FPU 221 – STRUCTURE AND IDENTIFICATION OF WOOD

2ND Term SY 2024-2025

Chapter 4. Macroscopic structure of wood valuable in wood identification

Physical Properties Valuable in Wood Identification

1. Color – Color in wood is usually due to extractives. It should be understood that when color of
wood is used, this is usually referred to as the heartwood unless specified to be sapwood.

Color and Figure – color and figure gives aesthetic value for furniture, paneling, flooring and
many other uses.

Philippine woods have varying colors, ranging from whitish or straw color to black and
combinations of colors. For purpose of convenience, the color of the Philippine woods is divided
into two: light and dark.

Light – Apitong, Bagtikan, Batikuling, Kalunti, Manggasinoro, Molave, Palosapis

Kalamansanai, White lauan, etc.

Dark
Reddish brown: Amugis, Apitong, Banaba, Bansalagin, Betis, Guijo, Kamatog,
Kato, Kakaasim, Maranggo, Narek, Nato, Sudiang, Toog, Tukang-kalau
Yellowish brown: Aranga, Narig, Yakal-guisok.
Golden yellow to dark yellowish brown: Banuyo
Dark brown: Akle, Batete, Dangula, Dungon, Mangkono, Pahutan,
Yakal-saplungan, ipil with age.
Light grey to dark grey: Batitinan
Light reddish yellow: Binggas
Light reddish brown: Bitanghol, Bitaog,
Black with streaks of color on sapwood: Bolong-eta
Greenish or light brown with dark brown bands: Dao
Dark reddish brown: Kalantas
Dark grayish to reddish brown: Kalumpit
Black with brownish streaks: Kamagong
Reddish to brick red: Katmon

Table 1. Sample color of Philippine woods

ACACIA/RAINTREE. Mainly used for wood carving gift items
and furniture, wood turning bowls and gift items.

Yakal. Very durable, used commercially for railroad ties, deck

posts and other posts

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 Bitanghol (Callophylum blancoi) – an excellent species for
veneer and plywood and general joinery.

Mollucan sau/Falcata (Albizia) is a very fast grown Philippine

plantation species which is mainly used for plywood core, and
exported in quite big quantity for ply-board and packaging
materials
Gmelina is one of the most widespread plantation species in the
Philippines. It is mainly used for indoor furniture and for doors.

Kamagong is an endangered Philippine Ebony type, and apart

from few exceptions it is banned.

Apitong. This heavy hardwood is mainly used for truck-flooring,

and outdoor furniture. Contains natural oils which can sometimes
bleed when used outdoors.
Mahogany (Swietenia Macrophylla) is mainly used for indoor
furniture.

Ipil. It is a hard species, well suited for flooring and decking, and
also popular for joinery and table tops.

Molave was earlier a traditional Philippine flooring and furniture

species, but it is an endangered species.

Narra is called Rosewood. An endangered species,

Philippine Rosewood (Toog) is a natural species which is

currently no longer being harvested. It has used for decking,
flooring, furniture, and gift items.
Benguet Pine. Used for furniture and general construction

2. Figure – This term is used to describe the natural design or pattern on wood surface. It is
important in furniture and plywood manufacture.

Figure is restricted to the highly decorative patterns resulting mainly from the appearance
of the growth increment, irregularities in the orientation of cells, and uneven color distribution.

I. Growth increment and figure in Wood:

a. Figure in Plain or flatsawn lumber – Consists of nested, angular, parabolic or

irregular concentric patterns, formed by textural differences in successive growth
increment.

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 b. Figure on quartersawn lumber. Consist of parallel stripes caused by the difference in
texture between early and latewood of the successive increment or inconspicuous
patterns of rays.

In rotary veneer cutting, it produces concentric zones of growth increment similar to

flatsawn lumber.

Growth rings appear as concentric circles on transverse surfaces, as parallel bands on radial surfaces,
and as hyperbola branches, or flames, on longitudinal tangential surfaces

II. Figures Caused by Tissue Orientation in Wood

a. Interlocked grain – produces a ribbon or stripped figure and interchanging color.
b. Wavy and twisted grain. Curly appearance of fiber orientation, and broken stripes.
c. Figure due to color/Pigment figure – patches of color different from the background.

Dao – irregular concentric dark brown or nearly dark bands on grayish or light brown
background.
Kamagong – Streaks of reddish brown on black background.

3. Luster – It is the property of wood that enables it to reflect light. (expressed either lustrous or
dull)
Tindalo & Lumbayao – Lustrous
Apitong and Toog – Non-lustrous, dull
Tectona grandis, contains oily compounds which give a greasy feel to wood surfaces

4. Odor – This property is the result of the infiltration products in wood since the basic cell wall
materials are tasteless and odorless. The presence of volatile heartwood extractives determines
odor. Odor could be Present and pleasant (sweet, spicy, floral) or present and unpleasant (sour,
bitter, fetid).

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 Odor of Some Philippine Woods
Dungon – smells like old leather
Tindalo – like fresh beans
Malatae (Celtis cinamonea) – emits unpleasant odor
Sawdust of Akle & Malugai – irritating to the nasal mucous membrane – peppery.
In some cases, cause severe headache.
Apitong – resinous smell
Kalantas – cedary odor
Kayatau – aromatic odor
Makaasim – Acid odor when freshly cut
Malakadios – Like vinegar when fresh but faintly fragrant when dry.

5. Taste – due to volatile deposits

Batino – Bitter taste
Pagatpat – salty
Narek/Yakal saplungan – slight bitter

6. Grain and Texture

Texture is used to describe size, quality, quantity, abundance, and distribution of wood
elements including width of growth rings. The diameter of vessels and tracheids determines
wood texture in hardwoods and softwoods, respectively.
Texture also means the relative size and proportion of wood elements as seen by the
unaided eye or with a hand lens. Coarse textured wood have large diameter cells as in fast
growing species.
a. Very fine texture – Extremely fine wood elements only seen with a hand lens.
(Bolong-eta, Mangkono)
b. Fine texture – Wood texture are fine and hardly seen by unaided eye. (Akle,
Banaba, Dao, Supa, Molave, Kamagong, Dangula, Narra, Nato, Guijo, Yakal-guisok,
etc.).
c. Moderately coarse/medium – Wood elements are medium size and can easily be seen
with the unaided eye. (Almon, Bagtikan, Dungon, Ipil, Kalantas, Toog, White lauan,
Mayapis, etc.)
d. Coarse Texture – When many of the vessels and other wood elements are large and
are easily visible with the unaided eye. (Apitong, Katmon, Kato, Lumbayao,
Manggis, Red lauan, Benguet pine).

