Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

A state-of-the-art review on heating and cooling of lithium-ion batteries for

electric vehicles
Aamir Khan a, Sana Yaqub a, Majid Ali a, *, Adeel Waqas Ahmad a, Hassan Nazir a,
Hassan Abdullah Khalid a, Naseem Iqbal a, Zafar Said b, Kamaruzzaman Sopian c
a
U.S Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Energy, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad H-12 54000, Pakistan
b
Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Currently, lithium-ion batteries are attracting the attention of various sectors, such as the automobile, elec­
Lithium-ion batteries tronics, and aerospace industries, due to their remarkable characteristics, including high energy density, power
Battery thermal management system density, and superior operational performance, when compared to other batteries. However, these batteries face
Electric vehicles
challenges such as performance loss and thermal runaway due to temperature variations. Electric vehicles need
Battery preheating
Battery cooling
to operate both in warm and cold climates, which demand lithium-ion to maintain optimal performance at
various temperature levels. In past decades, numerous investigations have been conducted to examine the
thermal management techniques employed in lithium-ion batteries. This study examines and categorizes the
recent research progress of battery thermal management systems, including both external and internal pre­
heating techniques and active, passive and hybrid cooling techniques. It also evaluates different thermal man­
agement technologies from multiple aspects, such as; heating and cooling performance, system simplicity,
internal temperature difference, adaptability and safety.

1. Introduction energy storage using batteries could be a better solution [4], where
different batteries such as nickel cadmium, lead acid, and lithium-ion
The increased energy demand leads to a great challenge in finding could be used to store energy [5]. Merely lithium-ion batteries (Li-IBs)
potential energy sources and emerging solutions in the era of the energy are ideal for electric vehicles (EV's) due to their high energy (705 Wh/L),
crisis [1]. Current energy conventional resources, including coal, oil, power density (10,000 W/L), longer life cycle, high voltage, low self-
and natural gas, are expensive, harmful to the environment, and cause discharge rate (<2 %/month). In terms of energy efficiency, Li-IBs
risk to the future balance of energy generation and demand. However, presents the highest (≅ 95 %) with up to 100 % discharge permissible
fossil fuel supplies are limited and rapidly depleted, requiring focused [6,7]. Ideal conditions for operating Li-IBs are between 15 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C
attention and sustainable solutions to prevent future energy crises. [8,9], with <5 ◦ C [10,11] temperature difference between them (Fig. 1).
Furthermore, fossil fuels cause global warming by emitting harmful If the temperature of the lithium-ion battery (Li-IB) is inappropriate or
pollutants like greenhouse gases [2]. In recent decades, climate change the temperature difference is large for a longer period of time, it would
has become significant, and there has been an increased awareness of cause a series of problems [12]. In a cold climate, the power capacity
environmental protection. Though, attention has been paid to renew­ and lifespan of a battery are degraded [13]. Nagasubramanian [14]
able energy resources [3]. However, the main issue with renewable re­ examined the power density of Li-IB at various temperatures and found
sources is their non-uniform energy output which decreases their that when the temperature dropped from 25 ◦ C to − 40 ◦ C, the battery
usability during peak hours. Therefore, for uniform energy output, power density reduced significantly from 800 W/L to 10 W/L. Whereas

Abbreviations: BTMS, battery thermal management system; Tmax, maximum temperature; Li-IB, lithium-ion battery; Li-IBs, lithium-ion batteries; HP, heat pipe;
TC, thermal conductivity; PCM, phase change material; PCMs, phase change materials; AC, alternating current; DC, direct current; EV's, electric vehicles; SHLB, self-
heating Li-IB; SAC, sinusoidal alternating current; MWCNT, multi-walled carbon nanotubes; DSC, differential scanning calorimetry; CFD, computational fluid
dynamics.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Ali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.109852
Received 20 June 2023; Received in revised form 17 November 2023; Accepted 20 November 2023
Available online 30 November 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Petzl et al. [15] found that in low-temperature environments (− 22 ◦ C),

Li-IB lifespan can be reduced up to 90–140 cycles. However, in hot cli­
mates, heat is accumulated inside the Li-IB, causing the battery to
overheat, and negatively affecting its durability, safety, and perfor­
mance. If the temperature reaches 80 ◦ C, Li-IB can readily overheat and
lead to thermal runaway, risking the safety of EV's and passengers
[16,17]. Feng et al. [18] studied thermal runaway in Li-IB and found
that 12 % of the heat produced in thermal runaway had the potential to
initiate thermal runaway in the next Li-IB. Therefore, to address the
thermal runway limitation of Li-IB and to ensure their efficiency in an
ideal environment, battery thermal management system (BTMS) must
be developed.
BTMS is reliable in maintaining the optimum temperature of Li-IBs
either by cooling or heating. Conventionally, this study examines and
classifies the recent research progress of BTMS, including preheating
and cooling. The preheating BTMS are classified as either external or
internal and are discussed extensively in Section 2. The cooling BTMS
are classified based on the power source, which mainly consists of three
types: i) Active cooling [19] ii) Passive cooling [20], and iii) hybrid
cooling (Fig. 2) [21].
Zhu et al. [22] review different internal preheating techniques
developed recently for Li-IBs in cold climates. It begins by discussing the
effect of low temperatures on battery performance, followed by an ex­
amination of electrochemical models to understand battery behaviour in
cold climates. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy-based equiva­ Fig. 2. BTMS classification according to the power source [21].
lent circuit models are introduced to simplify internal heating design
and control. Finally, an extensive analysis is conducted on internal
Additionally, the findings show that water cooling is more effective and
heating techniques, assessing their principles, strengths, weaknesses,
efficient than oil. Moreover, to improve the effectiveness of the liquid
and potential for improvement. However, they did not investigate
cooling system, an appropriate quantity of nanoparticles must be added
external preheating techniques for Li-IB. Akinlabi and Solyali [23]
to the water. Although, the liquid heating system of Li-IB was not dis­
reviewed air-cooled BTMS configuration, design, and parameter opti­
cussed in this article. Furthermore, Chen et al. [25] reviewed the effects
mization for electric cars. They found that natural air-cooling BTMS has
of different phase change material (PCM) on power Li-IB performance.
many benefits, including its simple structure, inexpensive, easy main­
The findings show that increasing the thermal conductivity (TC) and
tenance, and light weight. However, it was found that natural air cooling
decreasing the melting temperature of PCMs reduces battery tempera­
is insufficient to provide high-energy Li-IB with suitable cooling condi­
ture and increases heat dissipation. However, the TC of PCMs can be
tions. Due to this, a forced air-cooled BTMS has received attention.
greatly increased by the addition of metals and carbon-based elements.
Additionally, the battery pack air flow channel was also optimized. They
The hybrid BTMS offers enhanced temperature reduction and improved
concluded that when cylindrical cells were used in battery modules,
uniformity compared to a single BTMS [26,27]. Although there are
parallel placements of the cells performed better in terms of cooling than
numerous studies on preheating and cooling methods in the BTMS, no
serial placements of the cells. However, they did not investigate air-
article has yet reviewed and discussed both preheating and cooling
hybrid BTMS. Kalaf et al. [24] summarized the recent literature on
technology in detail.
coolant performance, the design of battery packs, and the classification
Therefore, based on recent advancements in Li-ion BTMS, this study
of liquid cooling systems. They also compare passive/active, indirect/
would provide fundamental knowledge on; (1) various preheating
direct, and external/internal cooling systems. They concluded that
methodologies and their classification, including external preheating
direct battery-cooling fluid contact might not be practical, although it is
techniques (heating integrated with cooling and electrothermal element
identified by excellent cooling performance. While indirect contact
method) and internal preheating techniques (current excitation methods
through a cooling plate is expected to use the least amount of energy.

Fig. 1. Li-IB optimum temperature [8].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

and self-heating method). (2) Detailed examination of different cooling and 1C, respectively, when the temperature decreased from 25 ◦ C to
technologies, encompassing active cooling (air and liquid-based), pas­ − 20 ◦ C. Laforgue et al. [36] examined the fast charging capabilities of a
sive cooling (PCMs and HP-based), and hybrid cooling (air-PCMs, liquid- commercial high energy 18,650 Li-IB at different temperatures. They
PCMs, and HP-PCMs). In general, the objective of this study is to found that the cell's ability to charge at high rates was significantly
comprehensively address all the features of the BTMS for its commer­ reduced below the ambient temperature. The cell showed no noticeable
cialization in EV's. degradation of performance when it was fast charged repeatedly at
23 ◦ C, but it suffered significant degradation upon fast charging at 10 ◦ C
2. Classification of heating system for Li-IB and below, and the degradation worsened with decreasing temperature.
In such conditions, preheating is necessary. The preheating is classified
Ambient temperature affects the performance of Li-IB. At low tem­ into internal preheating [37,38] and external preheating [39] (Fig. 4).
peratures (such as 15 ◦ C), Li-IB performance can be problematic. Both Table 1 presents a comprehensive summary of the various heating
the charging and discharging performance will be affected because the methods employed for Li-IB.
electrochemical process cannot take place normally [28]. Under subzero
temperatures, decreased power capacity and degradation can occur. The
diffusion process of Li ions from the cathode to the anode during the 2.1. Internal preheating of Li-IB
charging phase is shown in Fig. 3. This process is influenced by various
factors that affect the performance of Li-IB at lower temperatures. The Internal preheating refers to the process of heating the battery
ionic conductivity of the electrolytes decreases at low temperature, internally and can be divided into two groups. The first type, self-heating
which increases their viscosity and hinders the diffusion process of Li+ technology, preheats the battery utilizing cell energy. The second type,
in the bulk electrolytes during the operation of Li-IB. The formation of current excitation technology, uses applied current excitation to heat Li-
the solid electrolyte interphase precedes desolvation [29], which re­ IBs through an internal impedance. Internal preheating techniques can
quires high activation energy and serves as the main kinetic barrier to reduce the amount of time it takes to heat up, increase heating effi­
Li+ migration at low temperatures. The destruction of the solvation ciency, and have less of an impact on thermal induced ageing, but they
sheath is the main factor that contributes to the energy barrier of the come with a larger safety risk.
entire Li+ transfer process [30,31]. Moreover, the operation of Li-IB at
lower temperatures leads to higher electrochemical polarization of the 2.1.1. Self-heating method
electrodes and larger Li+ concentration polarization, which enhance the Self-heating uses the Li-IB energy to heat and warm it. Wang et al.
growth of lithium dendrites that damage the morphology of the elec­ [41] suggested a self-heating Li-IB (SHLB) design to heat the battery at
trode interfaces and consume electrolytes [32,33]. low temperatures. The design contains a thin nickel foil of 50 μm inside
To ensure battery performance in such temperature conditions, the battery cell that has a resistance of 56 mΩ (Fig. 5a). There are two
efficient heating methods are to be developed. BTMS manages the heat tabs on this foil, one attached to the negative terminal and one extending
that is produced during the electrochemical process for the secure and outside as the activation terminal. The battery's surface temperature
efficient operation of the battery. V.G. Choudhari et al. [34] found that controls the operation of a switch that connects the activation and
in cold climates like USA, Russia, and Canada, lower temperature results negative terminals. When the switch is open, the electrons move through
in slow diffusion of Li-IB at the anode, which decreases the electrolyte the foil, producing ohmic heat and increasing the Li-IB temperature.
conductivity and increases the internal resistance, which ultimately re­ They found that the battery used 5.5 % cell capacity to heat up from
duces the battery capacity. Jaguemont et al. [35] conducted an experi­ − 30 ◦ C to 0 ◦ C in 29.6 s at 60 ◦ C/min. Yang et al. [42] proposed an
ment of the energy discharge performance of a prismatic 100-Ah electrochemical–thermal model to predict the temperature, current, and
LiFeMnPO4 cell under varying discharge currents and test tempera­ concentration of Li-IB. They found that the ohmic heat produced by the
tures. The results revealed a significant decline in discharged energy, nickel foil contributed a significant portion of the total heat produced
specifically, a reduction of 39.4 % and 26.4 % at discharge rates of 0.5C during the self-heating process. They found that the heat transfer within
the battery was insufficient, causing a rapid drop in temperature in the
thickness direction. This inadequate heat transfer resulted in the for­
mation of a significant temperature gradient in the battery, which can
lead to severely unequal current distribution and inefficient heating of
the system. Zhang et al. [43] suggested a multi‑nickel SHLB structure to
mitigate the temperature gradient (Fig. 5b). The experimental results
demonstrated that a 2-sheet SHLB can achieve a temperature rise of
96 ◦ C/min while the 1-sheet SHLB can attain a temperature rise of
60 ◦ C/min from − 20 ◦ C to 0 ◦ C under the same conditions.
Self-heating method is a potential technique to enhance the pre­
heating process of Li-IB. However, the effectiveness of this method relies
on the specific structures and materials of the battery. Since self-heating
method requires modifying the internal structure of the battery, it is not
compatible with existing batteries.

