LESSON 1

INDUCTION

Course objectives
​ - To learn and practice how to teach English (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation,
macro skills).
​ - To be aware of how to use teaching aids.
​ - To practice preparing some teaching aids.
​ - To practice some classroom management.
​ - To study some major types of tests and their characteristics.

Revision: Teaching methods

​ - Total Physical Response: learners perform actions in response to the teacher's
instructions.
​ - Presentation – Practice – Production: learners practice new structures orally
only after the teacher has introduced them.
​ - Test – Teach – Test: the teacher assesses learners' knowledge of the target
language before presenting it.
​ - Lexical approach: the focus is on words or sets of words and how they are used
in natural contexts.
​ - Grammar translation: there is more emphasis on the written word than spoken
communication.
​ - Task-based learning: lessons focus on completing an activity after which
relevant language is highlighted and worked on.

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LESSON 2

OVERVIEW OF LEARNING PROCESS

What do language learners need?

●​ Listening ●​ Speaking ●​ Vocabulary
●​ Reading ●​ Writing ●​ Grammar

How do people learn language?

​ 1) The learner doesn't know anything about the item. ​ Ignorance
​ 2) The learner hears or reads examples of the item, but doesn't particularly notice
it. Exposure
​ 3) The learner begins to realize that there is a feature he/she doesn't fully
understand. Noticing
​ 4) The learner starts to look more closely at the item and tries to work out the
formation rules and the meaning, possibly with the help of reference infor, explanations
or other help. Understanding
​ 5) The learner tries to use the item in his/her own speech or writing. Practice
​ 6) The learner integrates them fully into his/her own language and uses it
relatively easily with minor errors. Active use

Process of learning

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Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning

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●​ Creating: putting information together in an innovative way.
●​ Evaluating: making judgements based on a set of guidelines.
●​ Analysing: breaking the concept into parts and understand how each part is
related to one another.
●​ Applying: use the knowledge gained in new ways.
●​ Understanding: making sense of what you have learnt.
●​ Remembering: recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory.

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What are 8 types of MI (multiple intelligences)?
●​ Visual/Spatial Intelligence: ability to perceive the visual.
●​ Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence: ability to use words and language.
●​ Logical/Mathematical Intelligence: ability to use reason, logic & numbers.
●​ Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence: ability to control body movements and handle
objects skillfully.
●​ Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence: ability to produce & appreciate music.
●​ Interpersonal Intelligence: ability to relate & understand others.
●​ Intrapersonal Intelligence: ability to self-reflect.
●​ Natural Intelligence: ability to understand natural words.
VAK learning style
❖​ Visual learners
​ - Need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression.
​ - Prefer sitting at the front of the classroom.
​ - Think in pictures and learn best from visual displays.
​ - Prefer to take detailed notes.
​ - Weakness:
​ feel frustrated when unable to take notes.
​ have difficulty following lectures that are long.
​ unnecessary movement can be a distraction.

❖​ Auditory learners
​ - Learn best through verbal instructions, taped lectures and face-to-face instruction
​ - Interpret the underlying meanings of speech.

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​ - Benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.
​ - Weakness:
​ have difficulty with reading and writing tasks.
​ unnecessary noise can be a distraction.

❖​ Tactile/Kinesthetic learners
​ - Learn best through moving, doing, acting out & touching.
​ - Enjoy conducting experiments, exploring & performing tasks.
​ - Use color highlighters and take notes.
​ - Weakness:
​ tend to lose concentration if there is little or no external stimulation or
movement.
​ weak at spelling.
​ handwriting often not good.

Background knowledge

The world The specific topic The genre

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 Top – down Bottom – up
- Ss get a general view overall picture
- T / Ss focus on details.
- Ss recall schemata compare prior
- T / Ss analyze info (sounds, words,
knowledge and new info express
structures) get further understanding.
predictions / expectations.
●​ If only one process is focused, students are UNABLE to develop language skills.

❖​ Do the following represent use of top-down or bottom-up strategies?