Fine (A), Medium/Moderate (B) and coarse (C) texture

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 Grain – It denotes arrangement and direction of alignment of wood elements when
considered in mass. It also refers to the longitudinal alignment or pattern of axial wood cells
compared to the longitudinal axis. A straight-grained wood is one in which the longitudinal cells
are aligned parallel to the axis of the log or timber and is the most common case. Grain of
Philippine woods is of 3 types:
a. Straight – The wood fibers and other elements are more or less parallel to the vertical
axis of the tree and approximately straight within a normal piece of wood from such a
tree. (Banaba, Betis, Dangula, Kamagong, Pahutan, Balakat, Katmon, Malugai, Nato,
Narig, Batitinan, Aranga, etc.).
b. Interlocked – The fibers of this type of grain are in successive layers and oriented in
opposite directions.
- It does not necessarily reduce the strength of the wood except in a piece of small
cross section.
- It has the tendency to twist severely during drying.
- When planed on quarter surface, it produces a shaggy finish but gives rise to a
beautiful ribbon figure. (Akle, Almon, Apitong, Bagtikan, Binggas, Dao,
Dungon, Kalantas, Narra, Tanguile, Molave, Ipil, Guijo, Mayapis, etc.).

c. Wavy or curly grain. The fibers of this grain are constantly changing in orientation, so
that a line drawn following their direction appears as wavy line on a longitudinal surface.
- presents a corrugated surface when split.
- occur with interlocked grain. (Akle, Apitong, Balakat, Banuyo, Bansalagin, Dao,
Batitinan, Kamagong, etc.).
Diagonal, cross, wavy, or curly, spiral grain are some descriptions used by some authors.

7. Weight and Hardness

Weight – Expressed in density or specific gravity. The higher the density or specific gravity, the
greater the weight per unit volume. Weight may be used to identify wood but this varies within
species due to the amount of starch or other infiltration products of wood.
Weight Description Specific Gravity
Very light ` Less than 0.24
Light 0.25 – 0.36
Moderately light 0.37 – 0.43
Moderately heavy 0.44 – 0.50
Heavy 0.51 – 0.75
Very heavy 0.76 – 1.0
Extremely heavy Above 1.0

Grouping of Philippine Woods according to Relative Density:

Description Relative Density
High 0.701 and above
Moderately high 0.601 to 0.700
Medium 0.501 to 0.600
Moderately low 0.401 to 0.500
Low 0.400 and below

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 Mangkono (Xanthostemon verdugonianus) – 1.043 Heaviest
Sasalit/Dangula (Teijsmaniodenron ahernianum) 0.908
Malabayabas (Tristania decorticata) – 0.910
Anuling (Pisonia umbelifera) – 0.214
Tangisang – bayauak (Ficus variegata) – 0.243
Ilang-ilang – 0.291
Balsa – 0.295 Gubas – 0.300
Kapok – 0.226 Moluccan sau – 0.250

Weight and Hardness – determined at identical conditions of MC, location in wood. The
lightest wood is Balsa (Ochroma spp.) which weighs 5-50 lb/cu.ft. The heaviest wood is Lignum
vitae (Guaiacum officinale) with about 75-80 lb/cu.ft.

Hardness – It is the property of wood to resist cuttings, abrasion or indentation. It is

directly related to density. It is simply judge by pressing a thumb nail and is closely related to
weight-heavier wood are harder. However, the effect of moisture is opposite; with increasing
moisture content, hardness decreases. Hardness is also different on transverse, radial and
tangential directions.
- When wood is easily indented, it is soft. When not readily indented – Fairly
hard. When scarcely indented –Hard

Very hard to cut – (Dangula, Ipil, Kato, Malabayabas, Mangkono, Molave, Narek, Yakal-
saplungan & Guisok, etc.)
Hard to cut – Banayo, Guijo, Narra, Tindalo, Dao, Sudiang, Manggis, Bitaog, Lamog,
Banaba, Malugai, etc.
Moderately hard to cut – Almon, Apitong, Kalunti, Katmon, Lanipau, Narra, Pahutan,
Palosapis, Tangile, Toog, Supa, etc.
Soft to cut – Batikuling, Kalantas, etc.

8. Test of Wood:
A. Ash or splinter test – This involves burning a splinter of the heartwood of a match stick size in
still air and observing the presence or color of the residue.
a. Partial ash – burns to ash but the residue drift during the process of burning. Mayapis,
Almon
b. Complete or full ash – specimen burn to ash and more or less retains the shape of the
original matter. (Tangile) White lauan burns to complete ash with white or brownish
threads.
c. Charcoal – Wood burns slowly with difficulty, leaving a charred remnant with fine
threads of black or blackish ash. (Red lauan, Tiaong)
B. Frothing test – Useful in pinpointing certain family. It is done by placing wood chips or
shavings in a test tube. The tube is shaken several times and allowed to stand still until the air
bubbles disappear. After 30 minutes, the test tube is again shaken and let stand for about 5
minutes and after which the thickness of froth is measured.

a. Negative – if no increase
b. Positive – if the froth increase, stating the amount of increase.

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 Chapter 5. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF HARDWOODS

Anatomical Features that Distinguish Hardwoods from Softwoods:

a. Hardwoods contain vessel elements, called pores in the cross section. No vessels in
softwoods only tracheids.
b. Hardwoods are more complex in structure than softwoods because more cell types
(elements) enter their composition.
c. The rays of hardwoods are more variable in width (one or more cell wide) than those
in conifers (mostly uniserate).

-Softwood rays in radial section are aligned in straight radial rays parallel to each
other.
-Hardwood rays seldom have straight row rays, usually distorted by large vessel
elements.

