REVIEW OF CURRENT INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

TECHNOLOGIES

BY

UKACHI UGOCHUKWU OLIVER

202452120001

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING,

NANJING UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

June, 2025
Abstract

Industrial wastewater represents one of the most challenging environmental pollutants due to
its high variability in composition, toxicity, and discharge volume across various sectors. This
wastewater typically contains a mixture of organic matter, heavy metals, nutrients, oils, and
emerging contaminants that pose serious threats to aquatic ecosystems and human health if
inadequately treated. As global industrial activity intensifies and regulatory frameworks
tighten, the demand for efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable wastewater treatment
technologies has become increasingly critical. This review presents a comprehensive and
structured evaluation of current industrial wastewater treatment technologies. It analyses the
general characteristics of industrial effluents and progresses to an in-depth analysis of the core
treatment strategies categorized into physical, chemical, biological, and advanced or hybrid
systems. Physical methods are widely used for the removal of suspended solids and floatables
and serve as essential pretreatment stages. Chemical processes are highly effective for treating
dissolved pollutants, particularly heavy metals and refractory organics. Biological treatment
methods leverage microbial activity for the degradation and immobilization of organic and
inorganic contaminants. These methods are increasingly valued for their cost-efficiency,
environmental compatibility and eco-friendliness especially when paired with chemical or
physical processes. In addition, advanced and hybrid technologies, including advanced
oxidation processes (AOPs), membrane bioreactors (MBRs), and bio-electrochemical systems
(BESs), are gaining prominence due to their enhanced treatment performance, energy recovery
potential, and suitability for integration into circular economy frameworks. This paper also
explores future trends in industrial wastewater treatment, such as the use of artificial
intelligence for process control, nature-based solutions, and resource recovery innovations. The
review highlights the importance of selecting treatment technologies based on effluent
characteristics, operational feasibility, and long-term sustainability. The findings serve as a
valuable guide for researchers, engineers, and policymakers seeking to design or implement
advanced, adaptive, and resilient wastewater treatment systems in industrial contexts to protect
the environment.

Keywords: Industrial wastewater, treatment technologies, physical methods, chemical

methods, biological treatment, resource recovery, circular economy.
1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study

Water which may seem simple to the eye is an essential part of life and is one of the most
extraordinary substances on Earth. We use it to do a lot of things which includes washing,
fishing, swimming, drinking, and cooking[1]. Likely, not all these actions happen at once, but
they show how important water is to us. About two-thirds of the human body is made of water,
and we need it to survive. Life as we know it could not exist without water, and we cannot
survive without it. Droughts led to food shortages, while floods cause death and illness.
Because of how vital water is, it is one of the most studied materials on our planet[1].

Water is also a critical resource in industrial operations, serving as an indispensable input in

manufacturing, energy production, mining, food processing, textile, and chemical industries.
The growing demands of industrialization and urbanization have led to a corresponding surge
in water consumption and wastewater generation, contributing significantly to global water
pollution [2], [3]. Industrial processes frequently produce complex and heavily contaminated
wastewater which are laden with organic matter, toxic metals, nutrients, and persistent
pollutants, which, when discharged untreated or inadequately treated, threaten aquatic
ecosystems, public health, and sustainable development [4], [5]

Globally, industrial activities account for approximately 22% of total freshwater use, with high-
income countries reporting rates above 50% [6]. However, despite this significant water
footprint, industrial wastewater treatment remains inconsistent and underdeveloped in many
regions. An estimated 80% of industrial wastewater is discharged without adequate treatment,
particularly in lower-income countries where the treatment rate is often below 10% [7]. For
instance, India alone generates over 44 million cubic meters of industrial wastewater daily,
with billions of liters released into natural water bodies untreated (Ranade & Bhandari, 2014).
Such discharges result in the accumulation of hazardous substances like cadmium, lead,
mercury, arsenic, and other metals that pose acute risks to biodiversity and human populations
[8], [9].

In response to these challenges, industries and researchers have explored a variety of treatment
technologies (Figure 1), ranging from conventional physical, chemical, and biological
processes to advanced and hybrid systems. Physical methods like sedimentation and filtration
are employed for the initial removal of solids, while chemical techniques such as precipitation,
adsorption, and ion exchange target specific contaminants [10], [11]. Biological processes,
including biosorption and sulfate-reducing systems, leverage microorganisms to transform or
immobilize pollutants [12]. Despite their utility, each method presents limitations, including
high energy costs, sludge generation, and operational complexity [13], [14].

