slope has failed. As a result, the materials move downhill
under the influence of gravity with water acting as a lubricant. It is alternatively
referred to as slope failure or slope collapse.
Mass wasting is a general terminology which includes all forms of movement
along a slope ranging from the slowest to the fastest. Therefore, mass wasting

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refers to the creeping, flowing, sliding or falling of rocks and weathered materials
downslope under the influence of gravity using water as a lubricant.
It’s different from erosion in a sense that in erosion, water physically transports
away the soil particles but in mass wasting, water doesn’t physically wash away
the materials but assists the rock to slide under the influence of gravitational pull.
Mass wasting occurs in highland and mountainous areas of East Africa like along
the slopes of mountain Elgon, Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro, Kenya, kigezihighlamds,
Kisoro, Rwampara hills, Kipengere ranges of southern Tanzania, Bulecheke areas
in Mbale, Sirinko areas among others.
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
The types of mass wasting include soil creep, talus creep, mud flow, rock slump,
rock slide, solifluction, rock falls, avalanches and they can be classified as slow
and fast or rapid movements.
Slow movements. Sometimes loose soil particles can flow extremely slowly down
slope sometimes as slow as 1 cm per year. Slow movements involve the following
types;
a. Soil creep:
this refers to a very slow movement of the soil and fine materialsdownslope on a
very gentle slope. Soil creep can be detected by bending of trees, electric poles,
fencing poles etc. in the direction of the slope. It can be illustrated as below.
b. Solifluction:
this is limited to glaciated regions of cold climatic zones or areas. Solifluction
refers to the slow movement of saturated solid gravel materials underlying a frozen
ground on a moderate slope. It can be illustrated as below.
c. Talus creep:
this refers to the slow movement of angular wastes or particles of all sizes on a
moderate slope.
Illustration.
Fast or rapid movements.
Mud flow: this refers to the fast downhill movement of semi liquid material
saturated by heavy rains on a moderate slope.
Illustration

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Rock falls: this refers to a very fast movement of individual rocks falling freely
from a very steep slope under the influence of gravity.
Illustration
Rock slump: this refers to a very fast movement of rocks on an over steepened
slope like scraps, creeps and road cuttings. In slumping, a rock doesn’t break up
into different particles in the process of slope failure but the materials just slide as
a whole mass. It moves in a back ward rotation such that the slump strata which
was originally horizontal is tilted backwards. Slumping is mainly caused by
massive rocks overlying weak rocks.
Rock slide: this refers to a fast movement of large masses of rocks and debris over
a steepened slope and road cutting. Here, the rocks slide from faces of slope or
jointed steep slope downwards.
Illustration
Avalanches: this refers to a large scale movement of materials embedded in ice.
It’s also a fast movement.
NOTE: the rapid movements of materials down the slopes usually involving large
boulders and rock particles is sometimes called Landslides.
CAUSES OR FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE RATE AND NATURE
OF MASS WASTING
Climate: some areas in east Africa experience heavy rainfall sometimes exceeding
2000mm per year which leads to the absorption of water by the soils or rocks. This
leads to the increase in weight of the soils and rocks and also reduces the cohesion
of the material in the mass of the rock. Therefore, the loose rock materials can
easily slide downhill under the influence of gravity.
Secondly the pounding effect of direct rainfall destabilizes the rock surfaces
resulting into mass wasting.
Temperaturefluctuations results into expansion and contraction of rocks which
results into weathering of these rocks. The loosen particles can the easily fall down
under the influence of gravity.
Relief / nature of the slope.Steep slopes usually encourage fast or rapid
movements of materials downhill e.g. rock slides, rock falls, rock slumps etc. due
to the steep gradient. Gentle slopes on the other hand lead to limited mass wasting
and also encourage slow movements e.g. soil creep, solifluction etc.