Summary of Elements of Porous Wood

Longitudinal ` Transverse
A. Prosenchymatous A. Prosenchymatous
1. Vessel elements 1. None
2. Tracheids
a. Vasicentric
b. Vascular
3. Fibers
a. Fiber tracheids
b. Libriform fibers

B. Parenchymatous B. Parenchymatous
1. Cells of Axial (strands) 1. Cells of ray parenchyma
parenchyma
2. Fusiform parenchyma cells a. Procumbent cells
3. Epithelial cells, (Circling the cavities homocellular rays
of longitudinal gum canals) b. Upright cells,
homocellular rays
2. Epithelial cells,
(Circling the cavities of transverse
gum canals)

DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES:

I. VESSELS (PORES)

A vessel is an axial series of cells that have coalesced to form an articulated tube like
structure of indeterminate length; the pits to congeneric elements are bordered. Pore is a term of
convenience for the cross section of a vessel or vascular tracheid. The cellular components of a
vessel are known as vessel elements, vessel member or vessel segments. Variation in these is one

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of the most important criteria for describing woods. The following features serve to describe
vessels (Pores).

A. Abundance (No./mm.) Examines in cross section (X). Counts of pores should be made from
10 or more fields. The range, most frequent range, ant the average should be determined and
expressed according to the classification for the number of pores per sq. mm. as follows:

Class Average no. of pores/sq.mm.

Very few Up to 2
Few 3 to 5
Moderately few 5 to 10
Moderately numerous 11 to 20
Numerous 21 to 40
Very numerous over 40

B. Pore Distribution (X) – Pores are arranged or grouped in various ways as follows.

1. Solitary – A single pore completely surrounded by other elements

2. Pore multiple – A group of two or more pores, crowded together and flattened
along the lines of contact so as to appear a subdivisions of a single pore. The
most common type is the radial pore multiple in which pores are in radial
files with flattened tangential walls between them. The pore cluster, grouping
of pores is irregular.
3. Pore chain – A radial series or line of adjacent solitary pores. Note: This type
differs from the radial pore multiple in that there is no tangential flattening of
adjacent pores.
Pore Cluster: A group of pores occurring together in a nested arrangement.

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 Radial multiple: Two to several pores found together in a linear arrangement.

Chain multiple: Similar to radial multiple except a greater number of pores.

C. Topography of Wood – (X) – Hardwoods can be divided into the following groups on the
basis of pore size and distribution.

1. Diffuse-porous – Vessels have more or less the same diameter and density through
earlywood and latewood (white lauan).
2. Ring- porous – Wood in which the pores, formed at the beginning of the growth period
are much larger, more numerous or larger and more numerous than those farther out in
the ring (Banaba). In other words, a wood is ring-porous if earlywood vessels are
distinctly larger than those in the latewood of the previous and same growth ring, and
form a well-defined zone or ring, clearly discernible to the naked eye by its coarser
texture.
3. Semi ring-porous - Wood which is intermediate between the diffuse porous and ring
porous. Earlywood vessels’ diameter gradually narrows from earlywood to latewood.

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 (A) ring-porous, one row only of earlywood vessels, (B) ring-porous, more than one row of earlywood
vessels, (C) semi-ring porous, vessels’ diameter gradually narrows from earlywood to latewood; (D) semi-
ring porous, vessels are of the same diameter as latewood ones but much more closely spaced (Prunus
avium); (E) diffuse porous, vessels are small (Acer rubrum); (F) diffuse porous, vessels are medium
(Astronium graveolens).

D. Shape – (X) – Pores vary in shape and may be angular or rounded in appearance.

E. Diameter – (X) – Pore diameter

Class Subclass Av. Tangential dia.

In Microns
Extremely small up to 25
Small Very small 25 to 50
Moderately small 10 to 100
Medium sized 100 to 200
Moderately large 200 to 300
Large Very large 300 to 400
Extremely large over 400

F. Tylosis (pl. Tyloses) – (X – section & longitudinal section)

Tyloses are outgrowth of the cytoplast of ray or axial parenchyma cells which penetrate through
the pits of adjacent vessel elements and expand into these cells. Tyloses maybe small and
restricted in size, or they may swell to occlude the vessel lumen; they may be thin walled, or
thick walled and sclerotic; pitted or unpitted. A tylosoid is a swelling or proliferation of an

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 epithelial cell into an intercellular canal or cavity. Tylosoid may occlude intercellular spaces.
Note: these differ from tyloses in that they do not pass through pits.

Tyloses in the vessels

Gums in the vessels

G. Vessels’ Arrangement and Grouping

The arrangement of vessels usually does not impact wood figure, except when they are in wavy
tangential bands, which can determine a characteristic jagged pattern on longitudinal tangential surfaces
Other vessels’ arrangements include radial, diagonal, and dendritic patterns. The presence of specific
patterns in vessels’ arrangement is not very common, and thus not useful. More than one arrangement
can be present in the same species.
Vessels’ Arrangement
a). Tangential bands
b.) Radial pattern
c.) Diagonal pattern (echelon)
d) Dendritic pattern (flame-like)

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 Figure._5_. Vessels’ arrangement (all transverse sections except (E)). (A) tangential bands (latewood
vessels only) (Ulmus glabra); (B) radial pattern (Ilex aquifolium); (C) diagonal pattern (Eucalyptus
deglupta); (D) dendritic pattern (Bulnesia sarmientoi); (E) jagged pattern on longitudinal tangential surface
determined by wavy tangential bands of latewood vessels (Ulmus glabra).

Vessels’ groupings do not contribute to determining wood figure, but are useful in identification.
They can be observed on the transverse surface with the aid of a loupe and can be: exclusively solitary
(90% or more), in radial multiples of four or more, in clusters, and, most commonly, solitary and in radial
multiples of 2 to 3. Vessels’ grouping can be difficult to be accurately evaluated when vessels are small.