​ 1) Before we start listening, we can already predict some possible words and
phrases that might be used because of our knowledge of lexical sets associated with the
topic. Top-down
​ 2) We listen carefully to a recording a number of times so that we can find a word
we can catch clearly. Bottom-up
​ 3) When we don't clearly catch what people say, we hypothesize what we have
missed and reinstate what we think was there, based on our knowledge of similar
conversations. Top-down
​ 4) We know the typical pattern some interactions follow (e.g. the typical sequence
of exchanges when ordering a taxi on the phone), and this helps us to understand these
when they are spoken. Top-down

Stages of planning a lesson

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Writing an objective
❖​ What are included in the objective?
​ - Language knowledge
​ - Language skills
​ - Attitudes (language behaviors)
​ - (Teaching aids)
❖​ Tense: future perfect simple
❖​ What makes a clear and specific objective? (SMART Criteria)
​ Specific
​ Measurable
​ Achievable
​ Relevant
​ Time-bound

LESSON 3

TEACHING VOCABULARY

What needs to be taught?

- Form: pronunciation, spelling - Collocations
- Grammar: - Aspects of meaning:
●​ past form ●​ denotation
●​ plural ●​ connotation
●​ uncountable nouns ●​ appropriateness
●​ infinitive / gerund - Semantic relationship
●​ prepositions - Word-formation

Techniques for conveying meanings of words

❖​ Visual techniques: real objects, drawings, pictures, movements, gestures, facial
expressions
❖​ Verbal techniques: definitions, context, simple English, opposites, synonyms,
enumeration
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 ❖​ Translation (abstract notions)

Ways of presenting the meaning of new items

​ - Concise definition (as in a dictionary; often a superordinate with qualifications,
ex: a cat is an animal which ...)
​ - Detailed description (of apperance, qualities ...)
​ - Examples (hyponyms)
​ - Illustration (picture, object)
​ - Demonstration (acting, mime)
​ - Context (story or sentence in which the item occurs)
​ - Synonyms
​ - Opposite(s) (antonyms)
​ - Translation
​ - Associated ideas, collocations

❖​ Example
Words to be taught Techniques Examples
A kimono is traditional clothing of the
kimono (E9, U2) definition
Japanese people.
Farmers may have a buffalo or a tractor
context, simple
to plow (E9, U3) plow the soil. This makes the soil soft
English
and ready for their growing rice.
cold (E6, U10) opposites / antonyms cold ≠ hot
to call (E7, U2) synonyms call s.o = telephone s.o
enumeration / Fruit includes apples, bananas, oranges,
fruit (E6, U10)
super-ordinates etc.
parts of words / unhappy UN- + happy = not
unhappy (E7, U1)
word-formation happy, sad

Presenting vocabulary

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Teaching steps (PPP)
P1:​ 1) Eliciting/ Presenting the meaning: using pictures, real objects, gestures, etc.
​ 2) Concept check: asking CCQs.
​ 3) Pronunciation drill: choral repetition individual check.
​ 4) Memory check: stimulating games, activities.
P2:​ 5) Practice: vocabulary, exercises.
P3:​ 6) Speaking activities: communicative activities.

❖​ Ordering steps – possible order

Ordering steps Rationale
1) Convey the meaning of the new In order for learners to be able to
word by defining it or by using a provide the word, the meaning needs to
visual. be clearly established.
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 2) Elicit the word (if the learners do
If learners can provide the word, it is
not know it, or pronounce it correctly,
very affirming for them.
say the word yourself).
3) Concept check the meaning of the Learners need to feel sure about the
new word. meaning of the word before they say it.
4) Provide a clear oral model of the Learners need to hear the
word. pronunciation before they can repeat.
It is often a good idea for learners to
say the word before they see it written
5) Drill the word with learners both
down, especially when the spelling of
chorally and individually.
the word is at odds with its
pronunciation.
6) Write the new word on the board, Learners need a written record of the
indicating the word class and the word and they need to find out how it
stress. is spelt.
Learners need to know how to use the
7) Put the new word in sentences.
word correctly.

How is a word remembered?

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What make a word difficult?
●​ Pronunciation
●​ Spelling
●​ Length and complexity
●​ Derivation
●​ Grammar
●​ Meaning
●​ Range, connotations and idiomaticity

Lexical approach
​ - A syllabus should be organized around meanings.
​ - A lexical approach is based on the belief that lexical competence comes simply
from frequent exposure, consciousness raising & memorizing.

Reminders
​ - Raise awareness of phrases & collocations.
​ - Introduce phrases in context but drill them as short chunks.
​ - Point out patterns.
​ - Keep written records of phrases as phrases.
​ - Reinforce & recycle as much as possible.