Emerging concepts such as circular economy (CE), partition-release-recover (PRR), and bio-
electrochemical systems are reshaping the industrial wastewater paradigm by emphasizing
resource recovery, sustainability, and integration into broader environmental management
strategies [14]. These approaches not only reduce pollution but also enable the recovery of
valuable metals and by-products, thus converting wastewater into a potential resource stream.

Given the complicated nature of industrial wastewater and the evolving landscape of treatment
technologies, this review aims to critically examine the current treatment methods, their
advantages and limitations, and future trends. The review highlights the need for a holistic and
adaptive framework that integrates technological innovation, regulatory compliance, and
sustainability to address the pressing challenge of industrial wastewater management.

Figure 1: Some Conventional Industrial Wastewater Treatment [14]

1.2 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this paper is to review the current wastewater treatment technologies

1.2.1 Objectives

1. Identify the current wastewater treatment technologies

2. Explore future development of wastewater treatment.

2.0 Current Wastewater Treatment Technologies

2.1 Physical Treatment Methods

Physical treatment methods serve as the foundational stage in industrial wastewater treatment
(figure 2), focusing primarily on the removal of suspended solids, oils, grease, and particulate
matter through mechanical processes. These techniques are often used as preliminary steps
before more advanced chemical or biological processes are employed, enhancing the overall
efficiency of wastewater management systems [10], [15].

Figure 2: The summary of the techniques involved in the wastewater treatment process[16]

2.1.1 Screening and filtration

These are the first lines of defense in physical treatment, where large debris such as plastics,
fibers, and coarse solids are removed using screens of various mesh sizes. Filtration is
particularly effective for separating finer suspended materials and oily substances (Figure 3).
Filtration systems with pore sizes between 0.1–0.5 mm can remove not only physical particles
but also certain bacteria and oils [17]. However, filtration systems can be sensitive to high
metal concentrations and may become ineffective in the presence of complex agents [18].
 Figure 3: CDC water treatment illustration (source: CDC.com)

2.1.2 Sedimentation

This is another widely used method, involving the gravitational settling of suspended solids.
To accelerate the sedimentation process, industries may introduce coagulants or flocculants to
aggregate smaller particles into settleable masses (Figure 3). The success of sedimentation
relies on parameters such as detention time, flow velocity, and solid loading rate [19]. Despite
its simplicity and cost-effectiveness, sedimentation may not be efficient in treating colloidal
particles (unless they have been coagulated) or dissolved substances[20].

2.1.3 Membrane filtration technologies

This represents an advanced subset of physical treatment. These include microfiltration (MF),
ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO), each characterized by
decreasing pore sizes and increasing removal efficiencies (Figure 4). MF and UF primarily
target suspended solids, colloids, and bacteria, whereas NF and RO are capable of removing
heavy metals, salts, and even low-molecular-weight organics [10], [11]. The membrane
material, surface thickness (typically ranging from 10–250 μm), and operating pressure
significantly influence filtration performance. For example, RO membranes with pore sizes of
~0.0001 μm can effectively remove sodium chloride, amino acids, and proteins from
wastewater streams [21]. However, membrane technologies are not without limitations.
Membrane fouling caused by the accumulation of contaminants on the membrane surface can
reduce system efficiency and increase operational costs. Backwashing and backpulsing have
been developed to mitigate fouling, but these methods require periodic downtime and
maintenance [22]. Additionally, the initial capital and energy costs associated with membrane
systems are considerably higher than those of traditional methods[14].

Figure 4: Membrane Filtration Technologies

2.2 Chemical Treatment Methods

Chemical treatment methods are widely applied in industrial wastewater management due to
their effectiveness in removing dissolved pollutants, including heavy metals, nutrients, and
toxic organics (Figure 2). These methods are particularly suitable for treating complex
wastewater streams with high contaminant loads, where physical or biological methods alone
may be insufficient [10], [15]. Common chemical processes include precipitation, coagulation
and flocculation, adsorption, ion exchange, and electrochemical treatments[16].

2.2.1 Chemical precipitation

This is one of the oldest and most extensively applied chemical techniques for removing
dissolved metals from industrial effluents. This method involves the addition of chemical
reagents such as hydroxides, sulfides, or carbonates that react with target contaminants to form
insoluble compounds, which can then be separated by sedimentation or filtration (Figure 5)
[13]. Precipitation efficiency is influenced by pH, temperature, ionic strength, and the presence
of interfering substances. While hydroxide and sulfide precipitation are common, the
generation of large volumes of sludge requiring safe disposal remains a significant limitation
[23].