Vessels’ Groupings
a) In radial multiples of 2–3 vessels. E.g Dalbergia spp., Hevea brasiliensis
b) Exclusively solitary (90% or more). Eucalyptus camaldulensis
c) Radial multiples of 4 or more common
d) Clusters common

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 Figure___. Vessels’ groupings (transverse sections). (A) in radial multiples of 2–3 vessels
(Hevea brasiliensis); (B) exclusively solitary (Quercus ilex); (C) radial multiples of 4 or more common
(Dyera costulata); (D) clusters common (Celtis occidentalis).
H. Perforation plates (L) – It is that portion of the wall, involved in the coalescence of two
elements of a vessel, which bears the perforation through which the vessel elements are
interconnected. Perforation plates show no advantage in radial sections that are fairly thick,
sometimes 25 microns or more. The following types of perforation plates may be characterized:

1. Simple – The perforated end walls in a vessel element consisting of but one, usually of
large and more or less rounded opening (Vidal lanutan, tangile).
2. Multiple – The perforated end wall in a vessel element consisting of two or more
opening is called multiple perforation.

a. Scalariform – A plate bearing multiple perforations that are elongated and parallel.
In the formation of scalariform plates, the remnants of the cell wall that are left
between the perforations are called bars. The number and width of bars vary
considerably and are of diagnostic significance (bagnon, katmon, bayani).

i. Average no. of bars – Maybe roughly classified as follows:

a) Few (5 bars or less)
b) Intermediate (5 to 15 bars)

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 c) Many (over 15 bars)
ii. Width of perforations – The range and most frequent range should be
determined and reported.
b) Reticulate – A perforation plate with many openings presenting a net like appearance.
This type is often produced by the more or less profuse branching of the bars in a scalariform
perforation plate, and the t6wo types often occur together in the same wood. If the openings are
small, circular or polygonal, the plate can be described as foraminate (Pingkapingkahan)
c) Ephedroid – The ephedroid perforation plate is a special type found in Ephedra, and is
characterized by a small groups of rather large circular openings.
d) Foraminate - A perforation plate with many circular openings or different sizes.

I. End Wall. The end walls of a vessel elements are the contiguous areas of superposed vessel
elements.

J. Intervascular pittings. This refers to the pits in the walls of adjacent vessel elements; the
term is sometimes applied to pittings between any tracheary cells (parenchyma) in wood. Pit pair
between vessel elements and between vessel elements and prosenchymatous cell are usually
bordered. When they lead to parenchymatous elements, pits may be bordered, simple or half
bordered. Intervascular pits appear to best advantage on the tangential faces of vessel elements.

1. Arrangement
a) Scalariform – Pittings in which elongated or linear pits are arranged in a ladder-like
series (Sandit).
b) Transitional – Pittings intermediate between scalariform and opposite which possesses
some characteristics of each.
c) Opposite – Multiseriate pitting in which the pits are in horizontal series, pits in each
series being above and below pits in adjacent series. Crowding here may cause
individual pits to be rectangular.

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 d) Alternate – Multiseriate pittings in which the pits are in diagonal rows. Pits are circular
or oval if they are uncrowded; if crowded, they are polygonal and frequently
hexagonal (Hinlaumo, Euphorbiaceae).

2. Average size of pits (in microns)

a) Very small to minute (up to 4)
b) Small (4 to 7)
c) Medium sized (8 – 10)
d) Large (11 – 15)
e) Very large (over 15)

K. Length of vessel elements. (from tip to tip)

Class Subclass Av. Length in Microns

Extremely short less than 175
Short Very short 175 to 250
Moderately short 250 to 350
Medium-sized 350 to 800
Moderately long 800 to 1100
Long Very long 1100 to 1900
Extremely long over 1900

L. Inclusions in Vessel Elements:

a) Tyloses - Eucalyptus spp.,
b) Gummy materials - Intsia spp., Pterocarpus spp.,
c) Chalky deposits – as in Teak

II. VASCULAR RAYS (Ray Parenchyma)

Vascular rays are ribbon-like aggregates of cells, formed by the vascular cambium (ray
initial), which extend radially in the xylem and phloem. In hardwoods, vascular rays are entirely
parenchymatous and carry on vital functions in the sapwood.

A. Abundance (X or T) – By counting the rays along a 1 mm line at right angles to the axis
of the wood preferably on the tangential section in 10 microscopic fields.
Class Average no. of rays
Very few Up to 2
Few 3 to 4
Moderately numerous 5 to 7
Numerous 8 to 10
Very numerous over 10
B. Type (L) -
a. Homocellular ray – a xylem ray composed of cells of the same morphological type, e.
g. all procumbent or all upright (Narra, kupang)

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 b. Heterocellular ray – a xylem ray composed of cells of different morphological type; e.
g., procumbent cells and upright cells (Kaatoan bangkal, baniti, bayok-bayolan).

Note: A procumbent cell is oriented with its main axis perpendicular to the axis (grain) or
prosenchymatous elements when viewed in radial section. An upright ray cell is oriented
with its main axis parallel to the axis (grain) of prosenchymatous elements when viewed
in radial section.

Uniseriate heterocellular; Multiseriate homocellular

(upright cells shown by red arrow) (Procumbent cells shown by blue arrow)

C. Uniseriate part of a multiseriate ray as wide as biseriate or triseriate portions. This unique
condition can be observed in some species of the Sapotaceae and Rubiaceae. In tangential
section, the uniseriate margins of rays or uniseriate parts separating superposed multiseriate
parts, are of almost the same width as these multiseriate parts.

Uniseriate and multiseriate rays

D. Width (T) – Ray width may be expressed either in numbers of cells or in actual
dimensions. When two or more definite size classes are present, separate measurement should be
taken.
Standard terms for the classification of ray width are:
Class Subclass Av. Tangential dia. in Microns
Extremely fine Up to 15
Fine Very fine 15 – 25
Moderately fine 25 – 50
Medium sized 50 – 100
Moderately broad 100 – 200
Broad Very broad 200 – 400
Extremely broad over 400

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E. Height (T). Either expressed in terms of number of cells or in terms of height in mm.

F. Ray-vessel pittings (R) -

a. Fine – pits are not more than 7 microns in dia.
b. Medium – 7 to 10 microns
c. Coarse – more than 10 microns

G. Perforated ray cells – (T) – Occur when a vessel passes tangentially through a vascular
ray. (Passifloraceae).

H. Sheath cells – (T) – Series of upright cells on the margins of the procumbent cells of
multiseriate rays which tends to form a sheath around them (ex. Afu).

I. Tile cells – (L) – special types of empty upright cells which may be approximately of the
same height as procumbent ray cells (Durio type) or considerably higher than the procumbent
cells (Pterosperum type). Occur in genera Malvales (Bayok-bayokan).

J. Aggregate rays – (T) – A group of closely placed, small, narrow xylem rays which appear
to the unaided at low magnification as a single large ray.