Teaching word formation & word combination

Word formation Strategies
- Affixation - Give rules
- Compounding - Expose Ss to lots of correct examples
- Acronyms & avoid possible errors from
- Contraction overgeneralization.
- Conversion - Use pattern – highlighting techniques
- Blending
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 - ...

Teaching lexical chunks

Lexical chunks Strategies
- Collocation (ex: make the bed) - Repetition drill
- Idioms (ex: under lock and key) - Song lyrics
- Sentence frames (ex: would you - Key words & background words
mind ... ?) - Matching cards
- Social formulae (ex: see you later) - Collocation grids
- Discourse marker (ex: I see) - Collocation maps
- Film & book titles
- Odd word out

Teaching word grammar

❖​ What is the associated grammar of a word? It is the patterns of words that
typically co-occur with it.
❖​ Example: "say" has a different grammar from "tell"
●​ She said (that) he was broke.
●​ She told me (that) he was broke.

Teaching phrasal verbs

❖​ Forms & meanings: logical pattern of meaning.

❖​ Context: This calls for an attack!

❖​ Grammar:

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 Phrasal verbs Strategies
- Intransitive - Gap filling
- Transitive separable - Rephrasing
- Transitive inseparable - Matching
- Three-part
- Synonyms

Teaching idioms
​ - An idiom is a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of
the individual words.
​ - Example: It's a piece of cake. (= easy)

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LESSON 4

TEACHING GRAMMAR
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What is grammar?
●​ Rules about sentence formation, tenses, verb patterns.
●​ The moment-by-moment structuring of what we say as it is spoken.
●​ Exercises (fill in the gap, multiple choice) about tenses.
●​ Our internal "database" as to what are possible or impossible sentences.

To learn a language item, In class, teachers probably need

learners need to... to...
- Be exposed to language while - Include lots of reading & listening
reading & listening activities
- Provide text, exercises & techniques
- Notice the specific items
that help learners notice specific items
- Understand form, meaning & use - Focus learners' attention on form,
(typical situations, conversations, meaning & use by means of drills,
contexts) exercises, games, questions, etc.
- Give opportunities to practice things
- Try things out / Practice in activities with encouragement and
feedback
- Give speaking & writing tasks which
- Use the new language when speaking
allow learners to make use of the
/ writing
language
- Return to the items again and again
- Remember items
with revision tasks

Approaches
DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
- T presents rules - T provides context, examples
- T gives examples for illustration - Ss are exposed to language form
- Ss practice or do application rules by themselves
exercises DISCOVERY LEARNING trials
RULE-DRIVEN LEARNING + errors

Teaching steps (PPP)

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Situational presentation
​ 1) T uses visuals & word prompts to build up a context that will generate
examples of the target language.
​ 2) T elicits an example sentence of the target language perhaps writing it on the
board.
​ 3) T uses oral concept checking questions to check the meaning of the target
language.
​ 4) Having checked understanding of the new language, T highlights the form and
then rubs the example sentence off the board.
​ 5) T writes up key words on the board that are clearly connected to the context.
These are used to model and drill examples of the target language.
​ 6) T elicits an example of the target language on the board for a second time and
highlights aspects of pronunciation that have just been practiced.

LESSON 5

TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
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Pronunciation errors
Examples Errors
Unfamiliar sounds θ ð ʒ dʒ tʃ p æ using nearest equivalents
sp-, spr-, st-, -st, -ts, -sts, uttering single sounds or skipping
Consonant clusters
-ks, -sks, br-, ... one consonant
have, cars, meet, hope, path, skipping or uttering plosives
Final sounds
... without ospiration
Long – short vowels ɪ-iː, ɒ-ɔː, ʊ-uː, ə-ɜː/ɜr using a medium sound (i, ɔ, u, ɜ)
B.E. eə, ɪə, ʊə, aʊ, əʊ, ɔɪ, eɪ,
using nearest equivalents or
Diphthongs aɪ
single sounds
A.E. ɑʊ, oʊ, ɔɪ, eɪ, ɑɪ
əm (am), ə/ɜr (are), using strong forms in all
Weak forms
kən (can), ʃəd (should)... situations (æm, ɑr, kæn, ʃʊd...)
My 'sister is a university giving some stress (force,
Sentence stress
'student. strength) to every syllable
- Is she a student?
- Although he was very using falling tune where a rising
Intonation
tired, he decided to go to tune or fall-rise is required
work.