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Nature of the rock. The structure, permeability or porosity of the rock and its
jointing determine whether mass wasting will occur or not. Highly jointed rocks
are prone to rock falls. This is because jointed rocks are easily affected by physical
weathering involving block disintegration. The loose blocks of rocks can easily
slide down wards or downhill in form of rock falls.
Where a permeable layer of rocks over lie an impermeable layer, the saturated
permeable layer can easily slide downhill under the influence of gravity.
Nature of soils. Clay soils become slippery after absorbing water. The absorbed
water increases the weight of the soil and also lubricates it and the ground where
it’s seated i.e. between the soil and ground hence facilitating downhill movement.
Loose sandy soils are affected by increasing temperatures. The temperatures turn
the sandy dust which can easily creep downhill.
Earth movements (crustal instability). Areas in east Africa which are affected by
increasing landslides are the ones that are prone to the occurrence of the earth’s
movement is greatest for example earth quakes and earth tremors, volcanicity etc...
these destabilize loose particles of rocks and weathered rock materials resulting
into mass wasting.
Over steepening of the slope by either river or lake erosion. Lakes may lead to the
creation of cliffs due to wave erosion. This over steepened cliff can facilitate mass
movement of weathered materials.
Over loading of the slopes by weathered materials where the excess load can easily
be destabilized hence fall off by the influence of gravity.
Heavy moving objects like lorries, heavy machinery like trains cayuse vibration of
the earth’s surface that trigger off mass movements.
Human activates like mining, quarrying, road construction, grazing of animals on
steep slopes, lumbering in mountainous areas etc. result into destabilization of
loose rocks on steep slopes resulting into landslides and rock falls.
Effects of living organisms e.g.barrowing animals like rats which loosen the rocks
and the soils resulting into weathering which eventually makes the rocks prone to
mass wasting. Wild animals grazing in mountainous areas trample on the surface
and cause vibrations hence disturbing unconsolidated rock materials and finally
results into landslides.

EFFECTS OF MASS WASTING

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Loss of lives. Severe landslides especially those associated with heavy rains and
earth quakes result into rock falls and rock slides that destroy settlements and kill
people living in suchsettlements like on the lower slopes of mountains like the
Bulecheke landslides in 1996 killed about 100 people, in Buhweju many people
were killed by the landslide s that occurred in May 2002, 2010 and 2018 on the
slopes of mountain Elgon.
Loss of property by the falling and sliding of rocks of various sizes. Many houses
and settlements are normally destroyed for example in 1996 in Bundibugyo, a land
slide occurred and destroyed several homes and properties for example roads, and
electric poles connecting Bundibugyo to Fort Portal were destroyed and that from
Kabale to Kisoro. Many crops and the would be agricultural land are often
destroyed as they are buried by the debris from the upper slopes.
Destruction of forest resources. When a slope with forests fails, chances are that
those forests are rolled down and totally buried and therefore destroyed for
example the landslide that occurred in 1985 in Bundibugyo destroyed some good
forested area in the Semiliki National Park.
It results into displacement and resettlement of people to other areas e.g. the recent
transfer of people from mountainous areas of Elgon to Bunyoro. This resulted into
loss of cultural identity as well as heavy government expenditure to resettle these
people.
Mass wasting results into damming of rivers which may result into back ponding to
form temporary water reservoirs or permanent lakes eh lake Bujuku on mountain
Rwenzori, Lake Mbaka in southern Tanzania.
Results into exposure of fresh rocks to weathering.
Creation of landforms e.g. terracets, scars, etc. and this has promoted both local
and foreign tourists who earn the government income.
Mass wasting results into the provision of fertile soils on lower slopes of hills,
mountains by soil creep, exfoliation, etc. which has promoted agriculture in valleys
e.g. vegetables growing in the valleys of kigezi.
MEASURES TO REDUCE LANDSLIDES OCCURRENCE
Among the measures taken to combat the problems of landslides’ occurrence
include the following;
Re- afforestation and afforestation. Planting of tress on the slopes where the
trees were cut should be done in order to increase the cohesiveness of rocks. This
has been on the slopes of the Kigezi highlands where eucalyptus trees have been
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planted. The government should establish forest reserves on the slopes and protect
them against people’s encroachment. This helps to increase the firmness on the
slopes and reduces the chances of landslides to occur.
Hillslope drainage.A lot of water on the slopes increases the lubrication,
saturation and weight levels of the rock particles on the slope whichaccelerates the
chances of slope failure and landslides. This thereforemeans that excess water
should be drained away through the drilling of pine lines on the slopes or
construction of deep channels or trenches. This has been done on the Kenyan and
kigezi highlands. This can also be done through the planting of eucalyptus trees so
that they can drain away the excess water on the slopes of highland areas.
The government should come in to stoop people form cultivating on the slopes of
mountains and highland areas like on the slopes of mountain Elgin, the kigezi
highlands among others whose stability is doubtable. This will help to reduce the
chances of landslide occurrence and their associated impacts on the environment
and people.
(research for other measures)
Revision questions
1. With reference to specific examples from East Africa, examine the
causes of mass wasting
Approach
Define mass wasting and site the areas prone to mass wasting in East Africa.
Identify, explain and illustrate the various forms of mass wasting (both the slow
and fast movements)
Give and explain the causes of mass wasting linking them to various types of mass
wasting
2. To what extent are the various forms or processes of mass wasting
influenced by climate in East Africa.
Approach
Define mass wasting and site areas prone to mass wasting in East Africa.
Identify, explain and illustrate the various forms of mass wasting (both the slow
and fast movements)
Thoroughly explain the influence of climate on mass wasting

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However, …………. give other factors
Give an evaluation or conclusion

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