2.1.2. Current excitation methods

There are three types of current excitation preheating methods:
pulse, alternating current (AC), and direct current (DC) preheating as
shown in (Fig. 6) [44].

2.1.2.1. DC preheating. DC preheating is the process of heating a battery

using a steady DC discharge from the battery's stored energy. Using DC
preheating systems has the advantage of a rapid temperature rise.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the main electrolyte-related factors that affect the However, it might harm the battery and potentially pose a risk to safety.
operation of LIBs at low temperatures [30]. In order to prevent the damaging effects of lithium plating and battery

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 4. Classifications of preheating techniques at low temperatures for Li-IB [40].

Table 1
Summary of preheating methods.
Heating system Battery module Approach Li-IB Battery Battery temp Rate of Temp Energy Ref
details capacity initial Temp after heating temp rise difference consumption

mAh (◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C/min) (◦ C) %

Self-heating of Li-IB Li-ion all climate Simulation 7500 − 30 0 60 10 5.5 [41]

battery cell
DC preheating Laminated Li-IBs Experimental/ 8000 − 30 2.1 18.7 - - [47]
simulation
AC preheating Laminated Li-IBs Experimental/ 1000 − 20 5 1.8 - 1.4 [51]
analytical
Pulse preheating NCR 18650 Li-IBs Experimental 2870 − 20 5 4.87 - - [53]
Air preheating Cylindrical 18,650 Numerical 2200 − 20 20 0.5 6.4 [59]
Li-IBs
Liquid preheating Prismatic Li-IBs Experimental/ 5000 − 28 25 4.18 4 - [64]
simulation
PCM preheating Cylindrical 18,650 Experimental 2600 − 10 5 - 7 - [71]
Li-IB
Peltier preheating Prismatic Li-IBs Experimental 3800 17 37 1 8 2.5 [79]
Electrothermal plate Laminated Li-IBs Experimental/ 3500 − 19.3 − 2.4 0.35 4.07 - [81]
preheating simulation
Electrothermal film Prismatic Li-IBs Experimental 3500 − 40 0 2.67 - - [84]
preheating

1) - means not available in the Reference.

2) % means the total energy used for the preheating process of the battery capacity.
3) Temp means temperature.

degradation, the current amplitude and the duration of the preheating 2.1.2.2. AC preheating. AC preheating usually uses an alternating cur­
process have to be strictly regulated within certain limits [45]. Qu et al. rent as the input signal to produce heat through the battery's internal
[46] investigated the safe and rapid DC heating of Li-IBs under low resistance [48]. This preheating technique has been shown to be one of
temperature applications. According to their findings, Li-IB with an the best preheating techniques that rapidly and uniformly heat the
average current of 8A takes 280 s to heat up from − 10 ◦ C to 10 ◦ C using battery. The widely used AC heating signal is sinusoidal alternating
DC. Additionally, Ruan et al. [47] proposed a unique model-based current (SAC), and its current, amplitude and frequency can be changed
optimal internal-heating technique at low temperatures, which can for higher production of heat within the Li-IB pack [49]. Zhu et al. [50]
quickly and effectively improve battery performance without signifi­ investigated the impact of various AC frequencies, voltage and ampli­
cantly reducing lifetime. According to experimental findings, the Li-ion tudes constraints on the cell temperature. They reported that AC pre­
temperature increased from − 30 ◦ C to 2.1 ◦ C in 103 s with a temperature heating achieved good temperature uniformity both inside and on the
rise rate of 18.7 ◦ C/min. The capacity loss after 500 heating cycles was surface of the Li-IB by inserting thermocouples within the cell.
only 1.4 %, indicating that battery performance is slightly degraded. Furthermore, the battery performance was not degraded even at low
To summarize, DC preheating heated the battery pack by directly frequencies. Ge et al. [51] proposed a multistep AC heating technique in
discharging the energy stored in the battery. Since no additional which the amplitude was adjusted based on the cell temperature by
equipment is required, the cost is low, and it is relatively easy to integrating the maximum permissible AC current. The cell heated from
implement. − 20 ◦ C to 5 ◦ C in 800 s at a frequency of 100 Hz. Zhan et al. [52]

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 5. (a) SHLB structure. (b) Design of a SHLB with multi-layer pouch cell [41,43].

Fig. 6. Current excitation preheating methods (a) DC (b) AC (C) Pulse [44].

suggested preheating approach employing SAC and formulated an en­ capacity degradation over 30 cycles to 0.035 %. Zhu et al. [50] con­
ergy conservation model to estimate the temperature rise. They exper­ ducted experiments to verify the state of health of batteries for 240
imentally verified this model by preheating Li-IB at various frequencies heating cycles. They reported that the temperature difference between
(0.1/1/10 Hz) and current amplitudes (3/5/7 A). They found that the the Li-IB was <2 ◦ C even at a high discharge current, and there was no
heating rate increased with increasing amplitude and decreasing fre­ significant degradation in the battery.
quency. Using an AC of 7 A amplitude and 1 Hz frequency could heat the In summary, pulse preheating offers uniform temperature distribu­
cell from − 20 ◦ C to 5 ◦ C in 15 min with almost identical temperature tion and low battery damage. However, it needs a circuit control system,
distribution. which increases the component number, cost, and complexity.
However, the effect of quantified AC preheating on battery health is
still uncertain and it is highly dependent on the availability of external
power source, which can be a limiting factor for use in EV's. 2.2. External preheating of Li-IB

By using various heat transfer techniques, external heating refers to

2.1.2.3. Pulse preheating. By using pulse preheating techniques, a bat­
heating the Li-IB from the outside source through convection or con­
tery is heated by an indirect current signal supplied to its internal
duction, raising their temperature to a specific value. This allows the
impedance. Pulse preheating can result in less battery capacity reduc­
battery system to recover most of its energy and power, satisfying EV's
tion than constant DC/AC preheating. The benefits of pulse preheating
mileage and power requirements. This study classifies external pre­
include homogeneous temperature distribution and less battery degra­
heating technologies into two categories. The first category employs
dation. Wu et al. [53] examine the pulse preheating technique based on
external heating integrated with cooling and adopts the electro thermal
variable frequency for battery operation in cold climates. They reported
elements to preheat the Li-IB.
that the variable frequency pulse pre-heating technique could heat a Li-
IB from − 20 ◦ C to 5 ◦ C in 16.6 min. The battery's capacity loss after ten
2.2.1. External heating integrated with cooling
preheating cycles was 0.4 %. Wu et al. [54] proposed a pulse current
The external heating integrated with cooling BTMS can perform both
preheating technique with capacity degradation mitigation and opti­
cooling and preheating functions. This section focuses on preheating
mization. They reported that the preheating method could heat the
technologies, which can be classified into air, liquid and PCMs based
battery from − 20 ◦ C to 5 ◦ C in 308 s with a temperature rise rate of
heating systems, whereas cooling technologies are discussed in Section 3
4.87 ◦ C/min. Moreover, the preheating technique reduced the battery's
[44].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

2.2.1.1. Air preheating. Li-IB is adopting air in EV's due to its simple greater market share and is mostly used technology. Zhang et al. [66]
design and inexpensive cost. They are very simple to implement [40]. developed six hollow metal plates that fit over the sides of the five
When air passes through the battery pack, there are two common ar­ batteries. Water is used as a heat transfer fluid and passes through
rangements: parallel and series. Parallel battery packs are preferred hollow metal plates to warm the batteries. They studied three crucial
because they face less wind resistance, and each channel has indepen­ parameters: pipe diameter, heat transfer fluid temperature, and flow
dent airflow. Air-based BTMS can be classified as passive or active rate. They found that preheating time can be shortened by increasing the
preheating, depending on the presence of a heating device [55]. Low pipe diameter but once it reaches a particular upper limit. The pipe
energy density batteries require passive preheating, but high energy diameter had no discernible impact on battery preheating. Additionally,
density batteries can use active preheating [56]. Air preheating Per­ raising the temperature of water will speed up battery preheating,
formance can be affected by air temperature and velocity. According to resulting in an uneven surface temperature of the battery pack. The ideal
Li et al. [57] increasing preheating velocity was more efficient than heat transfer fluid inlet temperature for this preheating system is 30 ◦ C.
raising the preheating temperature to reduce the heating period. A To summarize, the liquid preheating methods have superior thermal
considerable temperature difference inside the Li-IB can result from properties and can achieve better temperature uniformity in the battery
raising the air temperature, which can disrupt chemical reactions that pack. Liquid preheating methods are widely used in commercial EV's (e.
are occurring in the battery and harm its internal components. This can g. Tesla [67]) due to their high safety and reliability.
shorten the battery's lifespan.
Preheating Li-IB that uses air as the heat transfer medium has low 2.2.1.3. PCM preheating. Air and liquid based BTMS are typically
costs, easy to install, and has excellent reliability. Typically, an outside complex and expensive since they require mechanical power. PCM is an
heat source warms the air. A fan is then used to push the heated air, innovative way of efficiently absorbing and releasing a lot of heat during
which causes the battery to warm up to a certain point [58]. The heating phase change without using more energy [68]. The heat released during
system suggested by Ji and Wang [59] is made up of Li-IB cells, an PCM solidification is used to raise the battery's temperature. The PCM-
airflow channel, a fan, a heater and other control elements. The battery- based heating may be more effective at preserving temperature homo­
powered heater can generate a lot of heat at low temperatures, which geneity, which is important for increasing the battery's life [69]. PCM
can be used to warm the air in this system. When the fan operates, the was first utilized in the BTMS by Al-Hallaj and Selman in EV's [70]. Their
hot air warms the battery unit through convection. In Ref. [59], the simulation results showed that PCM preheating could keep the batteries
authors developed an adiabatic boundary cell-level model for preheat­ at a constant temperature, minimizing capacity loss at low temperatures
ing the Li-IB. In their investigation, a single 18,650 Li-IB with 2200 mAh and improving battery life. Ling et al. [71] studied the temperature
capacity was examined rather than the entire battery pack and an retaining capacity of RT28/fumed silica composite PCM at low tem­
electrochemical-thermal coupled model was used to simulate the cell's peratures experimentally. They discovered that the adopted PCM
internal heat generation. The simulation result shows that the voltage of effectively maintains the battery temperature above 5 ◦ C for almost an
the cell decreases at first as it heats up, but it gradually starts to rise as hour in a cold environment of − 10 ◦ C. They also observed that after
the temperature of the cell rises. The battery cell can be heated using a being exposed to a cold environment for a short period of time, a battery
heater that has a resistance of 0.8 from − 20 ◦ C to 20 ◦ C in 201 s. containing PCM is warmer, has a lower internal resistance, and improves
Air preheating is compatible with all types of batteries and has been material properties. However, PCM is limited by its poor thermal per­
implemented in EV's. However, air circulation necessitates external formance. To overcome this limitation, many researchers have enhanced
power, which can add to the complexity and cost of battery heating and the TC of PCM by adding high TC materials such as carbon nanotubes
can compromise its reliability. [72], expanded graphite [73], and fins [74] in PCM. Bahiraei et al. [75]
examined the effects of carbon nanofiber, graphene nanoplatelets, and
2.2.1.2. Liquid preheating. In comparison to air preheating, liquid pre­ graphite nanopowder on heat transfer performance. To create a homo­
heating has higher TC but requires a more complicated system [60,61]. geneous mixture, the required quantity of nanoparticles was quickly
As a result, it warms up more quickly, and the temperature rises at a mixed into the melted PCM at 90 ◦ C for 30 min. The experiment's
faster rate. The pump, heater, heat exchanger, heat transfer fluid and findings revealed that adding nanoparticles to solid-phase paraffin en­
circulation pipes are the major components of widely used liquid pre­ hances heat conduction while somewhat degrading latent heat.
heating. The heat is transferred from the heat transfer fluid to the Li-IB To summarize, the PCM based BTMS only helps batteries in a short
through the heat exchanger. The heat exchanger can be classified into cold stop by postponing their temperature decline. To achieve an
non-contacting and immersing heating [62]. An immersing method has extended duration of heat provision, there is a need for enhanced heat
a larger heat transfer coefficient as compared to the non-contacting sources. Currently, PCMs preheating have only been examined in labo­
method [63]. Wang et al. [64] developed a prototype of the ratories. Before PCMs preheating may be employed in EV's, more study
immersing preheating system, in which they used silicon oil as heat is required to properly evaluate their benefits and drawbacks.
transfer fluid. They found that preheating takes 11.0 min to heat the
battery pack from − 28 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C. Preheating can be done at a rate of 2.2.2. External electrothermal element methods
4.18 ◦ C/min with a maximum Li-IB temperature difference is 4 ◦ C. Luo Electrothermal element preheating methods convert electrical en­
et al. [65] developed a liquid heating system for 16 prismatic Li-IBs. The ergy into heat energy and transfer it to the Li-IB. This technique can be
entire battery pack was submerged in a closed loop that contained categorized into three configurations: the Peltier effect, electrothermal
transformer oil for dielectric insulation. The transformer oil can be plates, and electrothermal films.
heated by the electric heating film when the temperature of Li-IB falls
below 0 ◦ C. The Li-IB pack can be heated from − 30 ◦ C to 0 ◦ C in 35 min, 2.2.2.1. Peltier effect preheating. The Peltier effect is the heating or
with the temperature difference between the batteries regulated within cooling phenomenon that occurs at the junction of two different
3 ◦ C by rotating the oil. To minimize the risk of fire, the flashpoint of the conductive materials when an electric current is passed through it,
dielectric oil must be significantly lower than the maximum temperature creating a high temperature terminal and a low temperature terminal
(Tmax) of the electric heating film, and the oil's flammability must be [76]. The magnitude of the current can be adjusted to control the in­
considered while selecting this liquid heat transfer medium. Despite tensity of preheating and cooling [77]. Teoxler et al. [78] utilized Peltier
having a very good temperature rise rate, immersion liquid preheating elements for battery preheating, connecting one terminal to copper
technology must be applied with consideration for the space constraints plates to ensure a larger contact area and consistent temperature dis­
of the vehicle. As a result, non-contact indirect liquid heating has a tribution. The other terminal was linked to a heat sink for efficient heat

