DEPARTMENT OF VEHICLE AND ENERGY

CONVERSION ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS

Hoàng Công Liêm, PhD

 Chapter 3: Fluid kinematics

1. Lagrangian and Eulerian flow description

2. Kinematic features of Fluid

3. The Continuity equation

Fluid kinematics deals with describing the motion of fluids
without necessarily considering the forces and moments that
cause the motion

Assumptions:
- Fluid is a continuum field
- u, p,  are functions of time and space
u = u(x,y,z,t)
p = p(x,y,z,t)
 = (x,y,z,t)
1. Lagrangian and Eulerian flow descriptions
There are two general approaches in
analyzing fluid mechanics problems:
Lagrangian method and Eulerian method

1.1. Lagrangian method:

Lagrangian method involves following
individual fluid particles as they move
about and determining how the fluid
properties associated with these particles
change as a function of time
The position vector of the fluid particle can be expressed as 𝑟(a,
Ԧ b, c, t)
x = x(a, b, c, t)
a, b, c, t : Lagrangian variables
y = y(a, b, c, t)
z = z(a, b, c, t)
dr 𝑑 2 𝑟Ԧ
Velocity: u= Acceleration: 𝑎Ԧ = 2
𝑑𝑡
dt
1.2. Eulerian method:

Eulerian method uses the field concept. In this case, the fluid motion is
given by completely prescribing the necessary properties (pressure,
density, velocity, etc.) as functions of space and time. From this method
we obtain information about the flow in terms of what happens at fixed
points in space as the fluid flows through those points.

Eulerian description of fluid flow: a finite volume called a flow domain or

control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out.
We define field variables which are functions of space and time.
Pressure field, P=P(x,y,z,t)
Velocity field, 𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 x, y, z, t : Eulerian variables
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑢𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑢𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑘
Acceleration field, a = a ( x, y , z , t )

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑘

These (and other) field variables define the flow field.

𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎Ԧ = = + 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

■ The Eulerian description is often more convenient for fluid

mechanics applications.
2. Kinematic features of Fluid
2.1 Type of flow
There are different patterns of fluid flow, usually characterized by time
and distance:

• Time: A flow is steady if the parameters describing it (e.g. flow rate,

velocity, pressure, etc.) do not change with time /t=0.
Otherwise a flow is unsteady /t  0.

• Distance: A flow is uniform if the parameters describing the flow do

not change with distance. In non-uniform flow, the parameters
change from point to point along the flow.
 Open-channel flow: is classified as flow with the free surface
(e.g., the flow in river, canal, etc.).
◦ Gravity alone is the driving force, e.g., the water flows down a hill.

 Pipe flow: Flow without the free surface, the pipe is completely
filled with fluid.
◦ Gravity may be important (the pipe need not be horizontal), but the
main driving force is likely to be a pressure gradient along the pipe.
If the pipe is not full, it is not possible to maintain this pressure
difference, p1 − p2.
 Laminar flow: The highly ordered
fluid motion characterized by
smooth layers of fluid is called
laminar.
 Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high velocities
and is characterized by velocity
fluctuations is called turbulent.
 Transitional flow: A flow that
alternates between being laminar
and turbulent is called transitional.
 Incompressible flow: A flow is classified as incompressible if the
density remains nearly constant throughout.
◦ Liquid flows are typically incompressible (e.g. water flow, oil flow, etc.).
 Compressible flow: A flow is classified as compressible if the
density is not constant throughout.
◦ Gas flows are often compressible, especially for high speeds (e.g. air
flow).
 Mach number: Ma = V/c (Speed of flow/Speed of sound) is a good
indicator of whether or not compressibility effects are important.
◦ Ma < 0.3: Incompressible
◦ Ma < 1: Subsonic
◦ Ma = 1: Sonic
◦ Ma > 1: Supersonic
◦ Ma >> 1: Hypersonic
 Rotational flow: Fluid particle, while flowing along a streamlines,
rotates about it own instantaneous axis.
 Irrotational flow: Fluid particle, while flowing along a streamlines,
does not rotate about it own axis.
2.2. Hydraulic quantities
 Cross-sectional flow area A (m2).
 Wetted perimeter: is the perimeter in contact with the fluid (i.e., the
length of the perimeter of the cross section in contact with the fluid) 𝜒
(m).
Flow rate: The amount of Volume (or Mass) flowing through a cross
section per unit time.
𝑑𝑉
Volume flow rate: 𝑑𝑄 = = 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝐴 ⇒ 𝑄 = ‫𝐴𝑑 𝑛𝑢 𝐴׬‬ (m3/s)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝜌𝑑𝑉
Mass flow rate: 𝑑𝑄𝑚 = = = 𝜌𝑑𝑄 (kg/s)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or 𝑑𝐺 = 𝛾𝑑𝑄 ⇒ 𝐺 = ‫𝐴𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝛾 𝐴׬‬ (N/s)

