GLYS 3119 SEDIMEMTARY PETROLOGY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY

PART II: SEDIMENTOLOGY

CHAPTER ONE: PROPERTIES OF SEDIMEMENTARY ROCKS

INTRODUCTION

What are the origins of sediments or sedimentary rocks?

Sediments and sedimentary rocks are derived from four origins:
 Lithogenous sediments originate from weathering, erosion and transportation of debris into
sedimentary basin areas either by agents such as gravity, rivers, ice and wind,
 Biogenous sediments are derived from debris of fauna and flora (spine, shells, bones, planktons,
algae, etc.,
 Hydrogenous sediments originate from chemical reactions in water with the formation of
neoformed minerals
 Cosmogenous sediments come from astral bodies which reach the earth’s surface as meteorites.

How are sediments or sedimentary rocks distributed on the Earth’s surface?

Sediments are different natures are not distributed uniformly throughout the continents and oceans
(Table 1). Lithogenic sediments are the most abundant on the Earth’s continental margins with
thicknesses which vary from <1.0 m to >10 km thick, (Fig. 1). The general pattern in the distribution
of the different types of sedimentary rocks is found in Figure 2.

Table 1. Distribution of the different types of sediments on the earth’s surface

No Sediment oe Nature Distribution on the earth’s surface

sedimentary
rock type
1 Lithogenous Siliciclastics, Dominantly distributed on Continental
pyroclastics , glacial margins, and islands, comprises 60-70%
sediment cover of the earth’s surface
Algal, coquinas, reefs Shallow waters, lakes, near shore
Calcareous/siliceous Benthic, neritic and planktonic
2 Biogenous shells and spines,
Calcareous oozes, Occur in abyssal depths and comprise ˃
diatomites, forams 30% biogenous sediments
3 Hydrogenous Saline, carbonate, ˂ 1% in oceans and lakes
phosphate sulphate
solutions
4 Cosmogenous Asteroids, meteorites The least abundant on the Earth’s surface
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 Figure 1 Global thicknesses of sediments

Figure 2 General distribution patterns of sediments on the earth’s surface

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I. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTS
Sedimentary rock or sediment properties can be attributed to:
 individual or clastic particles as well as;
 bulk properties:
Clastic properties refer to the physical properties of individual particles in a bulk sediment or deposit.
Bulk properties refer to those of different particle sizes are mixed together in a deposit.

I.1 CLASTIC PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTS

The physical properties of clastic sediment particles include; grain size, shape, texture and hardness.
The factors which affect the physical properties of clastic sediments are recapitulated in Table 2:

Table 2. Types of physical sediment particle properties and factors that affect them

No Physical properties sediment particles Factors that affect sediment particle

properties
a Particle or grain size Depends on transport distance from source area,
b Particle or grain shapes topography and transport system
(Sphericity, roundness and angularity)
c Surface textures of particles Depends on sediment origin:
(Clastic, non-clastic and aphanitic textures) (clastic or lithogenous, biogenous,
chemogenous, cosmogenous)
d Particle hardness Depends on the chemical composition, crystal
(See Mohr Scale of Hardness) structure

a) Particle size or grain size

Particle or grain size is the measurement of the nominal diameter (in mm) of a clastic fragment in a
bulk sediment. The unit of measurement is in millimeters (mm) or micrometers (µm) or simply microns
(µ).
1.0 micron=1/1000 mm
 Gravel-size particles like boulders and cobbles and pebbles transported as bed load can be
measured directly by hand,
 Sands and silts can be separated in the laboratory by sieving method,
 Clays which often transported as suspended load are separated in the laboratory by elutriation
(determination of settling velocity in a sediment-liquid mixture; Guy, 1969).

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Why do we study particle physical properties?