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

transfer to the Li-IB (Fig. 7). Alaoui et al. [79] evaluated preheating cooling of the Li-IB because heat is generated in Li-IB, which is necessary
efficiency and found that cells away from the Peltier element heated up to be dissipated. According to different heat dissipation methods, the
at a rate of 0.6 ◦ C/min, while cells close to the Peltier element heated up cooling system may be classified into three main types, namely, active
at a rate of 1 ◦ C/min. The Peltier element's electrical current increased [85], passive [86], and hybrid systems [87] (Fig. 8).
the system's rate of temperature rise.
Peltier-effect preheating techniques offer the benefits of easy 3.1. Active cooling of Li-IB
installation and low cost. However, the temperature gradient that occurs
after preheating may affect the temperature consistency. Therefore, In active cooling external energy sources are required to facilitate
further studies are required to investigate this issue. heat transfer. Consequently, an active cooling technique that employs
forced air or liquid flow with a fan, blower, or pump is a costly tech­
2.2.2.2. Electrothermal plates preheating. Electrothermal plates are nique. However, it improves the system's thermal performance by
positioned at the top and/or bottom of the battery pack to directly extracting heat from the battery. It is crucial to optimize the power
generate heat, which is then conducted to the battery cells for pre­ consumption to enhance the efficiency of the battery pack. Active
heating. These plates often incorporate positive temperature coefficient cooling has been extensively studied to evaluate Tmax and ensure uni­
materials and utilize temperature sensitive semiconductor devices for form temperature distribution within the battery pack. Active cooling
self-adjustment. Zhang et al. [80] suggested the installation of positive includes air cooling (Fig. 9) and liquid cooling [88,89]. Recent studies
temperature coefficient preheating units with thermocouples at the have been carried out on the active cooling of Li-IB are summarized in
measuring points of each battery module. The heat needed for the pre­ Table 2.
heating procedure was supplied by an external power source. The rate of
temperature rises was observed to be 0.07–0.08 ◦ C/min for the external 3.1.1. Air cooling
cells and 0.035–0.057 ◦ C/min for internal cells. Jin et al. [81] inserted Air cooling has been considered the most convenient method
the positive temperature coefficient resistance band in the slotted frequently and extensively used in commercial Applications. Air cooling
aluminium plates to ensure that at least one side of each battery systems are used in EV's due to their low cost, easy maintenance,
remained in touch with the positive temperature coefficient plate, and lightweight, long life and no leakage issues compared with other cooling
they found a higher rate of temperature rises of 0.35 ◦ C/min. BTMS [90,91]. Despite the numerous advantages of air-cooled BTMS
Electrothermal plates' preheating keeps a constant temperature to strategies over other methods, they also have drawbacks, such as the low
avoid over-heating and ensure battery safety. It has been used in some heat capacity and challenges in achieving a uniform distribution of air to
EV's, such as Mitsubishi i-MiEV [82] and Nissan LEAF [83]. But it takes a achieve the same thermal performance as other [92,93]. In recent years,
long time to preheat the battery and can cause uneven temperature in the improvement of forced air cooling has been mainly focused on
the battery pack. battery pack design, inlet and outlet design, and airflow channel design
[94].
2.2.2.3. Electrothermal films preheating. The electrothermal film is usu­ To minimize battery pack volume, optimize the cell layout before
ally composed of insulated metal foil and can produce heat when an designing the cooling airflow channel. Wang et al. [95] studied different
electrical current is applied to them. They have a smaller thickness air cooling strategies on battery modules and found that an axisym­
(about 1–2 mm) which means they have less impact on the design of the metric Li-IB pack layout had the most effective cooling effect compared
battery box. Lei et al. [84] introduced the wide-line metal film battery to other cell arrangements, such as 24 × 1 line, 8 × 3 rectangular, and 5
preheating method. They examined 35,000 mAh high-power Li-IB × 5 square layouts. Ultimately, the 5 × 5 layout was selected due to its
charge-discharge behaviour at low temperatures. According to the excellent thermal performance and cost savings. Fan et al. [96] experi­
findings, the temperature rise rate is 2.67 ◦ C/min, which may improve mentally studied and compared aligned, staggered and cross battery
battery performance at low temperatures. The electrothermal film has a pack arrangements (Fig. 10a). The aligned arrangement shows optimal
simple structure and can be installed at a low cost with ease. However, thermal performance and minimal energy consumption (23 % less than
the use of this method is limited as it is typically applied to square cells, that of the cross battery packs). The cooling capacity was enhanced with
which is a notable disadvantage. Furthermore, the safety and reliability higher air inlet velocity but reached a limit due to the exponential rise in
of the electrothermal film require further investigation. power consumption. Yu et al. [97] experimented with natural and forced
The electrothermal film is simple and cheap to install, but it only air cooling methods for a staggered arrangement of three 18,650 Li-IB
works for square cells. Its safety and stability also need more attention. modules (Fig. 10b). They found that the battery pack Tmax recorded
was 36 ◦ C, while the temperature difference was significantly reduced to
3. Classification of cooling system for Li-IB 2.8 ◦ C using the active air cooling method.
Some researchers focused on improving cooling by optimizing inlet
To ensure better thermal stability, researchers always focus on the and outlet designs. The entrance size may have a non-linear impact on
heat dissipation, but the position and shape of the inlet/outlet had
dominant effects on thermal performance [98]. Chen et al. [99] studied
that positioning the inlet and outlet in the middle of the battery pack was
optimal for air-cooling BTMS. Compared to the original BTMS with Z-
type flow, the peak battery temperature is reduced by 4.3 ◦ C. Wang et al.
[100] fabricated thirty cylinder shaped Li-IBs, with a 2-mm spacing
between them to examine the heat generation patterns. The battery
module had a forced-air cooling system and was tested by charging and
discharging at different C-rates for 3 cycles to prevent the battery pack
from excessive heat accumulation (Fig. 11a). The overall thermal effi­
ciency of design 1 (73 %) was higher than design 2 (62 %), and the Tmax
of design 1 was kept below 45.0 ◦ C with a temperature difference <5 ◦ C.
E et al. [101] investigated various air cooling techniques by adjusting
the positions of the airflow inlet and outlet to find the most effective
cooling method. The inlet/outlet positions were simulated using
Fig. 7. Peltier-effect preheating [78]. computational fluid dynamics (CFD): up inlet and down outlet, same-

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 8. Classification of cooling system.

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of the air-cooling system [89].

side inlet and outlet, and different-side inlet and outlet positions. The order to effectively dissipate the heat flux; a total of 37 coolant passages
finding shows that having an inlet and outlet on different sides provided were employed. (Fig. 11c). The thermal resistance model was used to
better cooling performance compared to having them on the same side. analyze the cooling performance by comparing the results of various
Additionally, the use of a baffle plate could significantly enhance the geometric arrangements using forced airflow at the inlet and outlet
cooling effect of air with the lateral inlet and outlet. ducts. By using a tapered manifold instead of other airflow forms, the
After the selection of the Li-IB pack and inlet and outlet designs, maximum Li-IB temperature was considerably decreased. Additionally,
researchers were mainly focused on enhancing the design of the air adding pressure relief ventilation to the outlet air duct further decreased
cooling channel. Yang et al. [102] examined the cooling performance of the maximum Li-IB temperature with improved temperature uniformity.
axial air flow, focusing on the optimal radial distance between Li-IB. Li et al. [106] extended the work of Park [105] and constructed a battery
They found that enhancing radial distances between Li-IB caused a system of 78 battery cells with 80 coolant passages, operating at 293 V
slight rise in average temperature but enhanced temperature uniformity and 1523 Wh. They discovered that adding baffles to the inlet and outlet
within the battery pack and reduced the cooling system's energy cost. manifold improved the cooling performance because the heat transfer
Furthermore, a higher air flux enhanced temperature uniformity within coefficient increased as a result of the contact area between air and
the battery pack. Na et al. [103] investigated the performance of a BTMS batteries. Mohammadian and Zhang [107] introduced a pin fin heat sink
utilizing unidirectional airflow and compared it to reverse layered or into the airflow channels and developed a unique design of air-cooled
stratified air flow (Fig. 11b). They found that the reverse layered air flow BTMS. Results show that the temperature of Li-IB decreased and
method significantly reduced the Tmax difference by 47.6 % as compared became more uniform when compared to a heat sink without pin fins.
to the unidirectional air flow. To enhance the efficiency of the BTMS, Furthermore, the Tmax dropped as the incoming air velocity increased.
they introduced rectifier grids into their battery pack design at the inlet Afterwards, Wang et al. [108] proposed a forced air cooling solution
to minimize the temperature variation. The Tmax decreases by 0.5 ◦ C, for Li-ion BTMS using open-cell aluminium foam. The battery module
and the average temperature difference decreases by 2.7 ◦ C (54.5 % consisted of nine pieces of the aluminium-based heat sink and eight
reduction). Mahamud et al. [104] developed a novel CFD model for pouch cell pieces. The Li-IB temperature was analyzed by CFD, and it
cylindrical Li-IBs utilizing a reciprocating airflow. According to their was found that forced air cooling could greatly improve Li-IB thermal
simulation result, they found that the cell temperature difference can be performance. Although reducing the porosity of aluminium foam low­
decreased by 72 %, and the maximum Li-IB temperature can be ered the average surface temperature of the cells, it also reduced the
decreased by 1.5 ◦ C. Park [105] composed the battery system of 72 temperature uniformity. The layout of the battery module, the shape of
battery cells arranged in two rows to operate at 270 V and 1400 Wh in the aluminium foam, and the cooling airflow direction were all

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Table 2
Summary of Active-cooled BTMS.
Cooling Battery module Approach Coolant Number Inlet Inlet mass Cell Discharge Inlet Tmax Temp Ref
system detail type of cells velocity of flow rate of capacity rate temp drop
air liquid

(m/s) (kg/s) (mAh) (C-rate) (◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C)

Forced air 18,650 Simulation Air 24 1 - 1500 1 25 33.58 2.9 [95]

cooling cylindrical Li-IB
Forced air 18,650 Experimental Air 32 0.6 - 3500 1 20 37.5 12.5 [96]
cooling cylindrical Li-IB
Forced air NCR18650PF Experimental Air 66 0.8 - 2700 0.5 25 36 2.8 [97]
cooling cylindrical Li-IB
Forced air NCR18650PF Experimental Air 30 8 - 2900 1 26.4 55 17.7 [100]
cooling cylindrical Li-IB
Forced air NCM 18650 Simulation Air 60 2 - 2600 1 25 38.9 7.3 [101]
cooling cylindrical Li-IB
Forced air Cartridge heaters Experimental/ Air 20 2 - - 3 25 38.2 4.5 [103]
cooling simulation
Direct Li-ion pouch cells Experimental/ Mineral 14 3.87 0.0462 20,000 3 25 31.7 26.5 [114]
liquid simulation oil
cooling
Direct Cylindrical Li-IB Simulation HFE- 32 0.57 0.05 - 3 21 39 53 [115]
liquid 6120
cooling
Direct LiFePO4 pouch Simulation HFE- 18 - - 20,000 10 25 35 70 [116]
liquid battery cells 7000
cooling
Indirect Li-ion pouch Experimental/ Water 2 - - 8000 1 - 33 27 [123]
Liquid battery cells simulation
cooling
Indirect Prismatic shape Experimental/ Water 12 - 0.01 - 2 25 42 3 [124]
Liquid NMC batteries simulation
cooling
Indirect 26,650 Experiment Water 18 - - 5000 1.5 25 36.6 32.9 [131]
Liquid cylindrical Li-IB
cooling

1) - means not available in the Reference.