We define the average velocity uavg (or 𝑢ത ) as the

average value of un across the entire cross section of
the pipe

𝑄 = ‫𝐴 𝑔𝑣𝑎𝑢 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑛𝑢 𝐴׬‬
𝑄
𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝐴
 A mathematical concept commonly associated with vortex
motion is that of circulation. The circulation, Γ, is defined as the
line integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken
around a closed curve in the flow field.
𝛤 = ‫𝑺𝑑 ∙ 𝑠𝒖 𝑆ׯ‬

♦ Positive Г represents a counter-clockwise vortex, while

negative Г represents a clockwise vortex.
♦ Physical meaning of above equation: Γ is similar to the
calculating expression of the work of force F in
mechanics. The circulation, Γ, is as the work of velocity
u performed on the transitional distance S.
♦ Volume flow rate in this case: 𝑄 = ‫𝑺𝑑 ∙ 𝑛𝑢 𝑆ׯ‬
2.3. Streamlines and stream tubes

 A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous

local velocity vector.

Consider an arc length

dr = dxi + dyj + dzk

dr must be parallel to the local
velocity vector

𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑢𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑢𝑧 𝑘
Geometric arguments results in the
equation for a streamline
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 U1
= = (3.1) U2
𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑧
U3
Un
Ui U..
.
Note: distinction between the streamline and the pathline
■ The streamlines indicate the direction of the fluid motions
at each point.

■ The pathline is a curve mapping the trajectory of a fluid

particle as it travels through a flow over a period of time.
■ In a steady flow, streamlines are constant in time and fluid
particles move along streamlines; so pathlines and
streamlines coincide. In a non-steady flow, the streamlines
change with time and fluid particles do not move along
streamlines. Contrast with pathline.
 A streamtube is a tubular surface formed by streamlines along which the fluid
flows.
 Fluid flow inside streamtube is an elementary fluid flow.
 Fluid within a streamtube must remain there and cannot cross the boundary
of the streamtube.
 Both streamlines and streamtubes are instantaneous quantities, defined at a
particular instant in time according to the velocity field at that instant.
2.4. Stream function and velocity potential
2.4.1 Stream function
 The stream function is function of space and time such that its derivative with
respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity component at right angles to
this direction.
 Consider the simple case of steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow in
the xy-plane:
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 ⟷ 𝑢𝑥 = ; 𝑢𝑦 = − (3.2)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
 Substituting Eq. 3.2 into Eq. 3.1( = ) gives
𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝜕𝜓 − 𝜕𝜓 = 0 ⟷ 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥 +
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⟷ 𝑑𝜓 = 0 ⟷ 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
− 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜓 is constant along the streamline.
 Curves of constant 𝜓 are
streamlines of the flow.
2.4.2. The velocity potential
 For an irrotational flow, the velocity potential is a scalar function of
space and time such that its derivative with respect to any direction
gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
𝜕𝛷 𝜕𝛷 𝜕𝛷
𝛷 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 ⟷ 𝑢𝑥 = ; 𝑢𝑦 = ; 𝑢𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