Figure 5: Overview of Chemical Precipitation [24]

2.2.2 Coagulation and flocculation

These are frequently employed as pre-treatment or intermediate processes, especially when
targeting colloidal and fine suspended particles that are otherwise difficult to remove (Figure
6). Coagulants such as alum, ferric chloride, or polyaluminum chloride destabilize colloids,
enabling the formation of larger flocs, which are subsequently removed through sedimentation
or flotation [13]. Although widely used, coagulant dosage optimization is crucial to prevent
excessive chemical use, which can affect downstream biological treatment and increase
operational costs[14], [16].

Figure 6 Coagulation and Flocculation [25]

2.2.3 Adsorption

This is a prominent method for the selective removal of organic and inorganic contaminants.
Activated carbon is the most widely used adsorbent due to its high surface area and adsorption
capacity [26]. However, the use of alternative, low-cost adsorbents derived from agricultural
byproducts such as rice husks, sawdust, and coconut shells has been increasingly investigated
to improve economic feasibility [27], [28], [29] emphasize that many of these adsorbents can
be regenerated, although degradation in acidic environments or limited adsorption capacity
remains a technical limitation [30], [31].

2.2.4 Ion exchange

Ion exchange is another effective technique, particularly for treating metal-laden wastewater.
It relies on the reversible interchange of ions between the solution and a solid resin matrix.
Synthetic resins with functional groups tailored to specific ions are commonly employed [10].
While this method offers high selectivity and recovery potential, its effectiveness diminishes
in the presence of competing ions, and resin fouling can impair performance. Moreover, the
high cost and limited lifespan of resins can restrict their widespread application in large-scale
operations [32].

2.2.5 Electrochemical treatments, including electrocoagulation and electrooxidation, have

emerged as promising options for the simultaneous removal of metals, organics, and pathogens.
These methods involve applying an electric current through electrodes submerged in the
wastewater, inducing coagulation or oxidative degradation reactions [28], [30].
Electrochemical systems are attractive due to their automation potential and reduced chemical
input; however, high energy consumption and electrode maintenance remain barriers to full-
scale deployment[30].

2.3 Biological Treatment Methods

Biological treatment processes are integral to industrial wastewater management due to their
ability to degrade organic pollutants and transform harmful substances into more
environmentally friendly forms through microbial activity (Figure 2)[28], [33]. These
processes are typically categorized into aerobic, anaerobic, and biosorption-based systems,
with each one usually selected based on wastewater composition, environmental conditions,
and treatment objectives [28], [33].

2.3.1 Aerobic biological treatment

The aerobic treatment technique is commonly implemented in systems such as activated

sludge, trickling filters, and sequencing batch reactors (SBRs). These processes rely on oxygen-
dependent microorganisms that metabolize organic matter, nitrogenous compounds, and
certain micropollutants. The activated sludge process remains the most widely applied due to
its robustness, high removal efficiency, and adaptability to varying load conditions [28].
However, it requires continuous aeration, which elevates energy consumption and operational
costs, making it less suitable for resource-limited regions [14].

2.3.2 Anaerobic treatment

This treatment technique unlike the aerobic treatment is carried out in oxygen-free
environments and is particularly effective for high-strength organic wastewater. Systems such
as upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors and expanded granular sludge bed
(EGSB) reactors are commonly used to degrade complex organic matter while simultaneously
producing biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, as a valuable by-product [14].
Anaerobic processes generate less biomass and require lower energy inputs than aerobic
systems, but they are more sensitive to temperature, pH, and toxic shock loads, often
necessitating careful monitoring and pretreatment of influents [33].

2.3.3 Biosorption

A more recent development in biological treatment is the use of biosorption, which involves
the passive binding of heavy metals and pollutants onto the surface of biological materials,
including bacteria, fungi, algae, and plant-based wastes [12], [34], [35]. Unlike conventional
microbial degradation, biosorption relies on functional groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, and
amine groups present on the surface of these biomass materials [12]. This method has shown
particular effectiveness in the removal of metals like cadmium, lead, and chromium from
industrial effluents. Fungal and algal biosorbents are especially effective due to their structural
stability and high binding capacity, while yeast species such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae have
also demonstrated promising results in metal ion recovery [28], [36], [37]

