Surveying I

(3-1-4)
Bachelor In Civil Engineering
(Fourth Semester), Pokhara university

Lecturer
Er. Deepak Khanal
Content of the course

Chapter-1 Introduction to surveying (4hrs)

Chapter-2 Compass Survey (5hrs)

Chapter-3 Levelling (10hrs)
Chapter-4 Introduction to EDM, Theodolite and Total
Station (4 hrs)
Chapter-5 Theodolite Traversing (10 hr)
Chapter-6 Tacheometry (5 hr)
Chapter-7 Contouring (4 hr)
Chapter-8 Trilateration and Triangulation (3 hr)
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-1 Introduction to surveying (4hrs)
Definition of surveying
Plane and geodetic surveying
Classification of surveying
Principle of surveying
Scales, maps and plans
Units of measurements (Length, area and
Volume) and conversion
Accuracy and errors
Carries about 8 to 15 marks in final
examination question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-2 Compass Survey (5hrs)
Introduction, Uses and Importance
Meridians, Bearings and angles
Designation of Bearings- Whole circle and quadrantal system
and conversions
Fore bearing and Back bearing
Types of compass
Magnetic declination
Local attraction
Closing error and adjustments (Graphical and analytical)
Instruction on field works
Carries about 10 to 15 marks in final
examination question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-3 Levelling (10hrs)
Levelling- Basic Definitions and Importance
Types of leveling- Sprit, Trigonometrical and Barometric
Sprit leveling- Basic Definition and Types
Methods of Reducing Levels- HI and Rise & Fall Method.
Arithmetic Checks.
Effects of curvature and refraction
Reciprocal leveling
Permissible error in leveling
Sources of errors in leveling
Trigonometrical leveling- Problems of Height and Distance
Practical cases in levelling
Instruction on field works
Carries about 20 to 30 marks in final
examination question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-4 Introduction to Theodolite
and Total Station (4 hrs)
Principle of Electronic distance measurement and uses of
EDM
Types of theodolites and its components
Principle of theodolite
Uses of Theodolite- Measurement of Horizontal and vertical
angles and bearings
Componets of Total Station
Electronic data recording
Uses of Total Station
Carries about 10 to 15 marks in final examination
question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-5 Theodolite Traversing (10 hr)
Traverse- Definition, Types and Uses
Checks in closed and open traverse
Consecutive and independent Co-ordinates and its computation
Closing error in closed traverse, its computation and Balancing
Degree of accuracy in Traversing
Plotting of Theodolite Traverse
Ommited measurements
Instruction on field works

Carries about 20 to 30 marks in final examination

question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-6 Tacheometry (5 hr)
Introduction, Uses and Importance
Principles of Optical Distance Measurement
Systems of Tacheometry- Stadia System and
Tangential System
Distance measurement using vertical staff
Instruction on field works

Carries about 10 to 15 marks in final

examination question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-7 Contouring (4 hr)
Basic definitions in contouring
Contour interval
Characteristics of contours
Methods of Contouring
Interpolation of Contours
Uses of Contour Maps
Instruction on field works

Carries about 8 to 15 marks in final examination

question.
Surveying I (3-1-4)
Content of the course
Chapter-8 Trilateration and Triangulation (3 hr)
Principle of Trilateration
Principles and Classification of Triangulation
Systems
Strength of figure
Satellite stations and Inter-Visibility of
Triangulation stations
Instruction on field works

Carries about 5 to 10 marks in final

examination question.
 Books and References

BC Punmia, AK Jain, Arun D. Clark

K Jain Plane and Geodetic
Surveying (Vol-I, II, III) Surveying for Engineers
SK Duggal (Vol- I,II)
Surveying (Vol- 1 , 2) Banister, S. Raymond & Baker
Dr. KR Arora Surveying (7th Edition)
Surveying ( Vol-1 , 2) TP Kanetkar
R Agor Surveying
Surveying and NN Basak
Levelling Surveying and Levelling
Chapter 1: Introduction to surveying
Contents:
Definition of surveying
Plane and geodetic surveying
Classification of surveying
Principle of surveying
Scales, maps and plans
Units of measurements (Length, area and
Volume) and conversion
Accuracy and errors
 What is Surveying?