Isolate or individual sediment particle properties can be used in many ways:

 to classify sedimentary rocks based on grain size,

 to determine the source rock or provenance,
 to determine transport distance from the source area
 to interpret depositional processes, transport history,
 to interpret paleo-depositional environments, (depth, basin geometry, basin nutrients,
sediment flux, paleo-weathering, climate, etc.).

i) Classification of sedimentary rocks based on grain size

Sediments and sedimentary rocks are classified based on grain size, texture, and mineralogical composition.
Sediment sizes have been used to classify sedimentary rocks into five groups of sizes (Udden-Wentworth,
1922 Grain size scale): boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand, silt and clay.
Each scale is half the proceeding limit or twice the next limit (Wenworth, 1922). Krumbein Phi scale is
the negative log base 2 of Udden-Wenthworth scale in order to avoid decimal numbers (Table 3 and Fig.3)
Φ=-log2(D), where D= Particle diameter (Lecturer develops Wenworth’s Grain size Scale with students)

Table 3 Classification of clastic sedimentary rocks according to grain sizes (Wentworth’s Grain Size
Scale)

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 Classification Grain size
(mm)
Boulder >256
I. Gravel
Cobble 64-256
Pebble 2.0-64
Very coarse 1.0-2.0
Coarse 0.5 or 1/2
II. Sand Medium 0.25 or 1/4
Fine 0.125 or 1/8
Very fine 0.125 or 1/16
Coarse silt 0.0310 or 1/32
Medium silt 0.0I56 or 1/64
III. Mud Fine silt 0.0I78 or
1/128
Very fine 0.0039 or
silt 1/256
Clay <0.0039
or1/256

Table 4. Krumbein Phi scale used in classification of particle size of sediments

Diameter:
Texture Grain type (mm-scale) (micrometer-scale) (Phi
1.0mm= 1000ʯm (φ)scale)
Whole Nos Fraction Φ=-log2(D)
Boulder >256 256000 -8
Cobble 128 128000 -7
Very coarse pebble 64 64000 -6
GRAVEL Coarse pebble 32 32000 -5
Medium pebble 16 16000 -4
Fine pebble 8 8000 -3
Granule (Very fine pebble) 4 4000 -2
Coarse sand 2 2000 -1
Medium sand 1 1000 0
SAND Fine sand 0.5 1/2 500 1
Very fine sand 0.25 1/4 250 2
Coarse silt 0.125 1/8 125 3
Medium silt 0.0625 1/16 63 4
Fine silt 0.03125 1/32 32 5
Very fine silt 0.015625 1/64 16 6
MUD 0.008 1/128 8 7
Clay 0.004 1/256 4 8
0.002 <1/256 2 9

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Figure 3. Wentworth grain size chart

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ii) Determination of source rock or provenance
Detrital mineral suites can help reveal the source rock type or provenance of a particular sediment.
Minerals like zircon, quartz, rutile, tourmaline, topaz, and ilmenite are resistant to chemical and
physical weathering and remain in sediment relatively unchanged. Meanwhile, feldspars, a very
common mineral in igneous rocks readily weather under humid climates to form clay minerals, silica,
and oxides of aluminum. Arkoses are transported and deposited over short distances closer to source
rocks or buried abruptly to escape from weathering.

Sedimentary rocks are generally called siliciclastic rocks because quartz is abundant silicate fragments in
the final sediment to have resisted weathering and transport processes. Alongside quartz are common
accessory (heavy and resistant) minerals whose presence indicates the provenance from igneous,
metamorphic or intermediate source rock. (Table 4).
Table 4. Provenance of accessory minerals in siliciclastic rocks
Igneous source Metamorphic source Intermediate source
Augite Rutile Zircon
Aegerine Epidote Tourmaline
Chromite Garnet Magnetite
Ilmenite Adalusite Sphene
Topaz Diopside
Kyanite

iii) Determination of transport distance

Coarser grained like angular sediment particles like boulders (> 256 mm in diameter) turn to deposit closer
to sediment source areas, while fine-grained sands, silts and shales are deposited further away from the
source area. Therefore, sediment grain sizes decrease with increase transport distance, while the angles
round up with transport distance away from the source area. This is responsible for lateral facies distribution
of sediments on the Earth’s surfaces (Figs. 4 &5).

