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Lecture 3

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2 views

Lecture 3

Uploaded by

Mashi Shehe
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Microwave propagation

ETT 06202 Microwave Technology


The electromagnetic field
• Radio signals are electromagnetic (EM) waves exactly like
light, infrared, and ultra-violet, except for frequency.
• The EM wave consists of two mutually perpendicular
oscillating fields traveling together. One field is an electric
field, while the other is a magnetic field.
• The polarization of an EM wave is, by definition, the
direction of the electric field.
Definitions
• Reflection:
— when an electromagnetic wave falls on an object with
dimension very large compared to the wave’s
wavelength
• Scattering:
— when obstructed by objects with dimensions in the
order of the wavelength
• Diffraction (or shadowing):
— when the wave falls on an impenetrable object
— in which case, the secondary waves are formed
behind the obstructing body

tseng:3
Propagation phenomena
Multipath Propagation
Propagation Modes
• Ground-wave propagation
• Sky-wave propagation
• Line-of-sight propagation

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Propagation methods

7.7
Propagation methods
propagation
• The free-space path is the line-of-sight path
directly between the transmit and receive
antennas (this is also called the direct wave).
• The ground-reflected wave is the portion of the
transmit signal that is reflected off Earth’s
surface and captured by the receive antenna.
• The surface wave consists of the electric
and magnetic fields associated with the currents
induced in Earth’s surface.
Propagation methods
• The troposphere is the region of Earth's atmosphere between the
surface and the stratosphere, or about 4 to 7 miles above the surface.
Thus, all forms of ground wave propagate in the troposphere. But
because certain propagation phenomena caused mostly by weather
conditions only occur at higher altitudes, we need to consider
tropospheric propagation as different from other forms of ground
wave.
• The ionosphere is the region of Earth's atmosphere that is above the
stratos- phere and is located 30 to 300 miles above the surface. The
peculiar feature of the ionosphere is that molecules of air gas (02 and
N) can be ionized by stripping away electrons under the influence of
solar radiation and certain other sources of energy.
Ground Wave Propagation
• Follows contour of the earth
• Can propagate considerable distances
• Frequencies up to 2 MHz
• Example
— AM radio

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Sky Wave Propagation
• Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back
down to earth
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earth’s surface
• Reflection effect caused by refraction
• Examples
— Amateur radio
— CB radio

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Line-of-Sight Propagation
• Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line
of sight
• Refraction
— Bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
— Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
— When wave changes medium, speed changes
— Wave bends at the boundary between mediums

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Line of Sight Fresnel Zone Clearance
• Fresnel Zone Clearance is the minimum clearance over obstacles that
the signal needs to be sent over. Reflection or path bending will occur if
the clearance is not sufficient.

Portable antennas, transmitters,


and receivers are used to test the
location to determine the
optimum antenna heights.
LOS & FZC-cont’d

Fresnel Zone

D2

D1

D1 X D2

72.2 FxD

secret formula
LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments

• Attenuation and attenuation distortion


• Free space loss
• Atmospheric absorption
• Multipath (diffraction, reflection, refraction…)
• Noise
• Thermal noise

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Attenuation
• Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
• Attenuation factors for unguided media:
— Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
— Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
— Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion (attenuation distortion)

17
Free Space Path Loss
• Free space path loss, ideal isotropic antenna

– Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna


– Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
– λ = carrier wavelength
– d = propagation distance between antennas
– c = speed of light (≈ 3 × 10 8 m/s)
where d and λ are in the same units (e.g., meters)

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Free Space Path Loss in dB
• Free space path loss equation can be recast
(decibel version):

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Multipath Propagation
Multi-path Propagation

• Signal can take many different paths between sender


and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time


— interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase
shifted
— distorted signal depending on the phases of the different
parts
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Atmospheric Absorption
• Water vapor and oxygen contribute most
• Water vapor: peak attenuation near 22GHz, low
below 15Ghz
• Oxygen: absorption peak near 60GHz, lower
below 30 GHz.
• Rain and fog may scatter (thus attenuate) radio
waves.
• Low frequency band usage helps.

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Effects of Mobility
• Channel characteristics change over time and location
— signal paths change
— different delay variations of different signal parts
— different phases of signal parts
— 🡺 quick changes in the power received (short term
fading)
power long term
fading

• Additional changes in
— distance to sender
— obstacles further away
— 🡺 slow changes in the average short term fading t

power received (long term fading)

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Fading Channels
• Fading: Time variation of received signal power
• Mobility makes the problem of modeling fading
difficult
• Multipath propagation is a key reason
• Most challenging technical problem for mobile
communications

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Types of Fading

• Short term (fast) fading


• Long term (slow) fading
• Flat fading – across all frequencies
• Selective fading – only in some frequencies
• Rayleigh fading – no LOS path, many other
paths
• Rician fading – LOS path plus many other paths

Fading is a general term applied to the reduction in


signal strength at the input to a receiver.
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Dealing with Fading Channels

• Error correction
• Adaptive equalization
— attempts to increase signal power as needed
— can be done with analog circuits or DSP (digital
signal processor)

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