• Surveying is the art of determining the relative

positions of points on, above or beneath the surface
of the earth by means of direct or indirect
measurements of distance, direction and elevation.
• The application of surveying requires skill as well as
the knowledge of Mathematics, Physics and to some
extend, Astronomy.
 Plane and Geodetic Survey
Plane Survey:
The survey in which the mean surface of the earth is
assumed as a plane surface and the curvature of the
earth is ignored, are known as plane survey.
Assumptions in Plane Survey
• A level line is considered a straight line and thus the
plumb line at a point is parallel to the plumb line at any
other point.
• The angle between two such lines that intersect is a
plane angle and not the spherical angle.
• The meridians through any two points are parallel.
 Plane and Geodetic Survey
Plane Survey :
• The plane survey and the
assumptions can be justified when
we deal with the small portion of the
earth’s surface.
• Hence when dealing with the plane
survey, only the plane geometry and
trigonometry are required.
• Survey covering an area up to 260 Sq.
km difference in length between the
arc and its subtended chord on a
earth’s surface for a distance of
18.5km is only 0.0152m.
 Plane and Geodetic Survey
Plane Survey :
• Plane surveys are done for engineering projects on
large scale such as factories, bridges, dams, location
and construction of canals, highways, railways etc., and
also for establishing boundaries.
• The scope and use of plane survey is very wide. For
majority of engineering projects, plane surveying is the
first step to execute them. For proper, economical and
accurate planning of projects, plane surveys are
basically needed and their practical significance can
not be over- estimated.
 Plane and Geodetic Survey
Geodetic Survey
• The survey in which the curvature of the earth’s
surface is taken in to account and higher degree
of accuracy in linear as well as in angular
observations is achieved, are known as
‘Geodetic surveying’.
• As the survey extends over a large area, lines
connecting any two points on the earth’s
surface are treated as arcs. The distance
between the two points is corrected for the
curvature and then plotted on the plan.
• The angles between the intersecting lines are
spherical angles thus knowledge of spherical
trigonometry is necessary for making
measurements for the geodetic survey.
 Plane and Geodetic Survey
Scope/ Use of geodetic survey:
• Geodetic surveys are conducted with highest
degree of accuracy to provide widely spaced control
points, which may afterwards be used as necessary
control points for fixing minor control points for
plane survey.
• Geodetic survey requires the use of sophisticated
instruments, accurate methods of observations and
their computation with accurate adjustment.
• In Nepal, Geodetic survey is carried out by Geodetic
Survey Branch: Department of Survey.
 Plane and Geodetic Survey
Plane surveying Geodetic surveying:
• Effect of the curvature of the • Effect of the curvature of the earth
earth surface is ignored. surface is included.
• The earth surface is assumed to • The earth surface is assumed to be
be plane, i.e. two dimensional. spherical, i.e. three dimensional.
• 3 points in ground makes Plane
triangular geometry. i.e. Sum of • 3 points in ground makes spherical
3 angles of a triangle is 180 triangular geometry. i.e. Sum of 3
degrees. angles of a triangle is 180 degrees+
• Involves smaller areas less than spherical excess (e).
about 260 sq.km • Involves large areas more than
• Lower degree of accuracy. about 260 sq.km
• Done locally by the individual • Higher degree of accuracy.
organization.
• Done by the concerned state or
government department.
 Classification of Survey
1. Based on Accuracy Desired
Plane Survey
Geodetic Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Engineering survey
Defense Survey
Geological Survey
Geographical Survey
Mine Survey
Archeological Survey
Route Survey
 Classification of Survey
3. Based on Place of Survey
Land Survey
Hydrographic Survey
Underground Survey
Aerial Survey
 Classification of Survey
4. Based on Instruments used
Chain Survey
Traverse Survey
Tacheometry
Levelling
Plane tabling
Triangulation/Trilateration
Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) Survey
Total Station Survey
Satellite based survey
 Classification of Survey