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 Figure 4. Lateral grading of sediments between sediment source area and transport distance

Figure 5. Example of lateral facies change with transport distance

b) Particle shape (Sphericity and roundness)

 Various shapes of sediment particles give expressions of the transport agent and transport
distance away from the source rocks.
 The shape of sediment particles varies from angular to sub-angular or sub-rounded to
rounded. Shape is defined numerically by sphericity and roundness (Fig. 6a).

i) Sphericity
Sphericity is the ratio of the surface area of a sphere having the same volume as the particle to the
surface area of the particle.
Sphericity = dn/ds, where: dn is the nominal diameter (diameter of a sphere having the same volume
as the particle), ds: is the diameter of a circumscribing sphere.
 A sphere has a sphericity dn/ds =1,
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 All irregular shapes have sphericities dn/ds =˂1 (Pettijohn 1957)

ii) Roundness
Roundness describes the sharpness of the edges and corners of a particle and indicates the state in which
a particle is worn. Roundness indicates the extent to which the corners of individual grains have been
rounded off. Roundness is defined as the average radius of curvature of the edges, ra divided by the
radius of the maximum inscribed circle, R (Fig. 6b). Roundness scale runs from angular through
subangular to subrounded and well-rounded.

Fig.6a Fig. 6b
Figure 6. Sphericity and roundness of sediment particles

𝐝𝐧 𝐫𝟏+𝐫𝟐+𝐫𝟑+𝐫 𝟒 𝐫𝐚
Sphericity = 𝐑𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬 = =
ds R R

n = Nominal diameter of sphere with equal volume R = Maximum inscribed circle

s = Circumscribing diameter ra = average radius of curvature

Figure 7. The grains above range from low sphericity on the left to high sphericity on the right. Notice
that the rounding of the grains is a separate descriptor.

Figure 8. Grains range from poorly rounded at (a) to well-rounded at (b).

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I.2 BULK PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Bulk properties arise when sediment particles of different clasts sizes, grain shapes and of different
mineral components are mixed together to become a deposit. These bulk properties include:
o Fabric
o Sorting
o Porosity
o Permeability
Meanwhile, each of the bulk properties is affected by a number of factors (Table 5).

a) Fabric
Bulk properties of sedimentary rocks depend on the packing arrangement which imposes loose or close
fabric of individual as well as, sorting, porosity, permeability and textures to the bulk sediment.
Fabric refers to the packing manner in of individual clastic particles in a bulk sediment. Packing may
be loosely-packed or closed packed. Fabric is affected by grain sizes, particle shapes and depth of
burial

b) Sorting
Sorting is the extent to which the grains making up a clastic rock are all about the same size.
Sorting reflects the extent to which the processes transporting or depositing the sediment have been
able to separate the different sizes and carry away finer particles.
 A well-sorted sedimentary rock consists of almost the same grain size range
 A poorly-sorted sedimentary rock contains a wide variety of different grain sizes in the
bulk sediment.

Figure 9. Grains range from poorly sorted or unsorted at (a) to well sorted at (b).

c) Porosity and permeability

i) Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of the volume of voids or interstitial spaces to the volume of porous bulk materials
like sponges, wood, rubber, sediment and some rocks. Porosity is expressed as a percentage

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 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐕𝐩
Porosity = x or φ = VBWhere φ= porosity; Vp = pore volume;
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐮𝐥𝐤 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 1

and VB = bulk volume

Porosity can equally be expressed as a decimal fraction between 0 and 1.
 Porosity affects the density of materials; e.g. more porous materials are less dense or less compact
than non-porous material.
 Porosity can be primary (syngenetic) or secondary (diagenetic) to give a variety of volumetrically
important types of porosities (interparticle, intraparticle, intercrystal, moldic, fenestral, fracture,
and vugs).

