LESSON: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

A. Kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids

B. Intermolecular, Dipole-dipole, Ion-dipole, Dispersion, Hydrogen bonds
C. Properties of liquids and IMF
D. Surface Tension, Viscosity, Vapor pressure, boiling point,
Molar heat of vaporization
E. Structure and Properties of Water
F. Types and properties of solids (Crystalline and amorphous solids)
Types of Crystals – ionic, covalent, molecular, metallic

Simple Activity: Design a simple investigation to determine the effect on boiling point or freezing point
when a solid is dissolved in water

Sharing of Answers, Ideas, and Opinions

The kinetic theory of matter helps us to explain why matter exists in different phases (i.e.
solid, liquid, and gas), and how matter can change from one phase to the next. The kinetic theory of
matter also helps us to understand other properties of matter. It is important to realize that what we
will go on to describe is only a theory. It cannot be proved beyond doubt, but the fact that it helps us
to explain our observations of phase changes, and other properties of matter, suggests that it probably
is more than just a theory.
Broadly, the kinetic theory of matter says that all matter is composed of particles that have a certain
amount of energy which allows them to move at different speeds depending on the temperature
(energy). There are spaces between the particles and also attractive forces between particles when
they come close together

The state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic energy of the individual
particles (molecules or atoms) and the intermolecular forces. The kinetic energy keeps the molecules
apart and moving around, and is a function of the temperature of the substance and the
intermolecular forces try to draw the particles together.
Gases
 the average kinetic energy of the molecules is larger than the average energy of attractions
between molecules
 lack of strong attractive forces allows gases to expand
Liquids
 denser than gases
 have a definite volume
 attractive forces not strong enough to keep molecules from moving allowing liquids to hold the
shape of the container

Solids
 intermolecular forces hold molecules together and keep them from moving
 not very compressible
 crystalline – solids with highly ordered structures
 ++++++

Summarises characteristics of the particles that are in each phase of matter.

Property of Solid Liquid Gas

matter

Particles Atoms or molecules Atoms or molecules Atoms or molecules

Energy and Low energy - particles Particles have more

Particles have high energy
movement of vibrate around a fixed energy than in the solid
and are constantly moving.
particles point. phase but less than in
the gas phase.

Spaces Very little space Bigger spaces than

Large spaces because of high
between between particles. solids but smaller than
energy.
particles Particles are tightly gases.
packed together.

Attractive Very strong forces. Weaker forces than Weak forces because of the
forces between Solids have a fixed solids, but stronger large distance between
particles. volume. forces than in gases. particles.

In general, gas becomes a

A liquid becomes a gas liquid or solid when it is
Solids become liquids or
if its temperature is cooled. Particles have less
gases if their
Phase changes. increased. A liquid energy and therefore move
temperature is
becomes a solid if its closer together so that the
increased.
temperature decreases. attractive forces become
stronger, and the gas
becomes a liquid or a solid.
 state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic energies of the particles and
interparticle energies of attraction
 kinetic energies depend on temperature and tend to keep particles apart and moving
 interparticle attractions draw particles together
 condensed phases – liquids and solids because particles are close together compared to gases
 increase temperature forces molecules to be closer together ® increase in strength of
intermolecular forces

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES are attractive forces

between molecules or particles in the solid or liquid
states, relatively weaker than the forces within the
molecules forming bonds (intramolecular forces)
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES hold atoms together in
a molecule
The intermolecular forces of attraction in a pure substance are collectively known as Van Der
Waals Forces.

Molecules in liquids are held to other molecules by intermolecular interactions, which are weaker than the
intramolecular interactions that hold molecules and polyatomic ions together. The three major types of
intermolecular interactions are dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces (these two are often referred
to collectively as van der Waals forces), and hydrogen bonds.

 intermolecular forces weaker than ionic or covalent bonds( polar non-polar)

 many properties of liquids reflect strengths of intermolecular forces
Types of intermolecular forces:
dipole-dipole forces, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen-bonding forces
 also called van der Waals forces
 less than 15% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds
 electrostatic in nature involves attractions between positive and negative species

1. Ion-Dipole Forces acts between an ion (either

positive or negative) and a polar molecule. This explains
the solubility of ionic compounds in water which is a
polar molecule. The ions and the oppositely charged
ends of the polar water molecules overcome the
attraction between ions themselves.