K. Vertically fused rays (T) – Formed by the union of the margins of two or more rays.

III. AXIAL PARENCHYMA (Longitudinal Parenchyma)

Axial parenchyma consists of axially elongate cells or strands of cells, alive at maturity,
derived from fusiform cambial initials and play roles in storage and transport. Axial parenchyma
cells are usually thinner-walled than the imperforate tracheary elements with which they are
associated.

a. Fusiform parenchyma – when they are of the same length with the parent fusiform
cambial initials (Anonang).
b. Strand parenchyma – when shorter cells (Kupang).
c. Ephithelial parenchyma

A. Abundance (X) – few species lack axial parenchyma. In most species it may be spares or
scanty or abundant.

B. Arrangement of Axial Parenchyma (X)

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 1. APOTHRACHEAL Parenchyma – independent of the vessels. They are completely
surrounded by other wood elements.
a. Marginal – Associated with the edge of a growth ring.
a) Terminal – cells formed either singly or in more or less continuous
layer of variable width at the close of a growth period (supa).
b) Initial – similar to terminal but at the beginning of a growth period.
b. Diffuse – Single apothracheal parenchyma strands or cells which are
distributed irregularly among fibers (Thick leaf narig).
c. Apothracheal banded – axial parenchyma forming concentric lines or
Bands typically independent of the vessels. Bands may be
one or more cells wide. (Malobon, Baniti, Tangisang-
Bayauak).
d. Diffuse-in-aggregates – Parenchyma which tends to be grouped in short
tangential lines from ray to ray. Sometimes called Reticulate
parenchyma when irregularly formed.

2. PARATRACHEAL Parenchyma – Axial parenchyma associated with the vessels or

vascular tracheids.

a. Vasicentric – parenchyma which forms a complete sheath around a vessel, varying in

width, and circular or slightly oval in shape (Akleng-parang).
b. Aliform – paratracheal parenchyma with wing-like lateral extensions (Tindalo).

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 c. Confluent – coalesced aliform parenchyma which forms irregular tangential or
diagonal bands (Tindalo).

d. Paratracheal banded – Axial paratracheal which forms concentric lines or bands that
are associated with pores.
e. Scanty paratracheal – Incomplete sheaths or occasional parenchyma cells around the
vessels (Kurutan, Oleac.)

C. Pitting (bet. xylem parenchyma cells) – Parenchyma cells generally have simple pits; at
times they are bordered or half-bordered.
Inclusions in Parenchyma Cells:
a. Crystals – Calcium Oxalate
b. Silica –
c. Gums, resins, tannins, Oils, Latex, Coloring matters

IV. IMPERFORATE TRACHEARY ELEMENTS

1. Tracheids – Imperforate wood cells with bordered pits to congeneric elements of the
same magnitude as those in vessels of the same wood. In hardwoods, they are short fibrous cells,
and are as long as vessels with which they are associated.

a. Vasicentric tracheids – These are short, irregularly formed tracheids, with

conspicuous bordered pits, in the immediate proximity of vessel elements which do
not form part of a definite axial row. (Tangile, raintree, white lauan).

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 b. Vascular tracheids – Special cells, similar in shape, size, and arrangement to small
vessel elements but differ from them in being imperforate at the ends.

2. Fibers – Elongated cells with pointed ends and thick or not infrequently thin walls. It
includes,
a) Fiber-tracheids - Typically fibrous cells with a) a relatively thick wall, b) tapering
pointed ends, & c) small bordered pits. (Taingang-babui)
b) Libriform wood fibers - Elongated, commonly thick walled cells with simple pits,
usually distinctly longer than the cambial initial as inferred from the length of the vessel
elements and axial parenchyma strands.

Fiber cell wall thickness is describes as follows:

Class Definition
Very thin -------------- Lumen is much greater than wall thickness.
Thin -------------------- Lumen is greater than wall thickness.
Thick ------------------- Lumen is less than wall thickness.
Very thick ------------- Lumen is almost completely closed

Length of fibers is classified as follows:

Class Subclass Average length in mm.
Extremely short less than 0.5
Short Very short 0.5 to 0.7
Moderately short 0.7 to 0.9
Medium sized --------------------------------- 0.9 to 1.6
Moderately long 1.6 to 2.2
Long Very long 2.20 to 3.00
Extremely long over 3.00

V. OTHER FEATURES PRESENT IN HARDWOODS

1. Crystals. Found in axial parenchyma and ray cells, and less frequently in septate fibers and in
tyloses.

Types:
a. Druse – Spherical clusters, either attached to the cell wall by a peg or lying free in the
cells. (Talisai)
b. Raphides – Bundles of long needle-shaped crystals, tending to fill the whole cell.
(Tonoganon)
c. Elongated and Rod-like – Elongated crystals about 4 times as long as broad, with
pointed or square ends; rod-like are similar to the preceding in general shape, but are
only about twice as long as broad and usually have square ends.
d. Acicular – Needle-shaped crystals which are often small. Free in the cells and do not
fill them.
e. Crystal sand – Granular mass of very fine small crystals.

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 f. Rhomboid, Square or Diamond-shaped – These are almost common of all crystal
types. They may occur singly or as 2 or more per cell.

Crystal bearing Families: Alangiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Burseraceae, Combretaceae,

Dipterocarpaceae, Ebenaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Ulmaceae, Verbenaceae, etc.

2. Secretory Structures
Intracellular – secretions remain in producing cells (Latices & Oils).
Extracellular – secretions secreted outside producing cells. (gums and resins)

A. Intercellular secretory spaces

a. Intercellular cavities – sacs or pouches surrounded by a secretory ephithelium.
1. Gum cavity
2. Resin cavity
b. Intercellular canals – elongated surrounded by a secretory ephithelium, axial or
vertical, radial or horizontal in position.
1. Gum canal
a. Normal gum canal – Embedded in the fusiform rays. Genera of
Anacardiaceae & Burseraceae.
b. Traumatic gum canal – inflicted by wounds
b.1 Schizogenous – Results from the separation of cells at the middle lamella.
b.2 Lysigenous canals – formed through actual disintegration (Gummosis) of
cell walls.
b.3 Schizolysigenous – when the cavity first forms through cell fusion and
separation of cells at the middle lamella, followed by the enlargement of the
cavity through gummosis.
Families with Gum canals: a. Anacardiaceae b. Burseraceae c. Apocynaceae