2.4 Advanced and Hybrid Technologies

As the industrial processes evolve and environmental regulations tighten, the limitations of
conventional wastewater treatment methods have led to the development of advanced and
hybrid technologies. These innovative approaches aim not only to improve pollutant removal
efficiency but also to facilitate resource recovery, energy efficiency, and compliance with
increasingly stringent discharge standards[20], [38], [39]. Many of these systems combine
physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms in a single or staged platform, often framed
within circular economy or zero-liquid discharge (ZLD) concepts [14]

2.4.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)

One significant advancement in industrial waste water treatment is the use of AOPs, which
include techniques such as ozonation, Fenton reactions, UV/H₂O₂, and photocatalysis. These
processes generate highly reactive hydroxyl radicals that non-selectively oxidize a wide range
of persistent organic pollutants [39]. According to [NO_PRINTED_FORM] [10], AOPs are
particularly valuable for treating refractory compounds such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, and
pesticides that are resistant to biodegradation. Although AOPs offer superior performance, their
application is often limited by high energy requirements and the need for chemical reagents,
which may affect operational sustainability [39].

2.4.2 Bio-electrochemical Systems (BESs)

Another category of innovation includes BESs such as microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and
microbial electrolysis cells (MECs). These systems use electrochemically active bacteria to
degrade organic pollutants while simultaneously generating electricity or producing hydrogen
[40]. The study by [NO_PRINTED_FORM] [14] noted that BESs not only treat wastewater
but also convert it into a source of renewable energy, making them highly attractive for
integrated industrial applications. However, challenges such as low power output, system
complexity, and electrode fouling must be addressed before full-scale deployment becomes
viable [40].

2.4.3 Membrane bioreactors (MBRs)

This represents another hybrid technology where biological degradation is coupled with
membrane filtration to achieve high-quality effluent with minimal footprint that suitable for
reuse [41]. The integration of ultrafiltration or nanofiltration membranes enables efficient
removal of solids, pathogens, and micropollutants while maintaining a high biomass
concentration [30], [41]. Despite their efficiency, MBRs face limitations related to membrane
fouling, energy consumption, and periodic cleaning requirements [30].

5. Conclusion and Future Development

The path of industrial wastewater treatment is shifting towards systems that do more than just
remove pollutants. New approaches are being developed to recover resources and protect the
environment. These future systems aim to combine cleaning with the ability to reclaim valuable
materials from wastewater. This changes how facilities operate and offers more sustainable
ways to handle waste. Advanced technologies are being integrated into treatment systems to
increase efficiency and adaptability. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning programs
analyse data to optimise operations, predict equipment failures, and reduce downtime. These
smart systems can anticipate changes in wastewater quality, adjust treatment parameters
automatically, and flag maintenance needs before problems arise. This reduces costs and
improves how well the water is treated.

There is also a strong push to turn wastewater treatment plants into centres for resource
recovery. Instead of treating waste as just something to discard, these plants aim to extract
useful resources such as nutrients, energy, and clean water. Technologies like bio-
electrochemical systems are at the forefront of this change. They can treat wastewater while
producing energy, aligning with the idea of a circular economy. This means waste becomes a
source of energy or other materials, reducing the need for new resources. Eco-friendly methods
are gaining attention too. Constructed wetlands and systems using algae offer natural ways to
remove pollutants. These methods are often less costly and work well in rural or isolated areas
where building large, complex treatment plants may not be practical. They use natural
processes, like plants and microbes, to clean water and can be scaled up or down according to
local needs.

As these new technologies evolve, strong policies and rules are essential to support their
growth. Governments can provide incentives for companies to adopt sustainable practices.
Clear standards for the quality of treated water help ensure safety and environmental health.
Also, frameworks that encourage resource recovery motivate industries to do more than just
meet minimum standards. These policies can guide investments into research and
infrastructure, pushing the industry toward greener options. The future of wastewater treatment
depends on making technology, environment, and policy work together. Collaboration across
different fields including science, engineering, policy, and industry is necessary to make these
systems work well. Investing in new research can help develop better, cheaper, and more
efficient solutions.

Overall, building more sustainable and flexible wastewater treatments will benefit both
industries and the environment. It becomes possible to clean water more efficiently, turn waste
into resources, and protect nature. By combining innovation with supportive policies, the
industry can transition to practices that are more sustainable. This shift requires leadership and
commitment from all sectors to ensure we manage waste responsibly. Through continuous
research and innovation, future systems will become smarter, greener, and better suited to meet
the challenges of industrial waste.
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