2) Temp means temperature.

Fig. 10. (a) Battery pack design (b) Stagger-arranged battery pack [96,97].

examined to increase temperature uniformity. They found that design, safe and reliable operation, and adaptability to various forms of
compared to the other two factors, only a quarter-inch intake and a “T”- Li-IB. However, active air cooling systems also have some issues, such as
shaped aluminium foam performed the best. Zhang et al. [109] devel­ high power consumption, high cost, and low heat capacity. Therefore,
oped a multi-vent-based 5 × 5 battery module for 18,650 Li-IB. They air-cooled BTMS is suitable for some vehicles with small battery capacity
optimized the module structures by adjusting vent size and position and short operation time, which do not require additional power
using CFD to enhance cooling performance. The study found that sources.
increasing the vent size achieved better cooling performance at a con­
stant inlet air flow rate. The configuration, with one inlet in the top 3.1.2. Liquid cooling
center and four outlets in the lower right corner of each side, was su­ Liquid coolants have a better TC than air cooling, making them a
perior to other layouts. Compared to the original model, the Tmax of the more desirable choice as a cooling medium. A liquid-type thermal
battery pack decreased by 7.167 ◦ C (16.4 %). management system could use less energy and produce more effective
To summarize, the air cooled BTMS has the advantages of simple cooling for high heat load conditions [110]. Liquid cooling for Li-IB is

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 11. (a) Design 1: upper outlet; Design 2: bottom outlet schematic diagrams. (b) Unidirectional air flow and reverse stratified air flow. (c) Battery system in­
tegrated with air coolant passages [100,103,105].

Fig. 12. (a) Liquid direct cooling BTMS using natural cooling, battery immersed in stationary mineral oil without tab cooling, battery immersed in stationary mineral
oil with tab cooling and battery immersed in flowing mineral oil with tab cooling. (b) Liquid indirect cooling battery module schematic [114,131].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

divided into direct and indirect methods based on the contact between commercialization in EV's [121]. The indirect cooling system typically
the coolant and the battery [111]. employs cold plates, fins and microchannels to exchange heat between
the battery pack and the coolant in order to prevent liquid leakage and
3.1.2.1. Liquid direct cooling. In comparison to indirect cooling, direct short circuiting [122]. Chen et al. [123] developed an ideal thermal
liquid cooling exhibits superior cooling performance, improved tem­ control strategy to manage the Li-IB temperature within an ideal oper­
perature consistency, and greater compactness. However, a major ating range of 15 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C. ANSYS/Fluent was used to vary the mass
challenge for the direct liquid cooling type is to ensure the sealing of the flow or heat transfer coefficient and determine the cooling effect of four
battery packs. The direct-contact type requires liquid media that can different cooling structures: air cooling, direct liquid cooling, indirect
either flow over the cell surface or remain stationary [112]. The battery liquid cooling, and fin cooling. They found that air cooling requires 2 to
module is submerged in a liquid coolant, which should possess certain 3 times more energy than alternative methods to keep the same average
properties such as electrical insulation, non-toxicity and chemical sta­ temperature. Indirect liquid cooling provides the largest temperature
bility to prevent the occurrence of short circuits at the interface between difference due to the longer coolant channel, but because water/glycol
the coolant and the Li-IB. Recently, mineral oil and silicon oil have been coolant has a higher heat capacity, the temperature difference declines
primarily used as coolants [113]. The entire surface of the battery pack more quickly than with other methods. Direct liquid cooling using
is cooled when it is submerged in a coolant liquid, which helps to in­ mineral oil improves cooling performance as compared to indirect liquid
crease temperature uniformity and reduce Tmax [113]. Patil et al. [114] cooling, although there are problems with liquid leakage. Fin cooling
investigated four different cooling techniques, i.e. natural convection, adds an additional 40 % weight to the battery when compared to other
battery immersion in stationary mineral oil without tab cooling, battery cooling methods with the same volume. Akbarzadeh et al. [124] used
immersion in stationary mineral oil with tab cooling, and battery im­ CFD simulation to compare the cooling performance of liquid (water)
mersion in flowing mineral oil with tab cooling (Fig. 12a). The experi­ and air BTMS for a high-energy Li-IB pack. They designed two unique
ment findings showed that the battery cell submerged in flowing mineral cooling systems, including indirect water with a U-shape cooling plate
oil with tab cooling enabled a 46.8 % drop in the Tmax when compared to and a U-type parallel air cooling system. They found that the maximum
natural convection. They also found that by adopting the proposed Li-IB temperature in the water-cooled system was 3 ◦ C lower than the
mineral oil immersion cooling instead of the conventional water- air-cooled system within the investigated range of energy consumption.
ethylene glycol (indirect cooling method), the battery pack tempera­ Furthermore, increasing the coolant flow rate lowers the Li-IB Tmax.
ture was decreased by 9.3 %. Tan et al. [115] proposed a novel hydro­ However, in the liquid-type BTMS, the average temperature difference
fluoroether (HFE-6120) based direct cooling method for fast-charging between cells decreased, while it increased in the air-type BTMS.
battery packs. The direct cooling parameters were quantitatively Sarchami et al. [125] conducted a study on the thermal efficiency of the
examined using CFD. They found that at 0.05 m/s inlet velocity, 20.3 % Li-IB pack with AgO nanofluid (nano coolant) and copper mold during
increase in mass energy density and 95.3 % reduction in energy con­ the charge and discharge cycles. The influence of various parameters,
sumption. Additionally, a multilayer channel is combined with a such as volume fractions of AgO nanoparticles, coolant inflow velocity,
crossflow configuration and utilizing 30 mm channel height, the Tmax and inlet liquid temperature, on the thermal performance of the LIB pack
difference between the battery cells can be reduced by 18.1 %. Li et al. were investigated. The addition of AgO nanoparticles with volume
[116] investigated indirect cooling and direct cooling and discovered fractions of 1 %, 2 %, and 4 % to the deionized water reduced the peak
that at 2C indirect cooling can efficiently disperse heat and regulate the temperature of the Li-IB pack by 7.3 %, 11.1 %, and 12.4 %, respec­
battery pack's temperature. At 10C, the Tmax will be >100 ◦ C, and direct tively, compared to the water-cooled system under fast discharging
cooling is insufficient for cooling the battery pack due to its low heat conditions. The study also found that the temperature variations of the
transfer coefficient. Using single phase direct cooling with a fluorinated batteries with a coolant velocity of 0.28 m/s in the cooling channel were
liquid, the Li-IB temperature can be limited to 65 ◦ C during 10 ◦ C reduced by 26 % and 21.5 %, respectively, during the charge and
discharge. Additionally, using two-phase immersion cooling, the Tmax discharge cycles, compared to a coolant velocity of 0.16 m/s. The results
may be managed to be below 35 ◦ C while also improving temperature also indicated that higher inlet liquid temperatures increased the
uniformity. Hong et al. [117] experimentally assessed the performance maximum battery temperatures by about 3.6 ◦ C and 1.6 ◦ C, respectively,
of direct two-phase refrigerant cooling (R134a) over traditional liquid during the discharge cycles, when the inlet temperatures rose from 20 ◦ C
cooling (ethylene glycol and water) in actual environmental circum­ to 35 ◦ C. Huang et al. [126] studied BTMS of a transient 48 cell indirect
stances under different C rates. Using R134a direct refrigerant cooling water cooled battery module using a lumped mass model. The findings
achieves a maximum cell temperature limit of 45 ◦ C, while the liquid imply that a cold plate cooling system has a maximum cooling capacity.
cooling system surpasses this limit in a normal environment. Addition­ Once the incoming mass flow rate reaches a certain range, further
ally, two-phase refrigerant direct cooling provides a 16.1 % larger bat­ increasing it does not significantly enhance the cooling effect. The sur­
tery capacity and a 15.0 % lower internal resistance compared to liquid face temperature of the Li-IB pack does not quickly drop when the
cooling. But the main issue with the refrigerant R134a has a significant incoming flow rate abruptly rises. Qubeissi et al. [127] performed a CFD
potential for global warming, which is equally damaging to life on Earth. simulation by using n-heptane as a coolant for the thermal management
That is the reason Wu [118] examined the refrigerant R134a and the of Li-IB in hybrid EV's. Performance comparison of n-heptane cooling
eco-friendly R1234yf without modifying the model's structure. The system with other conventional methods, such as air cooling and 3M-
study shows that at normal temperatures, BTMS effectively prevents Novec 7200 cooling was conducted. Air cooling is identified as the
battery temperature rise, keeping it below 31 ◦ C. In high-temperature most inefficient method to maintain the temperature uniformity and the
conditions, BTMS rapidly lowers cell temperature below 40 ◦ C with safety limit of the Li-IB module. On the other hand, n-heptane and 3M-
only a 3.2 % increase in power consumption. It shows that it is possible Novec 7200 demonstrate a good ability to regulate the module tem­
to replace R134a with R1234yf without increasing costs. perature range within 20 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C under various discharge rates and
different inlet velocities. Using n-heptane as a coolant offers significant
3.1.2.2. Liquid indirect colling. Despite direct-contact mode offering advantages for the system in terms of cost, weight, and Tmax reduction,
superior thermal performance, it may not be feasible to implement it in compared to using 3M-Novec 7200 coolant. The Tmax of the battery at 1C
battery packs due to certain potential drawbacks. The majority of direct- and 2C discharge rates decreases by >7.9 ◦ C and 17.9 ◦ C, respectively,
contact cooling methods employ mineral oil that has a high viscosity, when using n-heptane as a coolant, relative to the same battery module
which results in high energy consumption [119,120]. Moreover, long- without cooling. Kalkan et al. [128] compared the thermal performance
term battery packs require effective sealing for successful of conventional serpentine tubes and novel mini channel water-cooled
plates in BTMS. The coolant used in this experiment is water flowing

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

at various rates between 0.1 and 1.1 L/min. The findings show that the liquid cooling systems as a technique for BTMS include Chevrolet Volt,
inlet temperature of the coolant had a greater influence on the battery's Tesla Model S and Model 3, BMW i3 and i8 [132–134].
Tmax compared to the flow rate. The Tmax was reduced by 5.7 ◦ C and
temperature uniformity is improved up to 40 % when mini channel cool 3.2. Passive cooling of Li-IB
plates were used instead of serpentine ones for operating conditions.
Chung and Kim [129] evaluated the battery pack's thermal behaviour in On the other hand, passive cooling techniques do not require addi­
terms of cooling performance and temperature uniformity using various tional cooling sources. Passive cooling can be divided into two main
designs: a reference design with a fin-cooling structure, a thickened categories, namely, heat pipe (HP) and PCM [135,136]. Passive cooling
cooling fin design (identical in terms of geometry but with twice as techniques are distinguished for their energy efficiency, economical
thickness to the reference design), a sandwich cooling plate design, and cost, and prolonged reliability and durability. However, they have some
an interspersed cooling plate design. Low heat conductivity from the drawbacks, including low TC, the possibility of leakage, and limited
bottom of the battery pack to the cooling plate and asymmetric design capacity for thermal energy storage applications [137]. Table 3 presents
negatively affect heat dissipation and temperature uniformity. The a comprehensive summary of the passive cooling methods employed for
interspersed cooling plate design is suggested as an alternative, resulting Li-IB.
in a 64 % improvement in heat conductance to system volume ratio and
reducing the Tmax difference to 5.4 ◦ C. However, this design requires a 3.2.1. PCMs cooling
powerful pump to circulate coolant due to the lengthy and narrow A Li-IB pack temperature is often managed by liquid or air cooling.
channels, causing a significant pressure to drop. Yang et al. [130] Yet, these systems are more expensive and have higher operating costs
employed a liquid-cooling BTMS that utilized liquid metal as the because they rely on electricity and power. Therefore, using PCMs could
coolant. Numerical simulations are conducted to evaluate the cooling be an interesting choice [138]. The BTMS, which is based on PCMs, has
capability, pump power consumption and module temperature unifor­ the property of absorbing and releasing latent heat during the phase
mity of the liquid metal cooling system, in comparison with that of water change. They reduce the Tmax rise during the charge and discharge
cooling. Liquid metal (Gallium) has a TC of 29.40 W/m/◦ C, which is process. PCMs have a strong ability to maintain battery temperature in
about 50 times higher than water with 0.60 W/m/◦ C. The results found transient situations, even when temperatures vary significantly [139].
that liquid metal cooling system has lower and more uniform module The PCMs can be classed as solid-liquid PCM and liquid-gas PCM based
temperature, less power consumption, and better cooling performance on the phase change type.
under stressful conditions than water cooling system. Du et al. [131]
examined the cooling performance of a mini-channel liquid cooling 3.2.1.1. Phase change (liquid to gas) cooling. When a liquid turns into a
system at different discharge rates (Fig. 12b). They found that Without gas, a significant amount of heat is absorbed, and this process operates
cooling, the average temperature can reach 56.5 ◦ C with temperature without consuming any energy. Therefore, the passive BTMS in the Li-IB
difference between the cell is 12.3 ◦ C at 1C. However, when employing was frequently used as a liquid-gas PCM [140]. The conventional liquid-
mini-channel indirect cooling, the average temperature of Li-IB and gas system includes evaporation and boiling systems. To increase the
temperature difference decrease by 43.7 % and 65.9 % respectively. effectiveness of heat transmission in liquid-gas phase change systems,
The liquid cooling system offers superior thermal performance and HP was frequently used [141,142]. To reduce the risk of a short circuit,
efficiency for BTMS. It is the most widely adopted technique in the the boiling system utilized a dielectric fluid as the PCM. The non-
market and can be applied either directly or indirectly, depending on the conductive boiling liquid has a greater cooling capacity than air cool­
contact between the coolant and the battery surface. EV's that employ ing, and because the temperature is equally distributed during boiling,