2. Resin canals/ducts – Small opening surrounded with thin walled epithelial cells which
secrete resins. In some species, instead of resin, oils are secreted, thus are called oil ducts.
a. Concentric – When the resin canals are arranged in a straight line that run
across the wood rays parallel to the growth rings. Ex. Supa (oil ducts), shorea,
Hopea, Parashorea
b. Diffuse – when the resin canals are distributed evenly without a definite
pattern along the wood. Ex. Batete (oil duct), Dipterocarpus, Anisoptera,
Vatica,
Species with oil deposits: Supa, Kayugalo, Batete
B. Intracellular secretory structures:
a. Lactifers – structures containing and producing lattices (latexes).
1. Articulated laticiferous tube – chain of cells, perforated, also called
latex vessels.
2. Non articulated laticiferous tube – Single cell, enlarged tubular cells
ramifying throughout the plant axis. Also called latex cell or latex
tube.
b. Secretory cells – This term is applied to cells or nearly normal size, or only
somewhat enlarged, containing oil, resin, or mucilage.

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3. Silica – Is the name ordinarily given to the chemical substance known as silicon dioxide
(SiO2). In wood it is classified as inclusions in the cell lumen or vitreous – deposited as linings
on the cell walls or a complete filling in the lumen of the containing cell.

a. Siliceous timbers are hard to saw and some of them dull the teeth of the saw rapidly.
b. Siliceous woods are resistant to marine borers. A silica content of 0.5 of the oven-dry
weight of wood is sufficient to confer resistance to marine borers.

Woods with silica

Apitong – 1.02% Binggas – 0.80%
Katmon – 0.78% Malaanonang – 0.745
Manggasinoro – 1.0
Other species: Dungon, Dungon late, Anubing, Nato

4. Storied Structure – An arrangement of vascular cambium and its derivatives (Rays) whereby
horizontal series of cells or tissues are produced. This arrangement produces the so- called
RIPPLE MARK in wood which are visible to the unaided eye.

Species with Ripple Marks: Narra, Vidal’s lanutan, Balobo, Mahogany, Binggas,
Batitinan, Dungon, Bayok, Red lauan, Siar, Tinduk-tindukan, etc.

5. Vestured pit (Longitudinal section) – A bordered pit with the pit cavity wholly or partially
lined with projections from the secondary wall.

6. Spiral thickening – (Long. Section) – Helical ridges on the inner face of, and part of, the
secondary wall

7. Disjunctive parenchyma – Axial or radial parenchyma cells partially disjoined during the
process of differentiation; contact is maintained by means of tubular processes

8. Fibriform vessel elements – Fiber- like vessel element, fusiform in shape and with bordered
pits, usually with very small, non-terminal perforations, which occur only in short axial series
and are completely dissociated from the ordinary vessel elements in the same wood (Perforated
fiber tracheids).

9.Included (or intraxilary) Phloem – Phloem strands or layers that are included in, and
surrounded by, the secondary xylem in certain hardwoods.

10. Deposits – Gummy, resinous, mucilaginous, or other organic deposits may occur in vessels,
fibers, or parenchyma.
Species with yellow deposits: Ipil,
Species with white deposits: Teak, Anubling, Antipolo

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 Chapter 6. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF SOFTWOODS

Softwood or conifers in the Philippines are relatively small in number consisting of 6

genera with 17 species.

1. Softwood Families, Genera, and Species:

1. Araucariaceae – Genus Agathis with one species:

Almaciga (A. philippinensis Warb).

2. Pinaceae – Genus Pinus with 2 species:

a. Benguet pine (P. insularis Endl.) or P. kesiya
b. Mindoro pine (P. merkusii Jungh. & de Vr.)

3. Taxaceae – Genus Taxus with 1species Mountain yew or amugauen (T. wallichiana)

4. Podocarpaceae – 3 genera and 13 species

Genera:
1. Podocarpus – 10 species: Malaalmaciga (P. blumei), malakauayan (P.
philippinensis), igem (P. imbricatus), etc.
2. Dacrydium – 2 species: Lokanai (D. elatum), Binaton (D. falciforme).
3. Phyllocladus – 1 sp. Dalung (P. hypophyllus)

II. Softwood Structure that differ them from Hardwoods:

a. Simpler structure because of lesser cell types in their composition.

b. Non-porous or they do not contain vessel element
c. Radial alignment of longitudinal or axial elements as seen in the cross
section, wanting or more or less obscured in hardwoods.
d. Rays usually uniseriate or narrow except where they contain resin
canals
III. Diagnostic Features:

A. Growth rings. Used for identification when species exhibit unusual characteristics. Transition
between the earlywood or the springwood and latewood or summerwood may be gradual or
abrupt.

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 Growth rings appear as concentric circles on transverse surfaces
((A), Pinus echinata), as parallel bands on radial surfaces
((B), Pinus rigida), and as hyperbola branches, or flames, on longitudinal
tangential surfaces ((C), Pinus taeda).

B. Tracheids. Main wood element of softwoods which function as water conducting and
supporting element. Tracheids are the most abundant element in present-day conifer wood,
comprising 90% of the total xylem volume. The remaining 10% is made up of three elements:
axial parenchyma, rays and resin canals.

- Appear in cross section in radial rows, usually square or polygonal in shape, except in
compression wood where they are rounded.
- Cell wall thickness varies, early thick and hexagonal, latewood thin-walled and square
- Length from short (2.56 mm, Taxus sp.) to medium as in Benguet pine
- Pittings are bordered, relatively large and circular. Either uniseriate, biseriate opposite
arrangement (B. pine), or Multiseriate alternate pittings (almaciga).
- Tracheids diameter is, on average, between 0.03 and 0.06 mm. Therefore, tracheids are not visible to
the naked eye.
Spiral thickening – Appears as ridges on the walls of axial tracheids next to the lumen
(Taxus sp.).
C. Rays

1. Type: Generally, Uniseriate

a. Uniseriate (narrow ray) – one series of ray cells or towards biseriate condition. Type
of ray of coniferous woods when the ray has no resin canal.
b. Fusiform – spindle- shaped and containing a resin canal. It occurs in Pinus sp. With
normal resin canals.

2. Composition

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 a. Ray parenchyma – cells thin-walled with simple pits
b. Ray tracheids – with bordered pits forming the marginal cells of the ray, either in one
or more rows, sometimes interspersed with rows of parenchyma cells. Occur in
Pinaceae.
c. Both ray parenchyma & ray tracheids (Heterocellular).