1. Based on accuracy Desired

Plane Survey
• Earth’s surface assumed as flat.
Geodetic Survey
• Arc nature of earth’s surface is taken in account.
 Classification of Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Engineering survey:
• Surveys that are carried out for providing
sufficient data for the design of engineering
project such as: highways, railways, water supply,
sewage disposal, reservoirs, bridges etc. are
known as Engineering Surveys.
• It consists of Topographic survey of an area,
measurement of earth work, providing grade and
making measurements of the completed work till
date.
• Also known as construction surveys.
 Classification of Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Defense Survey
The surveys which are carried out for the preparation of
the map of the areas of military importance are called
military surveys or defense surveys.
• They provide strategic information that can decide the
course of a war.
• Aerial and topographical maps of the enemy areas
indicating important routes, airports, missile sites,
early warnings and other types of radars, antiaircraft and
other topographical features can be prepared.
• Informations may be used for preparing tractical and
the strategic plans both for defense and attack.
 Classification of Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Geological Survey
• The surveys which are carried out to ascertain
the composition of the earth’s crust i.e.
different stratas of the rocks of the earth crust
are called the geological surveys.
• Different geological structures such as: fold,
fault and unconformities may help to locate
the possibility of the occurrence of economic
minerals, oils etc.
• The study helps in foundation treatment for the
engineering projects eg: dams, bridges etc.
 Classification of Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Geographical Survey
• Surveys conducted to provide sufficient data for
the preparation of the geographical maps are known
as geographical surveys.
• The maps may be prepared depiciting the land use
efficiency, sources and intensity of irrigation,
physiographic regions and waterfalls, slope height
curve and slope profile and contours.
 Classification of Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Mine Survey
• The surveys which are carried out for the
exploration of the mineral wealths beneath the
surface of the ground i.e., coal, copper, gold, iron
ores etc. are called mine surveys.

Archeological Survey
• The surveys which are carried out to prepare maps
of ancient cultures i.e., antiquities are called
archeological surveys.
 Classification of Survey
2. Based on Purpose of Survey
Route Survey
These are undertaken to locate and set out the
adopted line on ground for a highway or railway and to
obtain all the necessary data.
The sequence of route survey is as follows:
a) Reconnaissance survey:
A visit made to the site and relevant information are
collected. It includes collection of existing maps of the
area and tracing the relevant map portion over a
paper. If some data is missing, a rough survey can be
conducted.
 Classification of Survey
b) Preliminary Survey:
• It is the topographical survey of the area in which
the project is located.
• Aerial survey may be conducted as per the site
condition.
• It includes the precise location of the prominent
features and fixing the position of the structure on the
map.
c) Control Survey:
• It consists of planning a general control system for
preliminary survey which may be triangulation or
traversing. For location survey, it consists of triangulation.
d) Location Survey:
• EstabLishing the points exactly on the ground.
 Classification of Survey
3. Based on Place of Survey
Land Survey
This include the following:
a) Topographical Survey:
• A survey conducted to obtain data to make a map indicating
inequalities of land surface by measuring elevations, and to locate
the natural and artificial features of the earth, e.g., rivers,
woods, hills etc.
b) Cadastral Survey:
• To plot the details such as boundaries of fields, houses and property
lines. These are also known as public land surveys.
c) City Survey:
• An extensive survey of the area in and around a city for fixing
reference monuments, locating and improving property lines and
determining the configuration and features of the land, is
referred as a city survey.
 Classification of Survey
3. Based on Place of Survey
Hydrographic Survey:
• Deals with survey of water bodies like
streams, lakes, coastal water.
• in this survey, determination of velocity,
discharge as well as cross section profile is done
so as to assure the necessary data.
• data are processed to implement the
water related project. Eg. Navigation, irrigation,
subaqueous construction etc.
 Classification of Survey
3. Based on Place of Survey
Underground Survey:
• Preparation of underground plans.
• Fixing the position and direction of tunnels,
shafts and drifts.
• An example of this kind of survey is Mine
surveying.