Two phases in teaching pronunciation

❖​ Recognition phase
Help learners recognize the sounds by listening to the recording or the teacher.
❖​ Production phase
Ask learners to repeat after the recording or the teacher.

What does teaching pronunciation involve?

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Ideas for improving learners' pronunciation
●​ Varied repetition drills (speed, volume, mood)
●​ Ear-training with minimal pairs
●​ Observation of mechanics
●​ Tapping on a phonemic chart
●​ Learning and performing dialogues
●​ Chanting and songs
●​ Tongue twisters
●​ Recording
●​ Phonemic bingo / crosswords / dominoes
●​ Sound maze
●​ Imitation / Drilling
●​ Games: stepping stones, board game

LESSON 6

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 TEACHING LISTENING

Students' common difficulties in listening

❖​ Classroom listening vs. real-life listening
Classroom listening: listening occurs in the classroom.
​ Features of real-life situations.
Real-life listening: listening occurs outside the classroom.
​ Casual or focused.
Characteristics of real-life listening situations:
​ - Informal spoken discourse
●​ brevity of chunks
●​ slurred pronunciation
●​ colloquial vocabulary
●​ ungrammatical utterance
●​ meaningless "noise" – words
●​ redundancy
​ - Listener's expectation & purpose
​ - Looking as well as listening
​ - Ongoing, purposeful listener
​ - Speaker's attention
❖​ Learners problems and solutions
Students' problems Suggested solutions
- Pre-teach key words before listening.
- Provide background knowledge of the
1) Trouble with sounds
topic to facilitate comprehension and
guessing.
- Explain to students that everything doesn't
have equally important information.
2) A need to understand every word
- Give students practice in selecting and
ignoring information.
- Use teacher-produced talk at the right
level.
3) Problem with fast, natural native speech
- Explain to Ss to expose to informal,
natural talks.
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 - Choose text with "redundant" information
4) A need to hear thing over and over again
which essential details are repeated.
5) Getting tired when the text is rather long - Break the text.

Teaching steps (Pre-, While-, Post-)

Task feedback circle

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Types of activities
​ - No overt response: stories, songs, film, video
​ - Short responses:
●​ obeying instructions
●​ checking items
●​ ordering items
●​ matching
●​ completion
●​ true / false
●​ multiple choice
●​ detecting mistakes
​ - Long responses:
●​ answering questions
●​ note-taking
●​ paraphrasing & translating
●​ summarizing
●​ long gap-filling
​ - Extended responses: problem-solving, interpretation

LESSON 7

TEACHING READING
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The importance of developing reading skills
●​ Enlarge knowledge
●​ Provide students with experience
●​ Master language materials and skills
●​ Develop students' reading habits

Characteristics of efficient reading

The language of the text is not too difficult to
1) Comprehensible language
readers.
Within the readers' scope of knowledge so that
2) Content accessible to readers they can make use of their background knowledge
or experience to decode the text.
Readers can read through the text quickly without
3) Fast reading (speed) wasting time struggling with difficult words or
structures.
Readers can guess the meanings of new words
4) Guessing
from surrounding context.
The reading passage is interesting enough to
5) Motivation
motivate readers to read.
Readers are aware of a clear purpose in reading
6) Clear purpose (e.g. to get specific information or just to get
pleasure).

Readers can use different strategies for different

7) Reading strategies
kinds of text (e.g. poetry, tables, graphs, etc.).

Task types
●​ Answering questions
●​ True/False statement
●​ Completion
●​ Matching
●​ Fill-in-the-blank
●​ Jumble paragraphs or sentences
●​ Cloze reading
●​ Checking items
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Four reading sub-skills
Sub-skills Analysis Examples (TA9, Unit 2, Read, p.17)
* Choose the best title for the reading passage:
to get general A. Why people wear jeans?
1) skimming information or main B. The history and development of jeans
ideas C. Different kinds of jeans
Answer: B
to get specific * Fill in the missing dates and words. (Task a in
2) scanning
information or details the course book, p.17)
* Can jeans be in use for a long time? Are they
durable?
Answer: Yes, the material to make them is
to tackle unfamiliar strong and does not wear out easily.
lexical items by using
morphological * In the 1980s, did the sales of jeans increase or
3) word-attack information (word decrease?
formation, word class, Answer: Increased – went up and up.
synonyms, antonyms,
hyponyms, ...) * In the 1990s, whose economic situation got
worse?
Answer: All over the world – worldwide
(world + wide).
* What were the 1960s' fashions?
Answer: Embroidered jeans, painted jeans
to interpret the text by
(The explanation is given after the colon ":")
using all the clues
4) text-attack available: cohesion,
* What do "their" and "them" in "with their
coherence, structures,
own labels on them" (line 41) refer to?
etc.
Answer: Famous designers (their); jeans
(them).