3. Nature of Pittings of Ray Parenchyma

a. Window-like pits – Large simple pits occupying most of the cross field (pines).
b. Pinoid pits – Fairly small pits, simple or at most very narrowly bordered.
Smaller and more numerous than window-like pits.
c. Piceoid (Piciform)pits – small bordered pits generally elliptical in shape
(malakauayan).
d. Taxodioid pits – Large, oval to circular in shape with an included aperture that is
wider than narrow, and are fairly even border (Pasuig- Podocarpus amarus).
e. Cuppresoid pits – Resemble the piceoid type but with included and elliptical aperture
rather than linear in Piceoid pits.

D. AXIAL Parenchyma

- Never abundant and sometime absent in softwoods.

- Occur in strands and with thinner walls than neighboring tracheids.
- Frequently with dark color contents (malakauayan).
- May be scattered or diffuse (Lokinai) or may occur in bands on the outer margins of the
growth rings
- With simple pits
- Absent in Pinus, Taxus species

E. Resin Canals:

Resin canals, sometimes referred to as resin ducts, are unique to conifers; they are
technically not individual cells, but are actually open, tube-like spaces bordered by special cells
that have the ability to secrete pitch or resin into the neighboring opening (canal). One of the
apparent purposes of these ducts is to protect and seal up a wound by exuding resin to cover the
damaged area of the tree. Extends both longitudinally or transversely in the rays, in solitary or in
pairs as seen in the cross section. They are not considered as cells since they are intercellular
spaces.

1. Normal resin canals (B. pine) – Ephithelial cells and longitudinal resin canals. (Pinus,
Picea, Larix, & Pseudotsuga spp.). They extend both longitudinally and transversely,
the latter always included in the fusiform rays.
2. Traumatic – arise as a result from cleavage or separation of cell as in wounding. May
accompany transverse canals of the normal type or may occur in wood devoid of such
canals. Longitudinal canals.

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F. Summary of elements of Coniferous Woods:

1. Longitudinal cells
A. Prosenchymatous
1. Longitudinal tracheids
- Resinous tracheids
2. Strand tracheids
B. Parenchymatous
1. Cells of longitudinal parenchyma
2. Longitudunal Epithelial cells
2. Transverse Cells
A. Prosenchymatous
1. Ray tracheids
B. Parenchymatous
1. Cells of Ray parenchyma
2. Transverse Epithelial cells

Note: Not all cell types above are found in every coniferous woods.

*Prosenchymatous cells – cells whose function in mainly for conduction and mechanical support
and they are equipped with bordered type of pit.

*Parenchymatous cells – cells mainly for storage and distribution of carbohydrates and they are
equipped with simple type of pit.

G. Prosenchymatous or Fluid-Conducting Elements:

26
1. Longitudinal Tracheids – Prosenchymatous cells constituting more than 90% of the volume of
coniferous woods. These are long, imperforate, narrow cells with tapered ends.
- Earlywood Tracheids – larger lumen, thinner cell walls.
- Latewood Tracheids – thicker walled and narrower cells.

a. Markings of Longitudinal tracheids:

1. Pits – A pit is a gap or recess in the secondary cell wall, together with its
external closing membrane. Longitudinal tracheids have bordered pits.
2. Spiral thickening –
3. Trabeculae – A cylindrical, bar-like or spoon-shaped structure extending
across the lumen of a tracheid from one tangential wall to another.

b. Longitudinal Resinous tracheids – Tracheids cells where amorphous deposits or

reddish brown resinous materials are deposited as the normal tracheid pass from
sapwood to heartwood. This is common in Agathis and Araucaria sp. But rare in
coniferous woods.
c. Longitudinal Strands tracheids – Transitional elements between longitudinal
parenchyma and longitudinal tracheids. It occurs in coniferous woods with resin
canals or longitudinal parenchyma. It may be regarded as transitional element bet
ween longitudinal tracheids and epithelial or longitudinal parenchyma.

- Arise from a single cambial cell through further division of a daughter cell
supposed to be developed as longitudinal tracheid.
- Differ from Longitudinal tracheids in being shorter and is possessing end walls.

2. Ray Tracheids – These are more or less brick-shaped cells 0.1 to 0.2 mm. in length equipped
with bordered pit and are thick walled.

Type of pit pair formed between the following pairs of elements:

a. Ray tracheid and ray parenchyma – Half –bordered

b. Ray tracheid and longitudinal tracheid – bordered
c. Ray tracheid and ray tracheid – bordered

H. Parenchymauous Cells (Carbohydrates storage in living trees)

1. Longitudinal (Axial) parenchyma – occurs in the form of strands extending along the grain
and contains extraneous materials. Absent in Pinus and Taxus.
2. Epithelial parenchyma – Thin walled parenchyma cells which surrounds longitudinal resin
canals or cells containing resin materials originating from the epithelial cells.

Epithelium – entire layer of epithelial cells surrounding a resin canal.

3. Ray Parenchyma – comparable to ray tracheid but are usually somewhat longer and
equipped with simple pit and are thin walled.

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 Chapter 7. GROWTH-RELATED DEFECTS IN WOOD

1. Deviation from typical tree form

Typically, a tree stands vertical, it is practically cylindrical in form and has a circular-
section. Abnormalities include deviations from these typical form. This includes leaning,
bending, crook, forking and formation of pistol-butted stems.

Taper, the reduction in diameter with height (conoid shape), is also a deviation when it is
excessive, e.i. at height above 2 meters, diameter reduced by 1 cm per running meter.

2. Spiral Grain & other Grain Deviations

a. Spiral grain – Twisted appearance or spiral arrangement of fibers in wood over the
length of the stem. (applied to standing trees, logs, poles).

b. Interlocked grain – The direction of fiber arrangement alternates at intervals, for a

number of years the fibers spiral in a given direction, then the direction is reversed,
returning again to approximately the original slope.

c. Cross grain – General term for grain deviation in wood products.

d. Diagonal grain – produced when a straight grained log is sawn at an angle (rather
than parallel) to growth rings when logs come from strongly tapered trees, and from
trees with irregular circumference or eccentric growth.

In the Philippines wood products grain is classified as straight, interlocked as wavy or

curly grained, as mentioned earlier.