2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (between two polar

molecules) exist between neutral polar molecules. One
end of a dipole attracts the oppositely charged end of
another dipole.

These arrangements are more stable than

arrangements in which two positive or two negative ends are adjacent

3. Hydrogen Bonding (a special type of dipole-

dipole) is a special type of dipole-dipole force that exists
between a hydrogen atom bond to a small highly
electronegative non-metal atom. Occurs in polar
molecules containing H and any of highly
electronegative elements in particular Nitrogen,
Flourine, and Oxygen.

4. Dipole-Induced Dipole Force - the interaction

between Polar and Non-polar molecules

5. Instantaneous Dipole-Induced (London Dispersion

Forces) is the weakest type of intermolecular force. When two non-polar molecules approach each
other, and instantaneous dipole moment forms. This force is sometimes called an induced dipole-
induced dipole attraction.

Comparing Intermolecular Forces

 dispersion forces found in all substances
 strengths of forces increase with increased molecular weight and also depends on the shape
 dipole-dipole forces add to the effect of dispersion forces and are found in polar molecules
 hydrogen bonds tend to be the strongest intermolecular force
SOME PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
Surface tension, capillary action, and viscosity are unique properties of liquids that depend on
the nature of intermolecular interactions. Surface tension is the energy required to increase the
surface area of a liquid. Surfactants are molecules that reduce the surface tension of polar liquids like
water. Capillary action is the phenomenon in which liquids rise into a narrow tube called a capillary.
The viscosity of a liquid is its resistance to flow.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS:

Liquids do not have a simple or regular structure, but many of their properties can be explained
qualitatively by viewing them at the particulate level.

Viscosity – resistance of a liquid to flow, the greater the viscosity the more slowly the liquid flows. The
viscosity of liquid depends on its intermolecular attraction. (The stronger the intermolecular force, the
higher is the liquid’s viscosity).

Capillary action ( also known as capillarity)- is a tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be
drawn into small openings such as those between grains of rock, a result of the intermolecular
attraction between the liquid and solid materials.

2 Types of forces involved in capillary action:

 cohesive forces – intermolecular forces that bind similar molecules (liquid molecules)
 adhesive forces – intermolecular forces that bind unlike molecules/substances to a
surface( water, particles that make up the glass tube)
Surface Tension – the measure of the elastic force on the surface of a liquid. The amount of energy
required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area manifested as some sort of skin on
the surface of a liquid or in a drop of liquid.

Examples:

Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by its vapor when in equilibrium with liquid or solid
Example: When a liquid or solid substance is made to evaporate in a closed container, the gas exerts
pressure above the liquid.

Substances with relatively strong intermolecular forces will have low vapor pressure because the
particles will have difficulty escaping as a gas
Example: Water (H2O), (Hydrogen Bonding) has a vapor pressure of 0.03 atm.

Ethyl Ether (C4H10O), dipole-dipole & London Force) has a vapor pressure at 0.68 atm

Because the molecules of a liquid are in constant motion and possess a wide range of kinetic energies, at any
moment some fraction of them has enough energy to escape from the surface of the liquid to enter the gas or
vapor phase. This process, called vaporization or evaporation, generates a vapor pressure above the liquid.
Molecules in the gas phase can collide with the liquid surface and reenter the liquid via condensation. Eventually,
a steady-state or dynamic equilibrium is reached.

The Boiling Point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the external ar
atmospheric pressure. Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises the kinetic energy of its molecules,
until such a point where the energy of the particle movement exceeds the intermolecular forces that
hold them together.

the heat of vaporization of the liquid,)

The Heat of Vaporization is the amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of
substance at its boiling point. The application of heat disrupts the intermolecular forces of attraction of
the liquid molecules and allows them to vaporize. It is generally increasing as the molar heat of
vaporization increases. The is also determined by the strength of intermolecular forces
between molecules

Phase Changes

Phase change: Change in the physical state of matter (gas, liquid, solid)

Melting (Fusion): solid to liquid Condensa3on: gas to liquid

Freezing: liquid to solid Sublima3on: solid to gas

Vaporiza3on: liquid to gas Deposition: gas to solid

Fusion, vaporization, and sublimation are endothermic processes, whereas freezing, condensation, and
deposition are exothermic processes. Changes of state are examples of phase changes or phase
transitions. All phase changes are accompanied by changes in the energy of a system. Changes from a
more ordered state to a less ordered state (such as a liquid to a gas) are endothermic. Changes from a
less-ordered state to a more ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always exothermic.

Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes

o phase changes require energy

o phase changes to a less ordered state require energy
 o melting process of solid called fusion
o the heat of fusion – enthalpy change of melting a solid
o D Hfus water = 6.01 kJ/mol
o the heat of vaporization – heat needed for vaporization of liquid
o D Hvap water = 40.67 kJ/mol
o melting, vaporization, and sublimation are endothermic
o freezing, condensation, and deposition are exothermic

Heating Curves
o heating curve – graph of the temperature of the system versus the amount of heat added
o used to calculate enthalpy changes
o supercooled water – when water is cooled to a temperature below 0° C

Critical Temperature and Pressure

o critical temperature – the highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid
o critical pressure – the pressure required to bring about liquefaction at the critical temperature
o the greater the intermolecular attractive forces, the more readily gases liquefy ® higher critical
temperature
o cannot liquefy a gas by applying pressure if gas is above the critical temperature

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level

o dynamic equilibrium – a condition when two opposing processes are occurring simultaneously at
equal rates
o vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapor when the liquid and vapor states
are in dynamic equilibrium

Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature

o volatile – liquids that evaporate readily
o vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

o liquids boil when their vapor pressure equals the external pressure acting on the surface of the
liquid
o the temperature of boiling increases with increasing external pressure
o normal boiling point – the boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm
o higher pressures cause water to boil at higher temperatures

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water has high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy needed to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1oC. The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/g-oC (4.18 J/g-
oC), one of the highest for many liquids. Water can absorb a large amount of heat even if its
temperature rises only slightly. To raise the temperature of the water, the intermolecular hydrogen bonds
should break. The converse is also true; water can give off much heat with only a slight decrease in its
temperature. This allows large bodies of water to help moderate the temperature on earth.
In the summer months, this means that
water must absorb a great deal of energy in the
form of heat from the sun for the temperature to
increase. Since most bodies of water are large
enough not to be significantly affected by the
heat from the sun, water provides an almost
constant temperature for the plants and animals
living there.
 The boiling point of water is unusually
high. Many compounds similar in mass to
water have much lower boiling points.

 Solid water is less dense, and in fact,

floats on liquid water.
 (Image Source: http:// www.reasons.org/Media/
Default/Article/articles/water- designed-for-life-
part-2-of-7/ part2-2.png)
Water bodies freeze from the top down. If ice is not able to float, the water bodies would freeze
from top to bottom, and aquatic life will be killed.

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Solids can be categorized into two groups: crystalline solids and amorphous solids. The
differences in properties of these two groups of solids arise from the presence or absence of long-
range order of arrangements of the particles in the solid

Properties of Solids
 The intermolecular forces between neighboring molecules are strong enough to keep
them locked in position
 Solids (like liquids) are not very compressible due to the lack of space between molecules
 If the molecules in a solid adopt a highly ordered packing arrangement, the structures are said
to be crystalline

ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES
The components of a solid can be arranged in two general ways: they can form a regular , thus
producing a crystalline solid, or they can aggregate
A. CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices. Crystalline solids
are characterized by a regular repeating structure called the crystal lattice.
Examples of crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate
(CuSO4), diamond, graphite, and sugar (C12H22O11). The ordered arr
X-ray Diffraction is a technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of a
crystal, wherein atoms cause beams of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.
Four types of crystals: angement of their units maximizes the space they occupy and are essentially
incompressible.
(1) ionic, (2) metallic, (3) covalent network, and (4) molecular.

Properties and several examples of each type are listed in the following table and are described in the
table below.

1. Ionic crystals structure consists of alternating positively-charged cations

and negatively-charged anions (see figure below). The ions may either be
monatomic or polyatomic.

2. Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by a "sea" of

mobile valence electrons (see figure below). These electrons, also
referred to as delocalized electrons.

3. Covalent network crystals consist of atoms at the lattice points of

the crystal, with each atom is covalently bonded to its nearest
neighbor atoms (see figure below). The covalently bonded network is three- dimensional and
contains a very large number of atoms.