 Consider the simple case of steady, two-dimensional flow in the xy-

plane.
 Equipotential line is one along which velocity potential is constant
𝑑𝛷 = 0
𝜕𝛷 𝜕𝛷
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⟷ 𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
⟷ =− 𝑥 is slope of Equipotential line.
𝜕𝑥 𝑢𝑦
2.4.3. Cauchy-Riemann equations
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
 Stream function 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 ⟷ 𝑢𝑥 = ; 𝑢𝑦 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝛷 𝜕𝛷
 Velocity potential 𝛷 𝑥, 𝑦 ⟷ 𝑢𝑥 = ; 𝑢𝑦 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝛷 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝛷
⇒ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Equipotential lines are perpendicular to streamlines.
 2.4.4. Physical Meanings of Stream functions and Velocity
Potential

■ Consider the simple case of

steady, incompressible, two-
dimensional flow in the xy-
plane.
♦ Volume flow rate:
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝜓𝐵 − 𝜓𝐴
♦ The circulation:
𝛤𝐴𝐵 = 𝛷𝐵 − 𝛷𝐴
2.5. Vortex
A vortex represents a flow in which the streamlines are concentric circles

Angular velocity (rate of rotation)

1 1 𝜕𝑢𝑧 𝜕𝑢𝑦
Ω𝑥 = rot 𝑥 u = −
2 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 1 1 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑧 (3.3)
Ω = rotu Ω𝑦 = rot 𝑦 u = −
2 2 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

Ω= 1 1 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑥
2 Ω𝑧 = rot 𝑧 u = −
2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Vorticity  is equal to twice the angular velocity of a fluid particle

If the angular velocity or vorticity at a point

in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle
that happens to occupy that point in space
is rotating; the flow in that region is called
rotational.
A vortex tube is a tubular surface formed by vortex lines
along which the fluid flows.

* Irrotational flow (potential flow)

rotu=0

uz u y
− =0
y z
ux uz
− =0
z x
u y ux
− =0
x y
+ Vortex intensity :

i =  rot n udω
ω

+ Vortex equation:

dx dy dz
= =
Ωx Ω y Ωz
3. The Continuity equation
3.1 General form
dm
Conservation of mass =0
dt
The mass of the system
remains constant during a
process
Rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving + Rate of mass increase

Applying the Law of Conservation of

Mass to a control volume, we see
d ( V )
=0 (3.4)
dt
V = dxdydz
 = (x,y,z,t)
From Eq 3.4 we have:

1 d 1 dV
+ = 0 (3.5)
 dt V dt

Considering x direction:

Velocity at control surface 1: ux

u x
Velocity at control surface 2 : u x + dx
x
The amount of flow volume entering through control surface 1
per unit time is uxdydzdt
The amount of flow volume leaving through control surface 2
𝜕𝑢𝑥
per unit time is (ux+ ⅆ𝑥)dydzdt
𝜕𝑥
Increasing volume in x direction can
be calculated:
ux ux
(u x + dx)dydzdt − u x dydzdt = dxdydzdt
x x

Increasing volume in x,y, z direction can be calculated:

ux u y uz
d V = ( + + )dxdydzdt (3.6)
x y z
V
Substitute eq 3.6 to eq 3.5, we have:

1 ⅆ𝜌 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑧 1 d

+ + + =0 (or) + divu = 0 (3.7)
𝜌 ⅆt 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧  dt
(The continuity equation)
3.2. For fluid within pipe flow
In steady flow, the mass flow per unit time
passing through each section does not
change, even if the pipe diameter changes.
This is the law of conservation of mass A: cross-sectional area
v: mean velocity (Uavg)
1v1A1 = 2v2A2
 : density
Or vA = const
If the fluid is incompressible, e.g. water, with  being effectively constant,
then
vA = Q = const (3.8)
vA is called the volume flow rate (Q).
• Volume flow rate is constant for an incompressible pipe flow
• The flow velocity is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area
of the pipe
Summary

 Lagrangian and Eulerian method

 Type of flow
 Flow quantities
 Streamlines
 Vortex
 Stream functions and velocity potential
 The continuity equation