3. Abnormal Arrangement of Growth Rings

a. Eccentricity – The eccentric location of the pith. The pith may be located near
the edge of the cross- section.

b. False ring – When the growth ring is laid down during a single growing season
aside from the true ring.
c. Discontinuous ring – ring which do not form a complete circle around the pith.

d. Double – or multi-pith formation – Observed in cross section of stems at the base of

forking, it may result from inclusion of a branch within the main stems, or common
growth of two or more very closely spaced seedlings or sprouts.

4. Reaction Wood

28
 - The specialized type of wood that is produced on the wide side of such eccentric cross-
section. Compression and tension wood are contained in the side of the stems where the growth
rings are wider.

I. Tension Wood:

Usually located on the upper side of a leaning trunk or branches, but a few kind of trees
form tension wood on lower side.

A. Gross & Physical Characteristics; Mechanical Properties

- formed on upper side of leaning tree stems

- in dry lumber, silvery sheen; darker than normal
- green sawn boards wooly on surface, nailing difficult
- longitudinal shrinkage up to 1.5% or higher
- high tensile strength in dry tension wood; lower than normal in green condition
- high specific gravity and longitudinal shrinkage than normal
- cause irreversible collapse in drying
- pulp from tension wood has low strength but more pulp is produced

B. Anatomy:

- Abnormally thick cell walls, greater proportion of fibers.

- Gelatinous fibers present, through may lacking in some species.
- Vessels reduced in size and number, rays increased in number.
- Gelatinous (Warty) layer present, thus
S1 + S2 + S3 + G
S1 + S2 + G
S1 + G
- Slip plane (spiral markings) and compression failure in fiber walls.
- S1 thinner than normal
- Microfibrillar orientation in G-layer nearly parallels fiber axis.

C. Chemistry

- abnormally high cellulose content due to gelatinous layer which is highly

cellulosic
- high degree of crystallinity.
- abnormally low lignin content
- more galactan than normal
- less xylan than normal

II. Compression Wood:

29
 The reaction wood is formed on the wide side of eccentric cross-section corresponding to
the lower or compression stressed side of leaning trunk or branches.

A. Gross & Physical Characteristics; Mechanical Properties

- formed on lower side of leaning tree stems

- non-lustrous, lifeless appearance.
- darker than normal
- longitudinal shrinkage 6 to 7%
- Generally weaker than normal, Stiffness (MOE), bending, impact strength
(toughness) is low and high brashness.
- higher specific gravity (up to about 40% higher), longitudinal shrinkage and
erratic strength than normal.

B. Anatomy:

- rounded tracheids, walls thick, shorter than normal

- intercellular spaces wider, cells not tightly connected
- transition from early wood to latewood gradual.
- S3 layer absent, S1 thicker than normal.
- S2 microfibrils 45” oriented. These explains why longitudinal shrinkage is high
- S2 layer modified.

C. Chemistry

- abnormally low cellulose content

- abnormally high lignin content
- less crystalline
- more galactan than normal
- less galactoglucomannan than normal.

Reaction Wood Formation as a Stress Response:

In 1908 Metzger proposed that reaction wood formation resulted from tension stresses on
the upper side of branches and leaning stems of Angiosperms and Compressive stresses on the
lower side of leaning stems and branches of Gymnosperms. This view was supported by the
observation that this tissue was induced in 7-14 days when branches were weighted of stems
were bent out of their normal vertical position.

Reaction Wood as a Gravitational Response:

Gravitational influence on reaction wood formation has been explored by many

investigators. It was observed that when plants were placed at increasing angles from the

30
vertical, the reaction wood forms consistently on the lower side of the inclined stem of
Gymnosperm., and on the upper side of the stems of angiosperms in similar orientation.
It was also observed that when stems and branches were bent into vertical and horizontal loops,
reaction wood formed on the lower side of vertical loops of gymnosperm, and on the upper side
of similar loops in stems of angiosperm, irrespective of whether the wood was placed initially in
tension or compression.

In plants placed on the perimeter of a horizontally rotating disk, it was observed that
growth proceeded and the plants curved towards the center of the disk. In this experiment
centrifugal force actually counteracted wholly or partially to force of gravity. In angiosperms, the
tissue formed on the inner surface of the stems was tension wood, and in gymnosperms the wood
formed on the outer side was compression wood. Thus, reaction wood was formed when
gravitational force was replaced by a continuous centrifugal force.

When conifers were continuously rotated on a horizontal clinostat, no compression wood

was formed. Similar observation was made in stems of Tristania conferta, a hardwood.

Effect of Growth Hormones:

It has been demonstrated that:

- IAA induces compression wood formation in gymnosperms and also induces bending
when symmetrically applied to vertical stems.
- IAA application does not induce reaction wood formation in angiosperms.

5. Disruption of the Continuity of Inner Wood Tissues

a. Compression failures – Ruptures of wood stressed in axial compression (compression

parallel to the grain). It may occur on the inner side of trees leaning due to wind storms. It may
also due to careless felling and handling and in the application of heavy loads.

b. Shakes – Also ruptures of the wood of living trees; they may widen after the tree is
felled, due to shrinkage of the wood. It may be in the form of, a) ring or cup shakes (rupture
parallel to growth rings) and heart shakes or heart checks. Ring shakes when shakes extending all
around the periphery. Local separations are cup shakes.
Heart shakes or heart checks are ruptures starting from the pith.

C. Resins or pitch pockets – occur in softwoods with resin canals. These are
cavities in wood filled with resins or may be empty or may contain some bark inclusions. They
are oblong, lens-shaped ruptures of varying size, usually lying within the boundary of a growth
ring and filled with resin.

6. Abnormal Color: Deviation from normal color due to parasitic agents (bacteria, fungi) and
wood extraneous components in heartwood.

7. Knots: A natural growth characteristic which is an inclusion of the basal part of a branch
within the stem of a tree.

31
 a. Encased or loose knots – when the branch is dead when it is enclosed in living stems in
the same manner as to how foreign objects (nails, etc.) are incorporated. Such may fall when
wood in the form of lumber is dried.

b. Intergrown or tight knots – when branches are enclosed while living and intimately
connected with the surrounding wood.

8. Pith – A defect in wood utilization point of view due to different cellular structure compared
to the surrounding wood.

32