Porosity depends on the following factors: (Lecturer illustrates each factor)

 Packing arrangement of particles,
 Particle grain size,
 Fractures,
 Grain shape,
 Sorting,
 Compaction or depth of burial,
 Diagenetic state,
 Cementing material, etc.
 Porous materials are permeable and allow the free flow and circulation of fluids (Permeability).
 Porous rocks are good reservoir rocks for fluids (i.e.; water, oil and gases).
 Primary porosity in formed by pore spaces between detrital rock particles, while secondary porosity
is developed by partial dissolution and fracturing,

ii) Permeability
 Permeability is the measure of the ease of fluids to circulate through pore spaces (ability of
water or other liquids to pass or migrat freely through a rock).
 Permeability is the quality or state of a given material to allow fluids pass through.
Porosity and permeability of a sediment are both controlled by particle sizes, particle shapes,
sorting, compaction, fractures and the presence or absence of a matrix or cement,

 Porosity and permeability rates can both be differentiated in different rock facies deposited in
diverse environments due the differences in transport and depositional histories (Conglomerates,
flood plain, delta sands, silts, sand, gravel, mud flat, aeolian dunes, talus scree, till, moraine,
etc.).

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 Table 5. Types of physical properties on bulk sediment and factors that affect them

No Physical properties of bulk sediments Factors that affect sediments bulk properties
1 Fabric Grain sizes, grain shapes, grain contacts and
This is either the loose or close packing lithostatic pressure or burial depth.
of different particle sizes in a bulk
sediment
2 Sorting -Grain sizes,
(Tri-mechanical segregation of clastic Sediment transport energies or conditions; (gravity,
particles into similar clast sizes during
hydrodynamic, aerodynamic, & glacio-dynamic,
deposition) etc.
3 Porosity (interstitial pores) Grain sizes, grain shapes, and lithostatic pressure or
burial depth.
4 Permeability Grain sizes, grain shapes, grain contacts and
(Ability of fluids to circulate within lithostatic pressure or burial depth.
interstitial pores)

Figure 10. Plot to illustrate the variation of permeability with porosity in rocks

iii) What are the uses of porosity and permeability or applications in geology?

 Porous rocks serve as good reservoir rocks for fluids (gas, oil) and aquifers for water.
 Permeability in rocks allows the migration of hydrocarbons from source rocks to reservoir
rocks,
 The most important attributes of reservoir rock that serve as reservoirs for petroleum and gas as
well as aquifers for groundwater:
o they are generally coarse-grained sediments,
o They have a high porosity,
o They are pervious (permeable)
 On the contrary, very fine-grained mud rocks are less porous and impervious to form traps for
groundwater and hydrocarbons (oil and gas).
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 I.3 PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

TUTORALS / PRACTICALS

 Granulometric analytical technique is carried out to determine the different particle sizes and
their relative distributions in unconsolidated sedimentary rocks.
 The physical parameters that can be measured or described in a sediment include:
o size distribution or granulometric analysis
o sorting,
o porosity and permeability,
o shape (sphericity and roundness),
o textural maturity,
o density, etc.
Recall:
 Important applications in particle size analysis are used:
 to classify sediments/sedimentary rocks
 to depict sediment provenance (from heavy mineral suites)
 to interpret depositional processes, transport history,
 to interpret paleo-depositional environments, (depth, basin geometry, basin nutrients,
sediment flux, paleo-weathering, climate, etc.).

For example, ternary diagrams can be used to classifie sediment facies (Figs. 11a and b)

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Exercises on ternary diagrams in the use of grain size to classify sedimentary rocks
a) Clay-silt-sand; gravel-sand-silt (after Folk, 1967, b) agglomerates-lapilli-tuffs,

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Granulometric analysis Methods:

Granulometric analytical methods depends on the dominant grain sizes in a sediment and objectives.

a) Techniques used in fine-grained sediment separation

 Fine-grained sediments (≤ 1/16 or 0.0625 mm) like silts and clays can be separated by timing
the settling rate of sediment particles suspension in a column of water or elutriation technique.
 The settling rate of particles is influenced primarily by the size, shape, and specific gravity of
the particles and by the viscosity and temperature of the medium.
 Allochems like organic debris and carbonates could be eliminated to have clean samples.

 i) Elutriation technique
 This involves use of a bottom withdrawal tube below a graduated glass cylinder with a
constridion and a valve where coarse particles are withdrawn.
 From the separation obtained, a cumulative curve showing size distribution can be plotted.