Table 3
Summary of passive-cooled BTMS.
Cooling system Battery module Approach PCM Number of Cell Discharge Phase Tmax Temp Ref
detail cells capacity rate change drop
temp

(mAh) (C-rate) (◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C)

Phase change Prismatic Li-IB Simulation Propane 12 - 4 20.8 34.9 - [149]

liquid-vapor
Cooling system
Phase change Prismatic Li-IB Simulation Liquid ammonia 12 - 4 21.5 33 - [150]
liquid-vapor
cooling system
Phase change Cylindrical Simulation/ 1-Tetradecanol (Organic 45 6000 2 38 42.85 6.5 [162]
solid-liquid LiFePO4 battery experimental PCM)
cooling system
Phase change Cylindrical Experimental Paraffin (Organic PCM) 24 10,000 5 37 38.94 17.86 [164]
solid-liquid LiFePO4 battery
cooling system
Phase change Cylindrical NCR Experimental Sodium acetate 20 3200 2 49.1 52.3 4.8 [171]
solid-liquid Li-IB trihydrate urea
cooling system (Inorganic PCM)
HP cooling 18,650 Simulation - 24 - 1.5 - 37.1 27.7 [192]
cylindrical Li-IB
HP cooling Prismatic Li- Experimental - 16 23,000 - 28 20 [193]
titanate cells
HP cooling NMC 18,650 Li- Experimental - 24 2600 1 - 17.5 35.8 [195]
IB
HP cooling Prismatic Li-IB Simulation/ - 8 25,000 - - 55 - [197]
experimental

1) - means not available in the Reference.

2) Temp means temperature.

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

the battery's ageing effect may be lessened. Pressure variation offers a more frequently used than liquid-gas PCMs because the ratio of volume
useful technique to control the boiling process because boiling happens change is low. They are simpler to operate, more efficient, and don't
at a specific pressure [143,144]. The boiling liquid has excellent insu­ need any additional mechanical components like blowers or pumps.
lation and is not flammable. By adjusting the pressure, the boiling point There are four stages to the phase transition process of solid-liquid
may be changed, and it is very close to the temperature at which the PCMs. In the first stage, the temperature of the Li-IB quickly increases.
battery operates normally. In the development of boiling liquids, re­ In the second stage, PCMs slow down the rate of temperature rise as heat
searchers stopped using perfluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons. conduction takes place. In the third stage, the thermal balance between
They might effectively lower the battery's surface temperature, but they PCMs heat absorption and Li-IB heat generation is achieved. In the last
also create a significant risk to the ozone layer and accelerate global stage, when the PCM completely melted, the heat was naturally released
warming. Currently, liquefied propane, liquid ammonia, hydro­ through convection [153,154]. To improve the system performance, a
fluoroether, fluorinated ether, and perfluorinated ketone are the most solid-liquid PCMs based BTMS is advantageous, considering latent heat,
often utilized boiling liquids in research [145–147]. melting point, and TC as significant parameters. High latent heat PCM
In order to control the Tmax of Li-IB for EV's, Hirano et al. [148] can dramatically lower Li-IB Tmax. Solid-liquid PCMs may be classified
investigated a boiling cooling technique for Li-IB pack using hydrofluoro into organic, inorganic and eutectic PCMs (Fig. 13) [155,156]. However,
ether and perfluorinated ketone as heat transfer fluids. The boiling pure PCM has low TC, which restricts its direct use in BTMS. To over­
temperatures of hydrofluoro ether and perfluorinated ketone were 34 ◦ C come this limitation, composite PCM is created by using various
and 49 ◦ C, respectively. They compared the BTMS using air cooling and methods to enhance its TC and are discussed in Section 3.2.1.2.4.
boiling liquid cooling at 10C charge/discharge rates. They found that 3.2.1.2.1. Organic PCMs. Paraffin and non-paraffin compounds are
the cell temperature increased to 80 ◦ C–90 ◦ C with air cooling, while it the main types of organic PCMs. Low-temperature organic PCMs are
remained around 35 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C with full immersion of hydrofluoro often developed and enhanced using paraffin, organic acids, and sugar
ether and perfluorinated ketone, respectively. Zareer et al. [149] sug­ alcohols. Organic PCMs have been primarily used in BTM because of
gested a phase change liquid-vapor cooling system based on propane. their advantages and properties, such as corrosion resistance, non­
During the high rate of charging discharging cycle (4C), the battery Tmax toxicity, safety, excellent chemical durability, and almost minimal
was maintained below 34.9 ◦ C for a duration of 600 s when 5 % of the supercoiling [158,159]. Organic PCMs naturally have low TC, which
battery's overall length was covered by the saturated liquid propane. causes difficulties in transferring the heat produced by Li-IB [160]. To
Additionally, by covering 30 % of the battery's length with saturated address the issue of low TC in a phase transition of paraffin. Different
liquid propane, the Tmax of a propane-covered cell may further reduce. researchers use a variety of functional materials to enhance their heat
Zareer et al. [150] also used liquid ammonia as a cooling medium for transfer capabilities, including carbon-based materials, metal materials,
BTMS. To improve heat transfer, they combined natural convection with organic polymers, and inorganic nanoparticles. Bais et al. [161] con­
direct contact between the battery and liquid ammonia. The research ducted a numerical investigation using RT-42 paraffin as a working
showed that when boiling ammonia covered only 5 % of the battery's material to control battery temperatures. The effects of varying the PCM
front surface, the highest temperature stayed below 33 ◦ C. Moreover, thickness from 1 mm to 7 mm around the battery cell were studied. The
enlarging the covering surface ratio of the battery front can lower the results showed that the optimal thickness of PCM for effective temper­
highest temperature and enhance the battery's temperature uniformity. ature control was 4 mm, beyond which the performance gain was
Bandhauer and Garimella [151] developed an innovative internal negligible. However, the low TC of pure RT-42 paraffin limited its heat
cooling system that employs a liquid-vapor phase change fluid in the transfer efficiency. Therefore, the performance of Al2O3/RT-42 paraffin
microchannel to effectively lower the Tmax and temperature gradient of nanoenhanced PCM at the optimal thickness of 4 mm was evaluated
the battery. Heat is transferred to microchannel evaporators, causing the numerically. The results indicated that the nano PCM could effectively
R134a to vaporize. The vaporized fluid flows up to the condenser, where restrict the maximum battery temperature to 42.77 ◦ C. Rajan et al. [162]
it condenses because of the difference in energy density. An et al. [152] examine the thermal performance of Organic 1-Tetradecanol PCM in a
propose a BTMS using a hydrofluoroether liquid with a boiling point of BTMS. They found that the pure Organic PCM could drastically lower
34 ◦ C. The system employs flow boiling in a mini-channel to maintain the battery temperature rises by up to 7 ◦ C. However, they also intro­
the battery temperature below 40 ◦ C at various discharge rates and flow duced Copper foam to improve the PCMs TC. As a result, a uniform
rates. Boiling heat transfer proves advantageous as it significantly re­ temperature profile is maintained throughout its cross section, and the
duces the cell's temperature difference to only 4 ◦ C. working temperature of Li-IB will be further decreased by 3 ◦ C. Le et al.
[163] employed three different PCMs for BTMS, namely n-octadecane,
3.2.1.2. Phase change (solid to liquid) cooling. Solid-liquid PCMs are n-eicosane, and n-docosane, with melting temperature of 27.7 ◦ C,

Fig. 13. General classification of PCMs [157].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

36.1 ◦ C, and 44 ◦ C, respectively. They found that n-docosane had the severe accidents involving the thermal or mechanical damage of the
highest battery cell temperature of 45.6 ◦ C during 3C charging, which is battery.
not suitable for BTMS because it exceeds the optimal operating tem­ Metals are versatile due to their low latent heat of fusion, high
perature of 40 ◦ C. They also found that n-octadecane entered the phase melting temperatures, good TC, stable melting behaviour, and excellent
change section too quickly in 105 s, while n-eicosane had a suitable performance. However, they are expensive compared to paraffin.
melting temperature of 36.1 ◦ C for BTMS. Rao et al. [164] developed Despite being heavy and having relatively high melting temperatures,
and experimentally investigated a paraffin/copper foam BTMS in EV's. metals are not ideal for cooling applications. They have become more
The battery cells were enveloped by the PCM, whose phase change useful as a result of recent advancements in nanomaterials fabrication
temperature was 37 ◦ C. They found that at a constant discharge rate of [173]. Karimi et al. [174] conducted a study on the performance of a
5C, the temperature of a Li-IB pack without paraffin/copper foam was cylindrical Li-IB with a stainless steel as the metal matrix and added Cu,
56.8 ◦ C, while the temperature of a Li-IB with paraffin/copper foam was Ag, and Fe3O4 nanomaterials to the PCM. The results showed that the
38.94 ◦ C, with a 3 ◦ C temperature difference between cells. The BTMS metal matrix was the most effective in reducing the temperature dif­
reduced the Tmax by 17.86 ◦ C. Iqbal et al. [165] conducted an experi­ ference in the container, achieving a 70 % reduction. Cu-based com­
mental investigation to evaluate the effects of active (forced air cooling) posite also reduced the temperature difference by 60 % compared to the
and passive (natural convection cooling and lauric acid PCM cooling) blank. The Fe3O4 and Ag nanomaterials had the same effect on the
methods on the thermal performance of a single Li-ion cell. They found temperature difference, with a 50 % reduction. Among the different
that at a constant current discharge rate of 3C, Tmax of the cell was 69 ◦ C nanomaterials, Cu nanomaterials had the highest priority for BTMS.
without natural cooling, 39.9 ◦ C with natural convection cooling, John et al. [175] conducted a numerical investigation on the effect of
20.1 ◦ C with forced convection, and 20.8 ◦ C with PCM cooling. The use PCM thickness and CuO nanoparticles additives on the cooling perfor­
of PCM cooling resulted in a significant decrease in temperature mance of PCM based BTMS. The cooling performance of PCM was
compared to the absence of natural convection. The temperature significantly improved by adding CuO up to 4 %. However, further
reduction was 7.2 %, 25.3 % and 31 % for the discharge rates of 1C, 2C, addition had no significant impact on reducing cell temperature. They
and 3C respectively. Sudhakaran et al. [166] performed a numerical show that stearic acid based PCM was effective in controlling the cell
analysis on the cooling performance of PCM using ANSYS Fluent. They temperature, which reached the lowest value of 38.7 ◦ C.
analyze the effect of the PCM (Capric Acid, RT-35, RT-42, and RT-55), 3.2.1.2.3. Eutectic PCMs. Eutectic PCMs are crystal mixtures that
thickness (2, 4, 6 and 8 mm), additive percentage (1, 3, 5 and 7 % by exhibit simultaneous melting and solidification with lower melting and
volume of copper foam), and heat transfer coefficient (5, 7, 9, and 11 W/ freezing points compared to pure substances. They are typically pre­
m2 K) on Li-IB. They found that the Tmax drop of the Li-IB was achieved pared by combining two or more substances, including organics, in­
by using capric acid as the PCM material and RT-35 also exhibited a organics, or both inorganic and organic compounds [176]. In eutectic
promising thermal management capability. Additionally, it was materials, each constituent undergoes a simultaneous transition to a
concluded that the most influential parameter related to the cooling liquid state during melting, while during freezing, they form a crystal­
performance of PCM-based BTMS was the PCM material (35.4 %), fol­ line mixture. In comparison to organic and inorganic PCM, they have a
lowed by PCM thickness (35.13 %), heat transfer coefficient (13.98 %), sharp melting temperature, good TC, low supercooling effect and high
and additive percentage (5.09 %). volumetric heat storage [167,177]. Despite the fact that eutectic mixes
3.2.1.2.2. Inorganic PCMs. Inorganic PCMs offer a higher heat of have the potential to be innovative PCMs, very few researchers have
fusion per unit mass compared to organic PCMs, and they are also cost- reported the application of eutectic mixtures in the automotive industry.
effective and non-flammable (usually). They have a higher operating Liu and Yang [178] conducted a study on the effect of various mass
temperature and greater TC. However, inorganic PCMs are extremely fractions of TiO2 nanoparticles on the enhancement of specific heat and
corrosive to metals, which reduces their useful life and raises the sys­ latent heat of eutectic hydrated salt PCM. The results showed that
tem's cost [167]. Inorganic PCMs typically consist of hydrated salts, adding 0.3 wt% of TiO2 nanoparticles to eutectic hydrated salt increased
molten salts, and metal. However, hydrated salts are the most popular the latent heat and specific heat capacity by up to 6.4 % and 83.5 %,
type, and various researchers have used them for heat transfer purposes respectively. This composite eutectic PCM offered a promising approach
in Li-IB. Salt hydrates, in comparison to paraffin, possess a higher den­ to achieve high heat energy storage systems and can be used in BTMS in
sity and a greater latent heat of fusion per unit volume. They undergo the future.
less volume change during phase transition, compatibility with plastics, 3.2.1.2.4. Composite PCMs. The use of PCM in EV's has been gaining
have very low toxicity and have high TC. The widespread application of more attention for the past few decades. However, with the advance­
hydrated salts is severely constrained by their corrosiveness, instability, ment of technology and the emergence of high-rate charge and
ease of phase separation, and supercoiling [168,169]. Ping et al. [170] discharge, pure PCMs tend to accumulate excessive heat and cause Li-IB
synthesized Na2HPO4⋅12H2O encapsulated by silica as a novel inorganic pack temperature to rise due to their low TC. Therefore, enhancing the
PCM with a melting temperature of 51 ◦ C and a latent heat of 111.69 kJ/ TC of PCMs has become the research focus among research community.
kg. The thermal performance of the PCM was investigated at various C- Currently, the main technique to achieve high TC in PCM can be broadly
rates. Silica encapsulated Na2HPO4⋅12H2O reduced the peak battery divided into two categories: adding carbon-based materials and metal-
temperature by 23.7 %, from 86.6 ◦ C to 66.1 ◦ C, and maintained a based materials with high TC.
uniform temperature distribution within 3 ◦ C. Ling et al. [171] proposed The conventional carbon materials include graphite, expanded
a multiscale encapsulation with expanded graphite to address the sta­ graphite, graphene, and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT)
bility issues of the sodium acetate trihydrate urea (inorganic PCM). [25,179]. Huang et al. [180] prepared a composite PCM of paraffin and
Using this technique, the long-term stability of the inorganic PCM is graphite physically, and the thermal properties were measured using
much improved, and the PCMs TC is increased to 4.96 W/m K. More­ differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results show that the
over, the inorganic PCM effectively regulates the Tmax below 52.3 ◦ C addition of graphite enhances the TC of the PCM, which results in a
with a temperature difference of 4.0 ◦ C in a 20-cell battery pack. Ling lower peak temperature rise of the battery. Zou et al. [181] synthesized a
et al. [172] investigated the performance of a novel inorganic PCM paraffin wax/expanded graphite composite PCM and evaluated its local
(sodium acetate trihydrate-urea/expanded graphite) to protect the heat transfer enhancement performance in Li-IB. With composite PCM,
battery during thermal runaway. This PCM had a phase change tem­ the Tmax and the temperature difference of 36-battery modules during
perature of 50.3 ◦ C and enthalpy of 181 kJ/kg. High latent heat of the 3C discharge were 44.6 ◦ C and 0.8 ◦ C, respectively. Xin et al. [182]
studied PCM enabled the battery to remain cool during external short investigated passive BTMS for 5000 mAh prismatic Li-IB using paraffin
circuit and prevented the thermal runaway propagation caused by wax/expanded graphite composite PCM both numerically and