❖​ Match the skills and reading aims

​ 1) You are an 18-year-old history student. In a school history magazine, you see an
article about reassessing the Cold War in terms of the Third World politics. kjkjReading
for detailed comprehension
​ 2) You are trying to decide what movie to take your 7-year-old niece to see. You
check your local newspapers. Scanning

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​ 3) When you are in the dentist's waiting room, you see an article about your
favorite singer in a magazine. Reading for pleasure
​ 4) You've heard about the singer / artist and you are mildly interested in their life.
You look them up on the Internet when you don't have much else to do. Skimming

Teaching steps (Pre-, While-, Post-)

❖​ Ordering steps – possible order

Pre-text:
​ 1) Introduction and lead-in, e.g. get learners interested in the topic, initial
discussion of the key themes.
​ 2) First task (pre-reading), e.g. predict from extracted information (illustrations,
key words, headlines, etc.).
Text:
​ 3) Tasks to focus on fast reading for gist (skimming), e.g. check text againist
predictions made beforehand.
​ 4) Tasks to focus on fast reading for specific details (scanning), find single items
of information in the text.

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​ 5) Tasks to focus on meaning (general points), e.g. make sure of information in the
text to do something (fill out a form, find out which picture is being described, etc.).
​ 6) Tasks to focus on meaning (finer points, more extensive comprehensive
understanding).
​ 7) Tasks to focus on individual language item, e.g. vocabulary or grammar
exercises.
Post-text:
​ 8) Follow-on tasks, e.g. role play, debate, writing tasks (e.g. write a letter in reply),
personalization.
​ 9) Closing, e.g. draw a lesson to a conclusion, tie up loose ends.

Reading suggestions
●​ Jigsaw reading
●​ Reading puzzles
●​ Finding mistakes
●​ Poetry
●​ Play extracts
●​ Predicting from words and pictures
●​ ...

LESSON 8

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 TEACHING SPEAKING

What is speaking?
​ - Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of
verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts." (Chaney, 1998, p.13)
​ - Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves
producing and receiving and processing information. (Brown, 1994. Burns & Joyce,
1997)

What is "Teaching Speaking"?

●​ Produce the English speech sounds & sound patterns.
●​ Use word & sentence stress, intonation & the rhythm.
●​ Select appropriate words and sentences according to the audience, situation and
subject matter.
●​ Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.
●​ Use language as a means of expressing values and judgements.
●​ Use the language quickly and confidently.

How to teach speaking?

❖​ Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Real-life situation
❖​ Collaborative learning Work in pairs and groups

Types of classroom speaking performance

●​ Imitative
●​ Intensive
●​ Responsive
●​ Transactional
●​ Interpersonal

Problems with speaking activities

❖​ Students' inhibition
❖​ Nothing to say
❖​ Low or even no participation
❖​ Mother-tongue use
Models for productive skills (Speaking & Writing)
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 ❖​ Worked example
​ - Ask learner to work in pairs to decide what the caller will say and how the
receptionist will respond. Learners should not write out the whole script, but can make
notes of particular phrases.
​ - Make new pairs. Without further discussion, learners phone each other and do
the task.
​ - Play a recording for competent speakers doing the same task. The task is asked to
take down notes about language they use.
​ - The pairs work out how they could improve their task next time.
​ - Make new pairs. The task is done again.
​ - Tell learners that they must phone business contact to make an appointment for a
meeting to discuss future plans.
​ - The pairs meet and reflect on whether the task was done well. Teacher may draw
attention to specific language that learners could use and specific ways of interacting
appropriately to the genre.
​ - Learners practice in pairs. The teacher listens and suggests corrections and
improvements.
Teaching steps (PPP)
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❖​ Basic lesson sequence
1)​ Set task 5)​ Feedback/review the success
2)​ Plan the speaking 6)​ Add/correct/revise
3)​ Rehearse the speaking 7)​ Redo the task
4)​ Do the task ●​ Exposure to example