 ii) Deflocculating and siphoning technique

 Prepare a suspension of the sediment sample
 Treated with a deflocculant such as sodium carbonate Na2CO3 and mix thoroughly,
 Put the mixture into a graduated cylinder containing a column of water 800 mm high.
 After 10 minutes siphon the upper part of the suspension and sediment containing grains 1/16
mm and larger remains at the bottom.
 Repeat the process four times to achieve a clean separation. Coarse and fine separates can
then be treated and studied separately.

 iii) Use of hydrometers technique

 This involves density measurement of the suspension load at various time intervals using a
hydrometer,
 Using different pipettes fine-grained sediment fractions are withdrawn at definite time
intervals.

 iii) Use of modern (automated) instrumentation techniques

 Laser diffraction technique,
 Spectrometric (imaging) technique.

b) Techniques used in coarse-grained sediment separation (Data acquisition)

i) Sieving technique
Sands and silts Sieve (˃1/16 or 0.0625 mm) can ordinarily be separated using standard sieves with
selected mesh openings corresponding to the grain sizes measured:
 Dry your field samples in an oven or air in order to lose water contained in them,
 Wash your dried sample in a sieve of < 2.0 microns to eliminate clays
 Dry the retained sample.
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 o To determine the clay content,
 Weigh the initial dry sample (WT1)
 Weigh the dried retained sands after washing away the clays. (WT2)
 Calculate the weight of clays (WT1-WT2)
 Calculate the percentage distribution of clays = (WT1-WT2) X 100
WT1 1
 Stack a column of sieves with openings larger than 1/16 or 0.0625 mm, starting from bottom
 0.125-mm, 0.25-mm, 0.50-mm, 1.0 mm 2.0 mm, and 4.0 mm sizes at the top (Twenhofel and
Tyler 1941),
 Mix each dried sample and then divide into 4 quarters (to avoid bias in selection of grains),
 Place 100 - 500g of each quartile of dry sample in the sieve at the top of the column,
 Shake the column mechanically by hand or better use a mechanical shaker for 10 minutes,
 Weigh the sediment fractions (W1, W2, W3, W4,… etc. trapped in each sieve using an electronic
balance machine,
 Express the weights as a percentage of the total weight (W1/WT x100); W2/WT x100,….etc.
 The sum of weights from sieves must not exceed the total or initial weight. However, some
particles may be lost during the process or clink to the walls of the sieve if clays are not well
eliminated.
 Repeat the procedure for the other three quarters of the sample to test your analysis.
 The data of the sieved fractions should be recapitulated on a granulometric table
The sieving method is cheaper but has a low resolution due to the adhesion of clays in dry samples which
must be well agitated.

Figure 12. Sieve column and oven to dry sediment samples

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Table 6. Raw data from sieve or granulometric analysis
a) Variable b) Retained c) Cumulated d) Calculation of grain size distribution
Mesh sizes (mm) masses (g) masses (g) Frequency % Cumulated %
2 mm 5 5+ 0= 5 5/100 X100 = 5% 5/100x100=5%
1.5 mm 8 5+8=13 8/100 X100 = 8% 13/100X100=13%
1.0 mm 10 13+10 =23 10/100 x100 = 10% 23/100x100=23%
0.5 mm 40 23+40 =63 40/100 X100 = 40% 63/100x100=63%
0.25 mm 20 63+20=83 20/100 X100 = 20% 83/100x100=83%
0.125 mm 10 83+10=93 10/100 X100 = 10% 93/100x100=93%
0.0625 mm 7 93+7=100 7/100 X100 = 7% 100/100x100=100%
Total =100 Total=100
=100%

c) Statistical analysis of particle size distribution

 In nature, sediments are deposited in amalgamation to include variable grain sizes.

 Results of grain or particle size analysis can be used to visualize the size distribution
frequency in a bulk sediment. i.e. by expressing the dataset into graphs (histograms or bar
charts, and curves)

i) Histograms or bar charts

To produce histograms or bar charts, plot the diameters of the sieve or mesh openings on the x-axis
and plotted the relative percentages of the retained masses are on the y-axis. Histograms or bar charts
give information on the average particle size (median) and the most represented granulometric class
(mode).

ii) Cumulative frequency curve or an ogive

A cumulative frequency curve is a graphical plot in which grain size classes are plotted against
percentage frequency of the class plus the sum of the percentage in the preceding size classes. A
cumulative frequency curve represents the best way to display statistical information in the
distribution of measured variables.