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

experimentally. The results showed that with a thickness of 4 mm isothermal, and condenser sections. In this arrangement, the evaporator
composite PCM, at 2C rate, the Tmax of the battery was controlled up to section of the HP is positioned in direct contact with the Li-IB pack. The
48.26 ◦ C. Malik et al. [183] designed, developed, and experimentally working fluid absorbs heat from the Li-IB in the evaporator section, and
tested a composite PCM cooling system for battery pack. Thermal per­ it changes to vapor. The high vapor pressure and low molecular weight
formance of the PCM was enhanced by integrating graphene with it. The create a pressure gradient that travels the vapor towards the condenser
composite PCM exhibited a remarkable improvement in TC compared to section. When the vapor reaches the condenser section, it condenses,
that of pure PCM. A 6 mm thick composite PCM reduced the temperature releasing heat into the atmosphere and returning to a liquid condition.
of the battery pack from 56.5 ◦ C to 36.5 ◦ C at a discharge rate of 4C. To To maintain continuous operation, the HP must transmit heat from the
enhance the thermal management system of Li-IB, Zou et al. [72] syn­ evaporator portion to the working fluid and then absorb that heat at the
thesized and tested MWCNT and graphene based composite PCM. The condenser section [189,190]. Ling et al. [191] examined the effects of
composite PCM with a 3/7 MWCNT to graphene ratio showed the best ambient temperature, coolant temperature and coolant flow rate on the
heat transfer effect, with a TC 31.8 %, 55.4 % and 124 % higher than battery temperature in the HP thermal management system. They found
that of graphene, MWCNT and pure PCM respectively. significant improvement in system performance when operating under
The addition of metal enhances the TC and mechanical strength of low ambient and coolant temperature conditions. The cooling perfor­
PCMs. Several studies were conducted in the last decade by adding mance of the HP exhibited a slight enhancement as the flow rate
aluminium, copper, and nickel in PCMs to improve their thermal per­ increased to a certain value (2 L/min). Additionally, they observed that
formance. It was found that embedding metal in PCM materials can the cooling capacity slightly increased when the ambient temperature
increase the heat transfer by 5–10 times compared to pure PCM dropped below 25 ◦ C. Furthermore, they recommended adopting an
[184,185]. Rao et al. [164] conducted an experimental study on 24 intermittent cooling strategy for the HP will give equivalent results with
cylindrical LiFePO4 batteries with 10,000 mAh capacity using a less power usage. Behi et al. [192] proposed a variety of BTMS,
paraffin/copper foam composite PCM. The discharge rates of the bat­ including natural air cooling, forced air cooling, HPs, and HPs with
teries varied between 3C and 5C. The Tmax of the battery module was copper sheets. According to the results, forced air cooling, HPs, and HPs
observed as, 40.89 ◦ C and 42.33 ◦ C, respectively, when the batteries with copper sheets all had increased temperature uniformity over nat­
were discharged at a constant rate of 5C, corresponding to the ambient ural cooling by 73.4 %, 66.5 %, and 39.2 %, respectively. Additionally,
temperatures of 29 ◦ C and 33 ◦ C, respectively. Azizi and Sadrameli compared to natural convection, the Tmax of the battery pack was
[186] proposed a composite of PEG (1000)/Aluminium wire plates for reduced by 42.7 %, 42.1 %, and 34.5 % for HPs with copper sheets, HPs,
the thermal management system of a LiFePO4 pack. The battery pack and forced air cooling, respectively. Jouhara et al. [193] studied the
temperature decreased by 19 %, 21 %, and 26 %, respectively, at the effects of HPs in regulating battery temperature and found that the
discharge rate of 1C, 2C, and 3C, respectively. Hussian et al. [187] designed BTMS was highly effective, greatly improving the overall
conducted an experiment on the effective BTMS of 18,650 Li-IB with a temperature homogeneity of the module. The maximum Li-IB temper­
capacity of 3.14 Ah, using a nickel foam/paraffin composite PCM. At the ature was kept below 28 ◦ C. They also compared refrigerant-cooled and
2C rate, the composite PCM reduced the surface temperature of the chilled water-cooled HPs. It was found that the refrigerant-based BTMS
battery by 31 % and 24 % compared to natural air convection and pure achieved an additional 2 ◦ C reduction in the Tmax compared to the
PCM, respectively. chilled water-cooled BTMS. Similarly, Zu et al. [194] examined the
PCM cooling is an effective method to regulate the Tmax and tem­ temperature of Li-IB under varying discharge rates and showed that the
perature difference of the Li-IB pack without consuming any external BTMS based on plate-flat HPs and liquid cooling could satisfy the cooling
power. However, PCM cooling also has some drawbacks, such as need at a low discharge rate of 0.5C. However, this approach proved
increasing the vehicle weight, having low TC, and causing leakage is­ ineffective when the discharge rate increased to 2C. To address this
sues. To address these problems, many studies have enhanced PCM by issue, the researchers placed coolers in various places and discovered
adding materials with high TC, which can dissipate the heat accumu­ that this system worked well even at high discharge rates. Feng et al.
lation in the PCM cooling system and make the cooling system more [195] designed an HP-based thermal management system with fins
compact and lightweight. inserted in the condenser section and copper plates connected to Li-IB in
the evaporator section. Fan cooled HPs lowered Tmax by 12 ◦ C compared
3.2.2. HPs cooling to natural convective HPs. Yuan et al. [196] created an integrated
HPs are effective heat transfer devices with high thermal perfor­ cooling module for Li-IBs by combining HPs with cooling fins at one end
mance, high efficiency, lightweight and maintenance-free BTMS. Their and an aluminium heat collecting plate at the other end. They examined
TC and phase transition provides a novel way to regulate the tempera­ the effectiveness of a single, double and U-shaped HPs and found that
ture of the Li-IB in EV's [188]. The HP's working principle and schematic the Tmax was reduced by 42 ◦ C, 38.5 ◦ C, and 36 ◦ C, respectively. Smith
have been described (Fig. 14a). It can be divided into the evaporator, et al. [197] proposed, designed and tested a HP based BTMS for EV's

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic and working principle of the HP (b) HP BTMS assembly [161,197].

15
A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

(Fig. 14b). The suggested system contained HP cooling plates for heat coefficient in particular circumstances and when the ambient tempera­
extraction from the battery pack, remote heat transfer HPs to transport ture is near the Li-IB Tmax, this cooling strategy alone may not be able to
heat up to distance of 300 mm, and liquid cold plates to dissipate heat to regulate the Tmax rise in EV's. So, to enhance the rate of heat dissipation
the surrounding. Compared to a conventional cooling system, the HP- to the ambient environment, the addition of air cooling in combination
based BTMS offers advantages such as more uniform Li-IB tempera­ with PCM has been employed. Yang et al. [203] conducted an investi­
ture, simpler design, and enhanced safety. Using water coolant at 25 ◦ C gation and comparative analysis of the cooling performances of a Li-IB
and a flow rate of 1 lit/min, it was found that the suggested system pack during charging-discharging cycles utilizing different cooling
successfully dissipates 50 W of heat per each cell while maintaining their methods: natural convection, natural convection with PCM, and forced
temperature within the specified 55 ◦ C limit. convection with PCM. The findings show that at 1C, the battery Tmax
The HPs BTMS have high TC, which allows it to cool the Li-IB pack with natural convection only exceeds the ideal operating temperature.
quickly and efficiently. However, this also results in uneven heat dis­ However, the implementation of combined forced convection with PCM
tribution on the battery surface, as the heat pipes only contact some successfully maintained the temperature of the Li-IB within the desired
parts of the battery, leaving the rest hot. range, ensuring that both the Tmax and temperature difference were
within the ideal range at 2C. Ling et al. [204] conducted experimental
investigations on a hybrid BTMS with PCM (Paraffin RT44HC with EG)
3.3. Hybrid cooling of Li-IB
and forced air for cylindrical Li-IB pack (Fig. 15). The study examined
the performance of a BTMS at discharge rates of 1.5C and 2C. The results
According to a literature study, conventional cooling systems such as
show that the passive Paraffin RT44HC with EG-based BTMS was able to
active and passive cooling are inefficient for extreme working environ­
maintain the battery temperature below 45 ◦ C after the initial 2 cycles.
ments for Li-IB. As a result, to maintain the effective cooling perfor­
However, the hybrid BTMS successfully maintained the battery tem­
mance of EV's batteries, a more effective cooling method is necessary.
perature below 45 ◦ C throughout all 5 cycles. Additionally, the effects of
Hybrid cooling combines two or more active or passive cooling methods
air velocity were investigated at 1 m/s, 3 m/s, and 5 m/s, and they found
to overcome the drawbacks of conventional methods and achieve
that a speed of 3 m/s was enough to achieve the desired battery
excellent thermal performance. Currently, hybrid cooling of Li-IB
temperature.
frequently uses PCMs with forced air [198,199], liquid [200,201], and
Safdari et al. [205] examined a hybrid air-PCM based BTMS using air
HPs [193,202]. PCMs rely heavily on the specific heat's capacity to
and Paraffin wax with EG as an active and passive coolant, respectively.
absorb the heat generated by the Li-IB. However, if the melting point is
The PCM that surrounds the Li-IB is enclosed in three different vessels
reached, the PCMs performance is dramatically reduced, and it can serve
with identical volumes that have circular, rectangular, and hexagonal
as an insulator. In order to control the PCM temperature and ensure the
cross-sections (Fig. 16). In various charging and discharging rates, the
proper functioning of Li-IB, it is crucial to consider integrating cooling
temperature of the battery pack is investigated. The findings show that
techniques with PCM. Table 4 presents a detailed study of hybrid cooling
both hexagonal and circular PCM vessels exhibit basically the same
methods employed for Li-IB.
behaviour in terms of their thermal performance. However, the rect­
angular shape can achieve a lower Tmax and a more even distribution of
3.3.1. Air-PCM cooling
temperature in comparison to the others. Forced-air convection at 0.2
BTMS uses air in EV's because of their simple design, low cost, and
m/s improved cooling performance by 642 % compared to natural
ease of implementation. However, due to a low convective heat transfer