❖​ Lead-in

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 ❖​ Activity route map

Activities that lead to fluency and confidence

●​ Students repeat sentences teacher says.
●​ At the start of the lesson, students chat with teacher about their weekend plans.
●​ Students look at a list of hints and tips for making business presentations.
●​ Ss listen to a recording & practice repeating words with the same difficult sounds.
●​ Students work in pairs and agree their list of the best 5 films of all time.
●​ Students listen to and study a recording of a social conversation.
●​ Students prepare monologue about their hobbies & give a 5-minute speech to the
whole class.
●​ Ss learn by heart a list of useful chunks of language they can use in conversation.

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Some common communicative activities
●​ Role play ●​ List sequencing
●​ Surveys ●​ Pyramid discussion
●​ Picture differences ●​ Board games
●​ Group planing ●​ Puzzles and problem

Pyramid discussions

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LESSON 9

TEACHING WRITING

Free writing & guided writing

​ - Free writing practice:
●​ write as much as possible about birthday gifts for 5 minutes.
●​ exchange writing and correct mistakes.
●​ critique the experience.

Techniques
Controlled writing Free & guided writing

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 ●​ Copying ●​ Book report
●​ Re-ordering ●​ Narrative
●​ Gap-filling ●​ Describing a scene / process
●​ Substitution ●​ Writing letters
●​ Dictation ●​ Writing an essay

Teaching steps (PPP)

❖​ Ordering steps – possible order

​ 1) Activate ideas and vocabulary around the topic.
​ 2) Read and understand the meaning of a model text.
​ 3) Analyze structure and content of the model.
​ 4) Review main features of the genre.
​ 5) Analyze language features of the model.
​ 6) Practice using the language needed to produce the genre.
​ 7) Generate ideas for writing.

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​ 8) Plan.
​ 9) Write the draft.

Drafting stages

Some possible abbreviations ( ✔ or )

●​ St: structures ●​ P: punctuations
●​ T: tenses ●​ V: vocabulary
●​ Sp: spelling ●​ WF: word form
●​ Good idea ●​ Exp: expressions
●​ Something missing ●​ G: grammar
●​ ???: confusing ●​ VF: verb forms

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LESSON 10

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

A. The good teacher

​ 1) Who teachers are
​ - Personality
​ - Adaptability
●​ able to absorb the unexpected
●​ flexible enough
●​ able to "think on their feet" & act quickly, decisively
​ - Teacher roles
●​ controller ●​ tutor
●​ prompters ●​ participant
●​ assessors ●​ observer
●​ resource ●​ monitor

​ 2) Rapport
​ - Recognizing students: knowing their names
●​ ask students to put name cards
●​ draw up a seating plan
●​ use register
​ - Listening to students
●​ be interested
●​ listen to students' comments
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​ - Respecting students
●​ be NOT too critical
●​ be NOT constantly praising students
●​ see students' positive light
​ - Being even-handed: treat students equally

​ 3) Teacher tasks
​ - Preparation (subject, skills of teaching, thoughts in advance)
​ - Keeping record
●​ look back at what we have done next
●​ evaluate how successful an activity has been

​ 4) Teacher skills
●​ Managing class
●​ Variety
●​ Destinations outcomes

​ 5) Teacher knowledge
●​ The language system
●​ Materials and resources
●​ Classroom equipment

B. Managing the classroom

​ - The teacher in the classroom
●​ proximity ●​ movement
●​ appropriateness ●​ awareness
​ - Voice
●​ audibility
●​ variety
●​ conservation

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​ - Teacher Talking Time (TTT)
​ - Using L1

Balancing TTT & STT (Student Talking Time)

​ - The teacher-talking time should be reserved for:
●​ greeting students
●​ talking to students at the beginning & the end of the lesson
●​ explaining new language
●​ modeling new language
●​ instructing students how to do an activity
●​ indicating change of activity within a lesson
●​ correcting students' mistakes

Using consistent language

●​ Short
●​ Simple
●​ Appropriate

Questioning techniques (to check students' understanding)

●​ Closed questions
●​ Open questions
●​ Elicitation

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