4. Molecular crystals - consist of molecules at the lattice points of

the crystal, held together by relatively weak intermolecular forces.
The intermolecular forces may be dispersion forces in the case of
nonpolar crystals or dipole-dipole forces in the case of polar
crystals.

PROPERTIES OF THE MAJOR CLASSES OF SOLIDS

EXAMPLE:
 Classify Ge, RbI, 6C6(CH3)6, and Zn as ionic, molecular, covalent, or metallic solids and
arrange them in order of increasing melting points.

Given: compounds
Asked for: classification and order of melting points

Strategy:
A. Locate the component element(s) in the periodic table. Based on their positions, predict
whether each solid is ionic, molecular, covalent, or metallic.
B. Arrange the solids in order of increasing melting points based on your classification, beginning
with molecular solids.

Solution:
A. Germanium lies in the p block just under Si, along the diagonal line of semi-metallic elements,
which suggests that elemental Ge is likely to have the same structure as Si (the diamond structure).
Thus Ge is probably a covalent solid.
RbI contains metal from group 1 and a nonmetal from group 17, so it is an ionic solid containing Rb+
and I− ions.

The compound C (CH3)6 is a hydrocarbon (hexamethyl benzene), which consists of isolated molecules that
stack to form a molecular solid with no covalent bonds between them.
Zn is a d-block element, so it is a metallic solid.

B.Arranging these substances in order of increasing melting points is straightforward, with one
exception. We expect C6(CH3)6 to have the lowest melting point and Ge to have the highest melting
point, with RbI somewhere in between. The melting points of metals, however, are difficult to predict
based on the models presented thus far. Because Zn has a filled valence shell, it should not have a
particularly high melting point, so a reasonable guess is

C6(CH3)6 < Zn ~ RbI < Ge.The actual melting points are C6(CH3)6, 166°C; Zn, 419°C; RbI, 642°C; and
Ge, 938°C. This agrees with our prediction.

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS have a random orientation of particles. Examples of amorphous solids are
glass, plastic, coal, and rubber. They are considered super-cooled liquids where molecules are
arranged in a random manner similar to the liquid state.
Amorphous solids (e.g. glass), like liquids, do not have long-range order but may have a
limited, localized order in their structures

Properties of Amorphous Solids

Amorphous solids are sometimes described as supercooled liquids because their molecules are
arranged randomly somewhat as in a liquid state.
1.Lack of long-range order
Amorphous Solid does not have a long-range order of arrangement of their constituent particles.
However, they may possess small regions of orderly arrangement. These crystalline parts of an
otherwise amorphous solid are known as crystallites.
2.No sharp melting point ( An amorphous, translucent solid is called a glass.)
 An amorphous solid does not have a sharp melting point but melts over a range of temperatures. For
example, glass on heating first softens and then melts over a temperature range. Glass, therefore, can
be molded or blown into various shapes. Amorphous solid does not possess the characteristic heat of
fusion.
3.Conversion into crystalline form
Amorphous solid, when heated and then cooled slowly by annealing, becomes crystalline at some
temperature. That is why glass objects of ancient times look milky because of some crystallization having
taken place.

SHORT ACTIVITIES OR DEMONSTRATIONS:

WATER: A VERY UNUSUAL LIQUID
Water is an essential substance to life. It is the most abundant compound on earth and
comprises more than 60% of the human body. But it is also one of the most unusual substances on earth.

Activity 1
1. Fill a small glass jar to the top with water.
2. What do you think would happen if you were to add twenty-five-centavo coins to it?
3. Try adding coins one at a time. What happens to the water in the cup?
4. How many coins can you add without causing the water to overflow?

Activity 2
1. Take some water with a straw and put a few drops on a plastic sheet.
(a) What is the shape of the drop?
(b) Move a drop around with your straw. Does the drop change?
2. Move one of the drops close to another one with your straw. What happens when two drops meet?
3. Put a small amount of one of the solids (salt, pepper, sugar, talcum powder) on one of the drops.
Does the shape change?
4. Try this again with the other solid

Activity 3
5. Put some water in your cup.
6. Sprinkle black pepper all over the surface. What does the pepper do? Record your observations.
7. Add a drop of dish soap to the water. What does the pepper do? Record your observations.

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