Table 4
Summary of hybrid-cooled BTMS.
Cooling Battery module detail Approach PCM PCM melting Number of Cell Discharge Tmax Max Ref
system temp cells capacity rate ΔT

(◦ C) (mAh) (C-rate) (◦ C) (◦ C)

Air-PCM Samsung 18,650 Li-IB Experimental Paraffin RT44HC - 9 2600 1.5 45 1.7 [204]
cooling + EG
Air-PCM Sony 18,650 cylindrical Simulation Paraffin wax + EG 33.85 12 1800 3 45 - [205]
cooling Li-IB
Air-PCM LiCoO2 18,650 Li-IBs Simulation Paraffin + RT27 27 6 - 2 40.8 1.5 [206]
cooling
Air-PCM NCM 18650 cylindrical Experimental/ Copper paraffin 56 4 2600 2 35 3 [208]
cooling batteries simulation RT56
Liquid-PCM XALT Energy Li-ion Simulation - 44 168 53,000 5 46.3 2.53 [216]
cooling pounch batteries
Liquid-PCM Li-ion pounch batteries Simulation Paraffin wax - - 40,000 2 36.9 13 [220]
cooling
Liquid-PCM Rectangular Li-IB Simulation KNO3 34.85 - - 5 47.5 6.0 [221]
cooling
Liquid-PCM NMC 21,700 Li-IB Experimental/ Paraffin + EG 31–36 10 4000 3 41.1 4 [225]
cooling simulation
HP-PCM Cylindrical Li-IB Experimental Paraffin + graphite 50 30 1100 3 44 3 [180]
cooling
HP-PCM Li-titanate battery cell Experimental/ Paraffin 25–32 - 2300 8 33.2 - [230]
cooling simulation
HP-PCM Prismatic LiFePO4 Experimental Paraffin 38–42 18 2700 5 49.9 5 [231]
cooling batteries
HP-PCM Cylindrical Li-IB Experimental Paraffin + 40 16 - 5 55.8 6.9 [234]
cooling expanded graphite

1) - means not available in the Reference.

2) Temp means temperature.
3) ΔT mean temperature difference between Li-IB.
4) Max mean maximum.

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram: (a) A 5S4P battery pack (b) structure of the air channel [204].

convection. graphite composite plate (Fig. 19). They claimed that copper mesh could
Bamdezh et al. [206] analyze the effect of cell arrangement, enhance the mechanical strength and TC of the composite plate. As a
compactness, and PCMs thickness in a hybrid BTMS. They used an air result, this enhancement would lead to improved heat dissipation
cooling system (active part) and RT27 PCM embedded around Li-IBs effectiveness and enhanced temperature uniformity of the composite
(passive part). Results show that increasing the distance between cells, plate. According to the experimental findings, by adding cooper mesh at
increasing the thickness of the PCM, and implementing a staggered cell a cycling rate of 5C, a substantially lower Tmax could be achieved.
arrangement significantly enhance the thermal performance of the Situ et al. [211] developed double improved copper mesh-based
battery due to the increased heat capacity. Furthermore, the tempera­ PCM plate and conducted a comprehensive investigation on the bat­
ture difference across the battery module remains below 1.5 ◦ C for all tery performance under varying air velocities ranging from 2 to 8 m/s.
investigated cases, highlighting the hybrid BTMS ability to maintain a They used Paraffin, expanded graphite, low-density polyethylene, and
uniform temperature distribution. Singh et al. [207] numerically copper mesh to improve heat transfer. Results show that using these
investigated hybrid cooling with air and PCM of a battery pack con­ double enhanced copper mesh-PCM plates with air-cooling significantly
sisting of 25 Li-IBs using COMSOL Multiphysics solver (Fig. 17). PCM (n- reduced the internal Li-IB temperature and power consumption. Lv et al.
octadecane) was selected as a passive cooling agent, and the air was [212] studied serpentine composite PCM-forced air convection BTMS.
chosen as an active cooling agent. At several discharge rates, the com­ The composite PCM used in this experiment was made up of expanded
bined effects of varied air flow rates and n-octadecane thickness over the graphite, paraffin, and hexadecane stearic acid. Comparative analysis
cells have been observed. According to the results, the Li-IB temperature with conventional PCM-based BTMS revealed that the use of serpentine
is observed to decrease by up to 25 ◦ C as airflow increases. Additionally, composite PCM plates resulted in a reduction in battery weight, an in­
heat removal is much improved when a PCM layer is placed on top of the crease in energy density by 70 %, and a decrease in the Li-IB temperature
cells. The heat removal efficiency, however, becomes constant after the by 3.6 ◦ C.
PCM layer has reached a particular thickness (t > 1 mm). To summarize, this section has reviewed the literature on the air-
Qin et al. [208] proposed a novel BTMS that combines paraffin RT56 PCM hybrid cooling technique and found that it enhances the cooling
with forced air convection. The effectiveness of the system is proved performance and temperature uniformity of the battery module due to
experimentally under dynamic cycling at different charging rates. They the hybrid application. PCM has exceptional capabilities for regulating
found that at a 3C rate, the battery Tmax and temperature difference temperature and increasing temperature distribution because it was in
within the battery pack are reduced by 16 ◦ C and 1.2 ◦ C, respectively. direct contact with the Li-IB. Furthermore, the PCMs utilization effi­
Additionally, the gaps between the Li-IB were optimized, and a 5 mm ciency was further enhanced by air cooling because of its low power
space gap was recommended. Kermani et al. [209] embedded Paraffin in consumption, simple design, and inexpensive cost. PCM/air cooling is
a copper foam with forced air cooling for Li-ion BTMS (Fig. 18). A suitable for small-scale Li-IB systems with minimal heat dissipation
comparative analysis was conducted to evaluate the cooling efficacy of needs. However, for large-scale power battery systems with higher
hybrid, active air-based, and passive PCM-based BTMS. It was found that cooling demands, designing an effective BTMS employing PCM with
the Li-IB Tmax was decreased by 40.3 %,22.3 % and 18.6 %, respectively, other novel cooling techniques is essential.
employing hybrid, air-based, and PCM-based BTMS in comparison to
natural convection. 3.3.2. Liquid-PCM cooling
Wu et al. [210] proposed a new hybrid cooling system combining Liquid cooling is frequently employed in battery management sys­
forced air convection and copper mesh-enhanced paraffin/expanded tems and provides better heat transfer rates than air cooling because the

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 16. Schematic of three different BTMS cases a) circular, b) rectangular, c) hexagonal [176].

TC of the liquid is significantly higher than that of air. Even in some

situations of large battery packs, liquid cooling alone cannot provide
sufficient cooling performance. To get higher performance, liquid
cooling systems with PCMs have been developed. Among the various
methods employed for battery BTMS, cooling plates, particularly the
integrated liquid-PCM system, are widely adopted [213–215]. Wang
et al. [216] proposed hybrid BTMS that combines PCM with a water
cooling plate (Fig. 20). The battery cooling system is numerically
simulated using a three-dimensional thermal model and validated using
existent data from literature. Results show that at a 5C rate, the
maximum Li-IB temperature can be lowered from 64 ◦ C to 46.3 ◦ C using
two-sided cold plates. Mousavi et al. [217] developed hybrid BTMSs to
regulate the temperature of battery cells in five-cell modules, sand­
wiched between cold plates. They investigated two types of cold plates:
the mini-channel cold plate and the newly designed hybrid mini-channel
cold plate (adding n-eicosane PCM inside the cold plate). The BTMS
Fig. 17. Schematics of the flow of 25 cylindrical 18,650 Li-IBs arranged in a performance was significantly influenced by the battery orientation.
cubical battery pack [207]. Consequently, the optimal orientation resulted in a 30 ◦ C reduction in
the Tmax in the battery packs. Under constant heat generation, the hybrid
cooling system lowered the peak battery temperature by 10.35 ◦ C

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

through which water flows (Fig. 22a). They examined the effect of water
inlet temperature, flow rate, and PCM content on Li-IB cooling. The
study showed that maintaining water temperature below 40 ◦ C, close to
ambient air temperature, is the optimal control strategy. Additionally,
the high water flow rate slightly reduces the Tmax of the battery pack, but
it can dramatically increase energy consumption. Therefore, it is rec­
ommended to use a modest water flow when the battery is operating at
its ideal temperature. Bai et al. [220] conducted a numerical investi­
gation on hybrid BTMS that combines paraffin wax and water-cooling
plates for Li-IBs. The arrangement involved placing PCM and liquid
cooling plates between the battery cells, with water flowing through the
plates. The study analyzed multiple factors, including water cooling
plate height, mass flow rate, flow direction, battery spacing, TC, and
PCM melting point. Higher water flow rate and lower inlet temperature
improved battery performance. Increasing PCM TC using foam metal or
additives had minimal impact on cooling. A PCM with a high melting
temperature and 5 mm cooling plate height offered better cooling per­
formance. Rao et al. [221] designed the PCM (KNO3)/mini-channel
hybrid BTMS to enhance the working performance of Li-IB in EV's
Fig. 18. Description of hybrid BTMS: (a) configuration of air direction and
(Fig. 22b). The PCM was used to absorb heat produced by the Li-IB, and
channels and (b) components of the battery module [209]. a liquid flowing through the mini-channels released that heat into the
environment. The study investigated the effects of water flow rate,
melting temperature and PCM TC and the number of channels. The re­
compared to active cooling.
sults showed that having a greater number of mini channels resulted in
Akbarzadeh et al. [218] introduced a liquid (water) cooling plate
improved Tmax drop and enhanced temperature uniformity. The hybrid
with composite paraffin/graphite PCM to improve the thermal man­
BTMS achieved a notable temperature drop of 14.8 ◦ C compared to the
agement of EV's batteries (Fig. 21). The results show that employing a
PCM-based BTMS.
hybrid liquid cooling plate can reduce the pump energy consumption for
Xin et al. [73] conducted a numerical investigation on a hybrid BTMS
coolant circulation by up to 30 % compared to an aluminium liquid
that combines RT44HC/expanded graphite composite PCM with water
cooling plate. Additionally, the hybrid cooling plate facilitated a greater
for 25 cylindrical batteries at a high discharge rate of 5C and ambient
degree of temperature uniformity in the battery pack.
temperature of 40 ◦ C. Furthermore, the effect of various factors, such as
Cao et al. [219] design a hybrid BTMS for 20 Li-ion cylindrical cells
PCM thicknesses, water flow directions, expanded graphite mass frac­
that combine PCMs and liquid cooling. In this system, expanded
tions, and water inlet velocities and temperatures in the battery module,
graphite with RT44HC composites is integrated with a cold plate
were examined. They found that the Li-IB Tmax and temperature

Fig. 19. Hybrid BTMS with forced-air convection, PCM, and metal mesh [210].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 20. Pack configurations of the hybrid cooling system [216].