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Figure 13. Statistical distribution of grain size analytical data
The cumulative curves generally resemble a sigmoid or letter S with an inflection point or steep
gradient (median). Three major forms of cumulative curves vary from parabolic, S-form or sigmoidal
and straight form. The slopes of the curves are steeper (straight) if the sediment is well sorted, and
gentle if the sediment is not well sorted. Slope with a single inflexion point have unimodal particle
size distributions, while slope with more than one inflexion point have multi-modal (bi-, tri-.)
distributions.

Figure 14. Models of granulometric curves according to Mouldi et Chkiou (2007

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Some terminologies employed in statistical data

a) Date set
This is a set of measured numbers of statistical values from 0 ≤1 up to any size (i-n)
Data set of 10 values (1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6),
 The size of data set is n=10;
 the frequent number is 2,
 the median is the sum of 2=3/2=2.5;
 while the mean is the sum of n1-6/data size (n)

b) Size of a data set

Data size comprises the number of values or data points measured (data set) values
e.g. in a data set of values 2, 3, 5, 11, 14 and 17 the data size n = 6 values,

c) Frequency (f)
This is the number of times a particular measured value or data point occurs compared to the total
percentage distribution, e.g. in a data set of 10 values 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5 and 6 will make sense
when organised in a statistical table (Table 8). However, to visualize the distribution of the variables,
this information can be plotted in the form of bar charts or frequency curves.

c) Range (R)
This is the difference between the smallest and the maximum values in a data set
In the example above the range R=6 -1=5
d) Mean
The mean is the arithmetic average of numbers in the data set divided by the number of values
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 (1−𝒏)
Mean (X)= 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 (𝒏)

In the example above, the mean (X) =1+ 2+2+2+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 4+ 5 +6 = 31 =3.1

10 10
e) Median
This is the middle value when a data set is organised starting from the smallest to greatest value.
If two values occur, then the median will be the average of these two values.

In the example above 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6;

2 and 3 are middle values and the median is 2+3/2 =5/2 = 2.5

The median of a sediment is the phi intercept corresponding to the 50th percentile on the
cumulative frequency curve (Illustration). It is considered that half or 50% of the grains are finer
than the median and half, coarser. Median is not environmentally sensitive parameter, but it can be
plotted against sorting to distinguish between silt deposited by rivers and beaches (Folk, 1968). It
can also be plotted against skewness to distinguish between silt deposited by rivers and wave
processes (Stewart 1958).

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 2.50

Sorting 2.00

1.50
1.00

0.50 Fluvial
Beach
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Mean size
Figure 15. Plot of mean versus sorting (after Folk, 1968)

f) Mode
This is the number that occurs most frequently in a data set. It is found at the peaks of bar charts and
at the inflection point of cumulative frequency curves. Modal analysis gives us information on
sorting and the hydrodynamic energy at the time of deposition. A sediment can be mono-modal if
particles are well sorted or bi-modal, or tri-modal if particles are not well sorted.

Example 1. Find the range, mean, median and mode from a data set for sediment grain size
distribution: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0, 2.0 to 2.5,
Minimum value = 0.5
Maximum value = 2.5
Range = 2.5-0.5 =2
Data Size (No of variables or N) =8

𝟎.𝟓+𝟏.𝟎+𝟏.𝟓+𝟐.𝟎+𝟐.𝟎+𝟐?𝟎+𝟐.𝟎+𝟐.𝟓
Mean = 𝟖
= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓/𝟖 =1.687

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Figure 16. Graphical representation of grain size distribution, relative frequency distribution curve of a
sediment sample to illustrate mean, median, and mode

g) Quartile (Q)
Quartile measures the spread of statistical values below and above the mean
Quartiles divide data points into quarters of almost the same sizes sandwiched by minimum and
maximum values in the data set. Quartiles tell us how data is spread.