Aerial Survey:
• Survey carried out by taking photographs
from a camera fitted to the air-craft is known
as aerial survey.
 Classification of Survey
4. Based on Instruments used
Chain Survey
Traverse Survey
Tacheometry
Levelling
Plane tabling
Triangulation/Trilateration
Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) Survey
Total Station Survey
Satellite based survey
 Principles of Surveying
Two Principles
a)Working from the whole to the part
b)Location of a point by measurement from the two control
points/points of reference.

a) Working from the whole to the part

The general principle of surveying is to work from the whole
to the part, not from the part to the whole.
In extensive surveys, the entire area to be surveyed is first
divided into large number of triangles or traverse stations
which are surveyed with the greatest accuracy. The
large triangles are then subdivided into small triangles
which are surveyed with less accuracy.
 Principles of Surveying
Continue:
The object of this system of working
is to prevent the accumulation of
errors. If there is any error in
the measurement of any side of a
triangle it will not affect the whole
work. The error can always be
detected and eliminated Out. if we
work from the part to the whole, the
minor errors in measurement arc
magnified in the process of
expansion of survey and a stage
comes when these errors become
absolutely uncontrollable.
 Principles of Surveying
b) Location of a point by measurement from the
two control points/points of reference.
The relative positions of the points to be
surveyed should be located by measurement from at
least two points of reference, the positions of which
have already been fixed.

P and Q be the reference points on the ground.

The distance PQ can be measured accurately and
the relative positions of P & Q can be plotted on the sheet
to some scale.
 The points P & Q thus will serve as reference for fixing
the relative positions of other points. eg: point R, as in
figure can be located by any of the following direct
methods.
1. By swinging the distances PR and QR and locating R by
their intersection. This principle is very much used in chain
survey.
2. Dropping perpendicular RS on PQ. The lengths PS & RS
are measured. R can be plotted by using set square. This
principle is used in defining details.

P P P P P

R S R R α R α R
α

Q Q Q Q Q
3.Distance PR and QR are not measured but angle RPQ
and angle RQP are measured. This principle is vey much
used in triangulation.
4.Angle RQP and distance PR are measured. This principle is
used in traversing of minor utility.
 Importance of Surveying
• Surveying is of vital importance in any engineering project. The object
of surveying is the preparation of plans, maps and sections of the area to
be covered by the project.
• In the absence of accurate maps, it is practically impossible to layout
the best possible alignments of roads, railways, canals, tunnels,
transmission power lines and microwave or television relaying towers.
• Detailed plans, maps and sections of the area to be covered by an
engineering project are necessary for the establishment of sophisticated
instruments, the measurement of land, the fixation of boundaries,
the estimation of amount of earthwork and other necessary
details depending upon the nature of the project.
• The success of any engineering project depends upon the accurate and
complete survey work. We can never think of a project like railways,
highways, tunneling, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, water works, sewerage
works. airfields, ports, massive buildings, etc. without proper surveying.
Also. the economic feasibility or the engineering feasibility of a
project cannot be properly ascertained without undertaking a survey work.
 Importance of Surveying
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as
construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based
upon surveying measurements.
Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is
constructed along the lines and points established by surveying.
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering
projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilised are
• to fix the national and state boundaries;
• to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
• to establish control points;
• to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and
mapping; and
• to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
Scales, Maps and Plans
Scale
Since the area that is surveyed is vast, it is never
possible to make the drawings to full size, and
therefore, drawings of an area are made to a smaller
scale. The operation is generally known as drawing
to scale .
Scales can be represented by the following two
methods:
1. Numerical scales:
• Engineer's scales, and
• Fraction scales.
2. Graphical Scales
Scales, Maps and Plans
Engineer's scale:
One cm in the-plan represents some whole number of meters
on the ground, such as 1 cm = 12 m, 1 cm = 100 m, etc. This
type of scale is known as the Engineer's scale.
Fraction scale:
One unit of length on the plan represents some number
of the same unit or length on the ground, such as I :500 or
1/500, I: I 0000 or 1/10000, etc.
This type of scale is known as the fraction scale: The ratio of
map (or drawing or plan) distance to the
corresponding ground distance, known as the
representative fraction. (abbreviated as R.F).
 Scales, Maps and Plans

The representative fraction can be easily found for

engineer's scale.
For example, if the scale is 1 cm = 50 m, then
. = 1/(50 ×100)= 1/5000.
In a similar way, the fraction scale can be
converted to engineer's scale. For example, if the
fraction scale is 1:10,000, then 1 unit on plan =
10,000 units on the ground, 1 cm on plan = 10,000
cm on the ground or 1 cm On plan = 100 m on the
ground, Hence, the engineer's scale is 1 cm = 100 m.
Scales, Maps and Plans
Scale, Contd͙.
Graphical Scales:
A graphical scale is a line subdivided into plan distances
corresponding to some convenient units of length on the
ground, i.e