Fig. 21. Schematic of the proposed cooling plate. (a) Battery module with cooling plates, (b) exterior design, (c) interior design [218].

difference are kept below 45.24 ◦ C and 3.49 ◦ C, respectively. Hu et al. PCM cooling and hybrid cooling, was 56.95 ◦ C, 49.7 ◦ C and 41.97 ◦ C
[222] proposes a hybrid cooling method (composite PCM with liquid respectively.
cooling) and examined the impact of pump start-up time, inlet tem­ Molaeimanesh et al. [223] examined the impact of system configu­
perature, and flow rate on the thermal and electrical performance of the ration on the cooling efficiency of a battery using RT27-PCM and liquid-
battery module. The experimental results showed that the heat dissi­ cooling channels. The findings reveal that the parallel/series configu­
pation requirements of the battery module can be satisfied by the passive ration demonstrates optimal performance for Li-IB with extended
cooling strategy under low rate conditions and high-temperature envi­ operating lifespans, exhibiting high rates of heat dissipation, maintained
ronments. The liquid cooling strategy is only suitable for extreme sce­ lower Tmax, and minimal temperature difference across the interface
narios (3C discharging at 35 ◦ C). Low inlet temperatures and high flow between the cell operation. Lv et al. [224] prepared graphene oxide-
rates can decrease the battery module's Tmax. However, the flow rate has modified silica gel to cover the Li-IB pack. This graphene oxide is uti­
a diminishing effect on the thermal performance when it surpasses 25 lized for enhancing TC and improving the efficient transfer of heat
mL/min. The Tmax of battery pack at 2.5C discharge, with air cooling, accumulated in a battery pack to the tubes (Fig. 23). The water cooling

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 22. (a) The battery pack and the cold plate (b) PCM/mini-channel coupled BTMS [189,221].

tubes are located between the Li-IBs and are wounded with copper wires The cooling performance of the battery module is numerically investi­
to increase heat transfer. The battery module with a water cooling sys­ gated, and it found that the maximum Li-IB temperature was controlled
tem and graphene oxide-silica gel shows higher cooling efficiency by below 38.85 ◦ C and temperature difference between the battery pack is
keeping the battery Tmax rise and temperature difference at 42 ◦ C and 3.5 ◦ C.
5 ◦ C, respectively. Hybrid cooling with PCM and liquid is the current trend for BTMS
Kong et al. [225] developed hybrid BTMS integrating PCM/ techniques. It offers high specific heat capacity and cooling efficiency, as
Expanded graphite and water/ethylene glycol liquid coolant for the liquid has superior TC to air and facilitates PCM solidification. However,
cylindrical battery pack to handle the difficult thermal performance liquid cooling systems have some drawbacks, such as being complex and
during continuous operation under various ambient temperatures. An costly. They require additional equipment (pipes, pumps, or heat ex­
experimental investigation was conducted to study the impact of liquid changers), have a complicated layout, and need high sealing standards
cooling on the battery charging and discharging process. The results to prevent leakage.
showed that during battery charging or rest periods, liquid cooling has
the ability to significantly speed up the solidification of PCM. It was 3.3.3. HP-PCM cooling
found that when the ambient temperature falls below the PCMs melting In recent years, a passive hybrid BTMS based on HPs and PCM has
temperature, the dissipation of heat is primarily facilitated by the PCM. been widely used to regulate the battery pack temperature. PCMs
On the other hand, when the ambient temperature is higher than the depend greatly on the latent heat's ability to absorb the heat generated
PCMs melting temperature, liquid cooling is necessary for the battery by the Li-IB. However, if the melting point is reached, the PCMs abilities
pack heat dissipation. Fan et al. [226] presented a new BTMS combining are severely decreased, and it can serve as an insulator. Therefore, it is
water/ethanol liquid coolant and composite PCM. The simulation results recommended to investigate integrating HP with PCMs to control the Li-
show the battery pack Tmax and temperature difference are reduced to IB temperature and ensure proper functioning. In this BTMS, the thermal
33.12 ◦ C and 1.50 ◦ C, respectively, at an inlet velocity of 0.193 m/s. energy released by the Li-IB is initially stored by the PCMs and then by
When composite PCM is used instead of conventional BTMS, the total the HPs evaporator. The remaining heat is released into the atmosphere
energy required for water circulation is reduced by 79.9 %. Yang et al. through the condenser section. Peng et al. [228] examined the thermal
[227] proposed a novel honeycomb-like BTMS having a hexagonal behaviour of a novel, compact HP with a PCM cooling system for cy­
cooling plate integrated with liquid mini-channel and PCMs (Fig. 24). lindrical Li-ion modules. In the experimental module, the PCM is

Fig. 23. Liquid cooling system with graphene oxide-modified silica gel [224].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 24. Scheme of BTMS [227].

paraffin wax, and the heat transfer fluid for the HP is acetone. The module. The HP-PCM and liquid cooling system reduced the Tmax rise to
findings show that during the discharge process, the paraffin wax liquid 44 ◦ C with the temperature difference between batteries is 3 ◦ C.
fraction distribution is non-uniform. The outer layer and top portion of Wu et al. [137] designed a hybrid cooling system based on HP and
PCM melt first. Due to varying melting rates, the temperature difference paraffin/EG composite PCM. The experimental findings demonstrated
between batteries slightly increases. Additionally, paraffin wax with that HP had an impact on temperature uniformity at high discharge
extended graphene exhibits improved heat dissipation compared to pure rates. When forced air convection was used, the Tmax was kept below
PCM. The composite TC increases with higher graphene content, but 50 ◦ C, even at a discharge rate of 5C, resulting in a stable and lower
heat capacity and latent heat decrease. Jiang and Qu [229] proposed a temperature fluctuation during cycling. Moreover, increasing the
thermal model to study the temperature of a sandwich cooling structure airflow velocity further reduced the highest temperature at a slower rate
with battery, PCM/EG composite, and HP (Fig. 25). They claimed that due to the melting process of PCM. However, the effectiveness of
only PCM was unable to maintain the temperature of the battery within increasing the airflow velocity is limited once it reaches a critical value
the optimum operating range due to insufficient latent heat recovery. In (Fig. 27).
contrast, it was discovered that combining PCM and an HP provided a Behi et al. [230] experimentally and numerically investigated the
better method of regulating the battery's temperature, even when the organic paraffin wax PCM coupled HP cooling system for batteries under
battery was functioning for a long period of time. Additionally, it is a high discharge rate. They used distilled water as the heat transfer fluid
suggested that the PCM melting point be at least 3 ◦ C above ambient in the HP. According to the results, the maximum cell temperature for
temperature for battery safety. natural convection, HPs, and organic paraffin wax assisted HPs is 56 ◦ C,
Huang et al. [180] designed PCM-based BTMS for Li-IB modules 46.3 ◦ C, and 33.2 ◦ C, respectively. Compared to natural convection, the
consisting of pure PCM, HP integrated with air assisted PCM, and HP use of HPs reduced the maximum cell temperature by 17.3 %, while
integrated with liquid assisted PCM, respectively (Fig. 26). They used paraffin wax-assisted HP cooling systems achieved a reduction of 40.7
paraffin as pure PCM and physical mixtures of paraffin and graphite as %. Zhang et al. [231] designed and proposed a novel kind of hybrid
composite PCM. The findings of experiments at various discharge rates BTMS that includes HPs, copper foam, and paraffin (PCM). In this BTMS,
showed that HP played a significant role in transporting the heat rapidly heat generated by the batteries is transmitted through HPs and stored in
and maintaining a constant temperature for a PCM-based battery paraffin. The copper foam is used to enhance the TC of PCM (Fig. 28).

Fig. 25. Schematic of the (a) thermal management module (b) heat pump [229].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 26. Schematic of designed Li-IB module and sub-modules [180].

When the Li-IB temperature rises above the set value, an extra fan is used
to improve heat dissipation. Results show that the suggested battery
pack maintains Tmax below 45 ◦ C at discharge rates of 1C, 3C, and 4C.
Putra et al. [232] investigated the effectiveness of beeswax-PCM and
Rubitherm 44 HC-PCM with HPs as passive battery cooling systems.
They used two HPs with forced air convection-cooled fins between the
cells. After a 1.5-hour test with 60 W of heat power, the Li-IB Tmax
decreased by 26.6 ◦ C, 31.9 ◦ C and 33.2 ◦ C, respectively, by using HP,
HPs with beeswax and HPs with Rubitherm 44 HC. Abbas et al. [233]
propose two types of compact BTMS which utilize paraffin with water
cooling flat plate HPs. Two configurations of HP insertions were inves­
tigated, where the cylindrical cells were either directly (attached HP
mode) or indirectly (detached HP mode) in contact with the HPs
(Fig. 29). To evaluate the cooling performance, heat generation rates of
Fig. 27. Schematic diagram of heat transfer in HP-PCM plate module [137]. 2, 4, and 6 W per heater were employed. The findings show that the
attached HP mode achieved a 31 % reduction in terms of the Tmax when

Fig. 28. Schematic of the battery pack with BTMS [231].

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

Fig. 29. Schematic diagram (a) Detached HP mode and (b) attached HP mode [233].

compared to the detached HP mode at 6 W heat released by each cell. 4. Liquid cooling system offers superior thermal performance and ef­
Zhao et al. [234] conducted an experimental investigation on a cy­ ficiency for BTMS by effectively regulating battery temperature and
lindrical power battery consisting of paraffin and expanded graphite achieving uniform temperature distribution. Liquid direct cooling,
composite PCM with HP. Circular fins were added to the condenser using coolants like mineral oil or silicon oil, is ideal for high heat
section of an HP. The result shows that PCM reduces battery temperature production systems. On the other hand, indirect liquid cooling is
by 33.6 %, and when the PCM was attached to an HP, it further more complicated and heavier but better suited for EV's applications.
decreased by 28.9 %. Compared to air-based and PCM-based BTMS, this 5. PCM is a heat storage material that can change its phase and store
hybrid BTMS maintained the Tmax below 50 ◦ C and temperature dif­ sensible heat and latent heat for cooling and heating applications.
ference below 5 ◦ C for longer periods. PCM/HP-based BTMS has gained Increasing the TC and latent heat of the PCM and lowering the
the most attention in EV's due to its lower power consumption and cost, melting temperature can improve the thermal management system
as it eliminates the need for pumps or fans. of the battery and facilitate heat dissipation, particularly under hot
To summarize, HP-PCM BTMS enhances the benefits and mitigates climatic conditions. However, pure PCMs have low TC, low strength,
the limitations of both modules separately. The system uses the HPs high and leakage problems. To overcome these challenges, incorporation
TC to enable fast heat exchange among the battery, the PCM, and the of carbon materials (graphite, expanded graphite, graphene, and
environment, which regulates the Tmax, ensures a uniform temperature MWCNT) and metals (aluminium, copper, and nickel) are used to
distribution, and avoids PCM latent heat depletion. increase heat dissipation rate and improve strength.
6. HPs utilize a passive closed-loop system to transfer heat away from
4. Conclusion the battery and disperse it into the surrounding environment. The
most effective design solutions involve sandwiching the HPs between
This review summarizes the recent advancements in Li-ion BTMS. the batteries or placing them below the batteries/module. This sys­
The fundamental objective of BTMS is to sustain the Tmax and temper­ tem can keep the battery temperature low and prevent danger.
ature difference within a safe operating range. The effects of low/high However, this system has poor temperature uniformity on the battery
temperatures on the performance of Li-IB are discussed, and then its surface because the heat pipe is directly attached to the battery and
classification, advantages, and potential improvement of the heating/ only cools the contact area.
cooling phenomenon are reviewed systematically. After an extensive 7. In summary, to achieve better cooling performance, the hybrid BTMS
literature review, a few prominent findings are summarized below: that combines PCM with air, liquid and HP could be a suitable
alternative. This is the best BTMS as it maintains uniform tempera­
1. The internal preheating method is still in the laboratory development ture distribution and lowers Tmax rise in Li-IB, even at high discharge
stage. Self-heating Li-IB exhibits excellent heating performance but rates, without requiring external power.
has difficulties in temperature control and safety. AC-preheating
shows potential with higher efficiency and uniform temperature 5. Future recommendations
distribution but needs large excitation currents. While DC preheating
technique adversely affects the battery performance. • The future of EV's would require batteries with high energy density,
2. In external preheating, the liquid, PCM, and electrothermal film fast charging, and fast discharging capabilities. These features would
preheating techniques have higher rates of temperature rise than generate a large amount of heat that needs to be effectively managed
other techniques. This is because they have a large contact area, high for different battery configurations such as cell, module, and pack
TC, and less heat loss during heat transfer. The resistance preheating type. However, the existing BTMS are not suitable for high energy
and peltier-effect preheating techniques, on the other hand, have low density batteries used in EV's. Therefore, new and improved BTMS is
temperature uniformity and high energy consumption, which reduce needed.
the EVs' range after preheating. • The design of air and liquid BTMS should be optimized to improve
3. Air cooling is preferred to EV's for its low cost, easy maintenance, heat dissipation and reduce energy consumption. Furthermore, the
lightweight and no leakage issues. Varying the battery module integration of batteries with sensors control systems that regulate the
design and spacing between Li-IB improves airflow distribution, external power and ensure the battery is within safe and optimal
thereby increasing thermal performance. The cross-cell arrangement temperature ranges.
proves superior to aligned and staggered arrangements in terms of • The PCM-based BTMS has the potential for energy savings and a
cooling and uniformity. simplified structure, but more research is necessary before it can be
applied commercially. When developing new PCMs, it is essential to

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A. Khan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 76 (2024) 109852

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