Figure 17. Semi-logarithmic curves to illustrate quartiles

YB01 and YB02 are analyzed samples from Yabassi

 Lower quartile Q1 at 25% or 25th percentile,

 Middle quartile (Median) Q2 at 50%, or 50th percentile and
 Upper quartile Q3 at 75%, or 75th percentile

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 The slopes of curves and meaning

 Steep slopes indicate the sediment is well sorted (homometric distribution)

 While gentile slopes indicate poorly sorted (heterometric) sediment.
Application:
Quartiles can be used to determine grain size parameters like: deviation quartile (Qdphi), sorting index
(So), and skewness (Sk).

For example, if Q1 or Q3 are further away from the median, then there is a greater dispersion among
lower or higher values respectively.

According to Chamley, 1987

The deviation quartile: Dq = (Q1-Q3)/2

Sorting is given by: So =

So<1.23 1.23<So<1.41 1.41<So<1.74 1.74<So<2 So>2

Very well sorted Well sorted Moderately sorted Poorly sorted Very poorly sorted

𝐐1×𝐐3
Skewness (Sk) =
(𝐐2)2

Application:
Skewness can be used to interpret depositional environments. This index expresses the distribution of
particles relative to the median and is diagnostic of the hydrodynamic energy of a depositional medium
(Chamley, 1987).

SK Skewness Sediments deposited in preference Interpretation ofDepositional medium

A<1 Negative Coarse-grained High energy medium, with elimination of fine grained
sediments (turbidity currents)
A =1 Mode = Median Mixture of coarse- and fine-grained Moderate to high energy depositional medium
sediments (heterometric distribution)
A>1 Positive Fine-grained Low energy depositional medium

Table 4. Recapitulation of granulometric parameters deduced from cumulative semi-logarithmic curves

Sample Granulometric Description of analyzed sandstone samples

Codes parameters
Q1 Q2 Q3 dQ So As Grain size Skewness Sorting
YBO1 1.25 0.73 0.5 0.38 1.58 1.17
YBO2 1.3 0.7 0.45 0.43 1.64 1.19 Coarse-grained Moderate
YBO5 1.27 0.55 0.33 0.47 1.96 1.39 Poor
Towards fine
YBO7 2 0.36 0.24 0.88 2.89 3.7 Very coarse-grained grains
Very poor
YBO3 >2 0.75 0.27 0.87 2.72 0.96 Very coarse-grained
YBO4 >2 1 0.38 0.81 2.29 0.76 conglomerates
YNG6 >2 2 0.87 0.57 1.52 0.65 Moderate
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Exercise.
Find the quartiles (QI, Q2 and Q3) from the following data set or data points:
N= (3, 4, 4, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18)

Procedure:
 Arrange data orderly from nmin to nmax
 Find the median = Q2
 QI is mid the smallest value and the mean.
The median can be a whole number or the average of two numbers (11+ 12/2)
 Cut data into quarters: 3, 4, 4, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12,14, 16, 17, 18
Q1 Q2 Q3
Median

Q1= 4+4/2=4; Q2 =10+11/2= 10.5; Q3 = 14+16/2=15

Interquartile range
This is the measure of the variability around the median

IR = Q3 – Q1=15-4= 11

Skewness (Sk)
Skewness is the measure of the asymmetry coefficient or distortion of distribution that deviates
from the median i.e. deviation from symmetry of a grain size distribution. Skewness is sensitive to
the presence or absence of the fine-grain and coarse-grained fractions in a sediment population.
𝐐1×𝐐3
Sk =
(𝐐2)2

Application:
Skewness can be used to interpret depositional environments. This index expresses the distribution of
particles relative to the median and is diagnostic of the hydrodynamic energy of a depositional medium
(Chamley, 1987).