If the plan or map is to be used after few years, the numerical

scales may not give accurate result if the paper shrinks.
If a graphical scale is also done, it will shrink proportionately and
the distance can be found out accurately.
Measuring a correct length with a wrong scale:
To obtain the true measurements of lines and areas on a
map using wrong scale, the following formulae are used:
Example: A surveyor measured the distance between two points
on a plan and calculated the length to be equal to 650m
assuming the scale of plan to be 1cm=50m. Later, it was discovered
that the scale of plan was 1cm=40m. Find the true distance between
the points.

Solution:
Measured length = 650m
Scales, Maps and Plans
Plans and Maps:
The plan is a graphical representation, to some scale of the
features on, near or below the surface of the earth as
projected on a horizontal plane which is represented by plane
of the paper on which the plan is drawn.
In plane surveying, the areas involved are small, the earth’s
surface may be regarded as plane and hence map is
constructed by orthographic projection without
measurable distortion.
The representation is called a map if the scale is small
while it is called a plan if the scale is large.
On a plan, generally only horizontal distances and directions
are shown. On a orthographic map, however , the vertical
distances are also represented by contour lines.
 Plans and Maps:
PLAN(2D) MAP(2.5D or 3D)
•A plan is drawn one a large • Small scale
scale
•Scale 1cm =10 m or < 10 m • Scale 1cm =100m or >100
m
• On a plan-Horizontal • On a topographic map,
distance and direction horizontal and vertical
distances.
• Draw for small area - • Draw for large area -
house, bridge Country or districts

15
Accuracy and Error
Accuracy and precision
Accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained.
Precision is the degree of perfection used in the instruments,
the methods and the observations.
Accuracy depends on precise instruments, Precise methods
and good planning.

The difference between a measurement and the true value of

the quantity measured is the true error of the measurement,
and is never known since the true value of the quantity
is never known. However, the important function of a surveyor
is to secure measurements which are correct within a certain
limit of error prescribed by the nature and purpose of a
particular survey.
Discrepancy
Discrepancy is the difference between the two measured
values of the same quantity. A discrepancy may be small, yet
the error may be great if each of the two measurements
contain an error that may be large. It does not reveal
the magnitude of systematic errors.

Degree Of Accuracy
The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in the
measurements. It is usually expressed as the ratio of the error
and the associated measured value. For example, a degree of
accuracy of 1 in 10,000 indicates that there is an error of 1
unit in 10,000 units of measured / observed value.
 Error in Measurements
In case of repeated observation of any parameter,
usually it has been found to have variations, however small,
in the resulting measurement. Moreover, there is nothing
definite in the amount of variation i.e., variations are random
in nature. Thus, a measurement usually differs from its true
value . The difference between a measured and its true value
is called the measurement error. Thus, if x is a
given measurement and x t is the true value, then the
error e is given by
e=x-xt
error = measured value - true value.
Sources of Error in Measurements
Depending on sources of origin, errors in measurements fall
into three classes. They are
Instrumental error
Personal error
Natural error
Instrumental Error:
The error may arise due to imperfection or faulty
construction or adjustment of surveying instruments, and
movement of their individual parts.
For eg: a tape being too long or an angle measuring
instrument may be out of adjustment.
 Natural Errors
These are caused due to variations in nature i.e.,
variations in wind, temperature, humidity, refraction, gravity
and magnetic field of the earth.
The errors in measurement occur, if they are not
observed properly.
For example: the length of tape may become different
while working at 150C or in 350C.
Personal Errors
These arise from limitations of the human senses of
sight, touch and hearing.
Example: an error may be there in taking the level
reading or reading an angle on the circle of a theodolite.
Types of Errors :

Errors are traditionally been classified into three types:

• Gross error/Mistake
• Systematic error
• Random Error
 Gross Error (Or) Mistake