SK Skewness Sediments deposited in preference Interpretation ofDepositional medium

A<1 Negative Coarse-grained High energy medium, with elimination of fine grained
sediments (turbidity currents)
A =1 Mode = Median Mixture of coarse- and fine-grained Moderate to high energy depositional medium
sediments (heterometric distribution)
A>1 Positive Fine-grained Low energy depositional medium
i.e.
 Skewness = zero when the distribution is symmetrical about the mean,
 Skewness = positive (+1, +2,…+4, etc.) when the tail of the curve is to the left hand side (LHS),
 Skewness = negative (-1, -2, …-4, etc.) when the tail of the curve is to the right hand side (RHS),

(See schematic illustrations below for quartile and skewness):

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Figure 18. Graphical representation of grain size distribution of a sediment sample to illustrate median,
quartile and symmetric distortion in the distribution of the measured values

Kurtosis (= flatness or sharpness in a frequency distribution curve)

Kurtosis is a quantitative measure (dispersion ratio) to describe the degree of grain size distribution
from Gaussian normality. It defines the sorting relationship between lower and higher values about the
normal or mode. This is expressed by the degree of peakedness (flatness or sharpness) of the relative
frequency curve. The degree of kurtosis ranges from leptokurtic or well sorted, mesokurtic or
averagely sorted and platikurtic or poorly sorted) and have a direct relationship with sorting

General forms of Kurtosis

 A normal probability curve has a kurtosis of 1.0
 A leptokurtic curve possesses a peaked central portion with value of ˃ 1.0 (well sorted than the tail)
 A platikurtic curve possesses a flat peak with value of ˂ 1.0 (poorly sorted than the tail)
Exercise 1:
From the data set or point N= (4, 1, 2, 4, 2, 2, 5, 2, 6, 3)
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 Examples of data points can be applied to grain sizes, heights, weights, densities, volumes, etc.
1) Give the values for range, mean, median, and 50th quartile
2) Create a four column table:
a. Variables or data points (measured parameters)
b. Relative frequency values
c. Cumulative Frequency and
d. Cumulative percentages
3) Plot on the same graph a bar chart, a relative and cumulative frequency curves
4) Calculate the skewness
5) Suggest the energy of the depositional environment.

Solution:
First arrange variables from smallest to the biggest:
N= (1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6) =10

Answers No 1

 Range = nmax - nmin= 6-1= 5

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 (1−𝑛) 1+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 3+4+4+5+6 31 3.1

 Mean = = = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 (𝑁) 10 10 1

2+3 5
 Median=1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6= = 𝟐 =2.5
𝟐

 Mode = Particles with the highest frequency= 2

Answers No 2
b) Variables b) Relative c) Cumulative frequency d )Frequency %
Grain sizes, frequency How is this done? Cumulated values
weights, No of times a value
volumes etc appears in the set
1 1 1+ 0= 1 1/10 X100 = 10%
2 4 1+4 = 5 4/10 x100 = 40%
3 1 1+5 = 6 1/10 X100 = 10%
4 2 2+6 = 8 2/10 X100 = 20%
5 1 1+8 = 9 1/10 X100 = 10%
6 1 1+9= 10 1/10 X100 = 10%
N=10 N=10 =100%

3) Plot on the same graph a bar chart, a relative and cumulative frequency curves

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Name:……………………………………………………………….……
Matricule Number: ………………………

Exercise 2…………………………………………………..…………………./ 15 Marks

Q.2a) Complete the information of grain size analytical results of a sandstone sample presented in Table 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………(3.0 marks)
With the help of the graph provided in Figure 1, answer the questions Q.2b to Q.2f

Q.2ab) A bar chart and relative percentage distribution curve against sediment grain size…(3.0 marks)
Q.2c) A cumulative percentage curve against sediment grain size……..................................(3.0 marks)
Q.2d) What is mode or modal clast size of the sediment sample under study?.........................(2.0 mark)
Q.2e) Determine quartile Q2 grain size value……………………….……….………. …….…(2.0 mark)
Q.2f) Based on the above results, give the precise nomenclature of the sediment sample based on
Udden-Wenworth, 1922 Grain Size Scale.…,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,…..,,,,,,,,,,,,………..….... (2.0 marks)

Table 1 Results of grain size analysis of a sand sample

a) Grain sizes b) Retained masses c) Relative d) Cumulative e) Cumulative
(mm) (g) frequency % masses (g) frequency %
2 3
1 8
0.5 10
0.25 57
0.125 10
0.0625 7
0.03125 5

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Name:…………………………………………….. Date:…………….…..

Matricule Number: ………………………………..