Gross errors, also known as blunders or mistakes, are

results from:
Carelessness on the part of observer in taking or recording
reading.
Faults in equipment
Adoption of wrong technique.
Misinterpretation.
Inexperience
The blunders or mistakes may result into large errors and
thus can easily be detected by comparing with other types
of errors (generally small in value).
Every value to be recorded in the field must be checked by
some independent field observation.
 Systematic Error
Systematic errors occur according to a system. These
errors follow a definite pattern. Thus, if an experiment is
repeated, under the same conditions, same pattern of
systematic errors reoccur. These errors are dependent on the
observer, the instrument used, and on the physical
environment of the experiment. Any change in one or more
of the elements of the system will cause a change in the
character of the systematic error. Depending on the value and
sign of errors in successive observation, systematic
errors are divided into two types.
Systematic errors are dealt with mathematically using
functional relationships or models.
Cumulative Error
Compensating Error
Cumulative Error
If the sign in error remains the same throughout the
measuring process, the error will go on accumulating
all throughout the process. This type of systematic
error is termed as cumulative error.
Compensating Error
If the sign of the systematic error changes, the
resulting systematic error is termed as compensating
error.
Random Error
After mistakes are eliminated and systematic errors
are corrected, a survey measurement is associated
with random error only. This error is small and is equally
liable to be plus or minus thus partly compensating
in nature. Random errors are unpredictable and
they cannot be evaluated or quantified exactly.
Units of measurement
The following kinds of measurements are used in
plane surveying:
1.Linear Measurements
a. Horizontal distance b. Vertical distance
2. Angular measurements
a. Horizontal angle b. Vertical angle
Basic Units of Length
 Basic units of Area
British Units Metric Units
144 Sq. Inch = 1 Sq. foot 100 Sq. millimetres = 1 Sq. centimeters
9 Sq. Foot = 1 Sq. Yard 100 Sq. centimeters = 1 Sq. decimetres
30 ½ Sq. Yards =1 Sq. Rods 100 Sq. decimetres =1 Sq. metres
40 Sq. Rods = 1 Roods 100 Sq. metres = 1 Ares
4 Roods =1 Acres 100 Ares =1 Hectres
640 Acres = 1 Sq. miles 100 Hectres = 1 Sq. Kilometer
484 Sq. Yards =1 Sq. Chain 100 Ares =1 Hectometres
10 Sq. Chains =1 Acres 1 Ares =1 Sq. decametre

Basic units of Volume

British Units Metric Units
1728 Cu. Inches = 1 Cu. foot 1000 Cu. millimetres = 1 Cu. Centimeters
27 Cu. foot = 1 Cu. Yards 1000 Cu. centimeters = 1 Cu. Decimetres
1000 Cu. Decimetres = 1 Cu. metres
26
Units used in land measurement in Nepal:
Area Conversion
Bigha-Kattha-Dhur-Kanwa-Kanaee (कनई)
1 Bigha = 20 Kattha = 72900 sq.ft. = 6772.63 Sq.m.
1 Kattha = 20 Dhur = 3645 sq.ft. = 338.63 Sq.m.
1 Dhur = 1/20 Kattha = 182.25 sq.ft. = 16.93 Sq.m.
1 Kanwa = 1/16 dhur = 11.39 sq.ft = 16.93 Sq.m.
1 Kanaee = 1/16 Kanwa
Kanwa is largely obsolete and is used only when tiny lands are very
precious.
Ropani-Aana-Paisa-Daam
1 Bigha = 13.31 Ropani = 72900 sq.ft. =6772.63 Sq.m.
1 Ropani = 16 Aana = 5476 sq.ft. = 508.72 Sq.m.
1 Aana = 4 Paisa = 342.25 sq.ft. = 31.80 Sq.m.
1 Paisa = 4 Daam = 7.95 Sq.m.
1 Hectrare = 19.6565 Ropani
1 Bigha 1.6735 Acre
27
 Example of area calculation
While calculating the land area, the whole area is to
be divides into small triangles and find the areas
of individual. Sum up all the areas to get total area of the
land of interest.

Area of a triangle with sides a,b and c a

c
 Example of area calculation
Find the area in B-K-D-K format.
Find the area in Ropani - aana format.